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empreinte. 

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d'images  nAcessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrent  la  mAthode. 


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2 

3 

4 

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THE 


EAKTH    AND    ITS    INHABITANTS. 


AFRICA. 


BY 


fiLIS:fi]E  RECLUS. 


?i||!'»!'S?! 


EDITED  BY  ;  ,  V 

A.  H.  KEANE,  B.A., 

MCHB.   OF  OOUNOIL,  ANTHBOP.   INSTITnTB;   COR.   MEMB.   ITALIAN  AND  WASHINGTON  ANTHBOP.   800.;   PROFUSOB  OF 
HIMDU8TANI,   UNITBBSITT  OOL.   LONDON;    AITTHOB  OF  "ASIA,"  BTC. 


VOL.  I. 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


ILLUSTRATED  BT  N1TMBR0U8  ElTOSAVmOS  AND  MAPS. 


\ 


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NEW  YORK: 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY, 

1,   t,   AND   S    BOND    STREET. 
1886. 


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Ky 


CONTENTS. 


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I.   OnfBKAL   SURTXT 


PAa* 
1 


II.  The  Nub  Basin SI 

The  River,  p.  31.    Lake  Victoria  Nyanza,  p.  36.    The  Somerset  Nile,  p.  37.    Lake  Alhert 
Nyanza,  p.  39.     The  White  Nile,  p.  40.    The  Blue  Nile,  p.  47.    The  Atbara  River,  p.  oO.    ' 
The  Nuhian  Nile,  p.  62.   The  Lower  Nile,  p.  67.    The  Fayum  Depression,  p.  60.   Periodi- 
cblI  Rising  of  the  Nile,  p.  69. 

III.    RXOION   OF  THE   OuEAT  LaKBB 74 

Climate,  Flora,  Fauna,  p.  76.  Inhabitants,  p.  76.  The  Ruanda  Country,  p.  82.  The 
Empire  of  U-Ganda,  p.  82.  Religion,  Trade,  Administration,  p.  86.  Topography,  p.  88. 
The  Kavirondo  and  Nanda  Countries,  p.  88.    The  U-Nyoro  Territory,  p.  91. 


IV.  Rboiom  of  thb  Uppeb  Nile  Tribvtakibs 96 

Inhabitants,  p.  97-    The  Latuka  Country,  p.  102.     Topography,  p.  112. 

V.    SOBAT  AND  YaL    BasINS  .    •       .  .  . 116 

The  Gambil  and  Koma  Tribes,  p.  116.    The  Shilluks,  p.  119.     Topography,  p.  122. 

VI.  Abyssinia  (Ethiopia) 128 

Relief  of  the  Land,  Population,  p.  123.  Historic  Retrospect,  p.  124.  Exploration,  p.  126. 
The  Abyssinian  Plateau,  p.  128.  The  Ewallas  and  River  Gorges,  p.  128.  Orographic 
System,  p.  131.  The  Northern  Highlands,  p.  131.  Hamassen  and  Simen  Uplands,  p.  133. 
The  Eastern  Border  Range,  p.  135.  Central  and  Western  Highlands,  p.  136.  The 
Abyssinian  Seaboard,  p.  137.  Lake  Alalbed,  p.  137.  Climate,  p.  139.  Flora,  p.  142. 
Fauna,  p.  144.  Inhabitants,  p.  146.  Agriculture,  p.  154.  Arts  and  Industries,  p.  154. 
Religion  and  Education,  p.  165.  Government,  p.  169.  Topography,  p.  161.  Gondar, 
p.  161.  Debra-Tabor,  p.  163.  Magdala,  p.  168.  Adua,  p.  171.  Aksum,  p.  172.  Mas- 
sawah,  p.  178.    Dahlak  Islands,  p.  180.    Administrative  Divisions,  p.  183. 

VII.  Shoa,  Danakil,  and  Nobth  Galla  States 184 

The  Shoa  Highlands,  p.  184.    Volcanic  Formations,  p.  186.    The  Galla  HighlandR,  p.  186. 

\The  Afar  Countrj-,  p.  186.    The  Awash  Basin,  p.  187.    Climate,  Flora  and  Fauna,  p.  188. 
•      Inhabitants,  p.  190.     The  Somali,   p.    193.     The  Gallas,  p.   194.     Topography,  p.  200. 
Harrar  and  Zeilah,  p.  202.     Innarya,  p.  213.     Yangaro,  p.  214.     Kaffaland,  p.  214. 

VIII.  Uffbr  Ndbia 216 

Physical  and  Political  Features,  p.  217.  Gumu,  Berta,  and  Lega  Highlands,  p.  218. 
Climate,  Flora,  Fauna,  p.  220.  Inhabitants,  p.  222.  The  Funj  Race,  p.  227.  The 
Kunama  and  Barea,  p.  229.  The  Bejas,  p.  234.  Topography,  p.  239.  Senftr,  p.  241. 
Khartum,  p.  244.    Naga,  Meroe,  p.  246.    Kassala,  p.  249.     Berber,  p.  262. 


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IV 


CONTENTS. 


V    '  > 
la-     .i 


IX.  KordofAn 247 

Physical  Featurea,  p.  267.  Hydrographic  System,  p.  268.  Climate,  p.  269.  Florn, 
p.  260.     Inhabitants,  p.  261.    The  Nubas,  p.  263.    Social  Usages,  p.  267.     Topography  : 

**  ■        El-Obeid,  p.  266. 

X.  DxR-FdR • 271 

Progress  of  Discovery,  p.  272.  Physical  Features,  p.  272.  Hydrographic  System,  p.  274. 
Flora,  p.  276  Fauna,  p.  276.  Inhabitants,  p.  276.  Commercial  Relations,  p.  278. 
Topography  :  fil-Fuher,  p.  279. 

XI.  Nubia :        .     281 

The  Nubian  Coast  Range,  p.  282.     The  Nubian  Odd  Mines,  p.  283.     The  Central  High- 
lands, p.  284.     Geological  Formations,  p.  286.     The  Bayuda  Steppe,  p.  287.     Climate, 
'      p.  289.     Flora,  p.  290.     Fauna,  p.  291.     Inhabitants,  p.   292.     The  Bisharin,  p.  296. 
Topography,  ^.291.    Dongola,  p.  299.     Wady-Halfa,  p.  309.     Korosko,  Ibsambul,  p.  309. 

XII.  Egypt >  i 807 

Historic  Retrospect,  p.  307.  Chronology,  p.  308.  Social  Condition  of  the  Ancient 
Egyptians,  p.  309.  Present  Condition,  p.  310.  Geographical  Exploration,  p.  312.  Extent 
and  Population,  p.  313.  The  Arabian  Range,  p.  314.  Geology,  p.  317.  The  Libyan 
Plateau,  p.  319.  The  Petrified  Forests,  p.  321.  The  Western  Oases,  p.  3  :.  The  Natron 
Lake»,  p.  326.  The  Ldbyan  Desert,  p.  329.  Climate,  p.  33 1 .  Rainfall,  p.  333.  Climatic 
Changes,  p.  334.  Flora,  p.  336.  Fauna,  p.  338.  Inhabitants,  p.  341.  The  Copts, 
p.  341.  The  FellahJn,  p.  344.  The  Arabs  of  Egypt,  p.  346.  The  Levantines,  p.  360. 
Religion,  p.  353.  Social  Usages,  p.  366.  Slavery,  p.  366.  Land  Tenure,  p.  367.  Irri- 
gation, p.  369.  The  Corvte,  p.  361.  Conservatism  and  Progress,  p.  362.  The  8ue« 
Canal,  p.  383.  Topography,  p.  373.  Philae,  p.  373.  Edfu,  p.  377.  Thebes,  Luxor, 
Kamak,  p.  379.  Denderah,  p.  387.  Thinis,  p.  388.  The  Great  and  LitUe  Oases,  p.  391. 
Meidum,  Saqqarah,  p.  398.  Memphis,  p.  400.  T'he  Great  Pyramids,  p.  401.  Cairo, 
p.  406.  Barrage  of  the  Nile,  p.  413.  Suez,  p.  416.  Tell-el-Kebir,  Pithon,  p.  417.  Port 
Said,  p.  419.  Damietta,  p.  423.  Rosetta,  p.  426.  Abukir,  p.  427.  Alexandria,  p.  428. 
Naucratis,  p.  436.  Agriculture,  p.  436.  Irrigation,  p.  438.  Industries,  p.  439.  Trade, 
Railways,  Telegraphs,  p.  440.  Government,  p.  442.  Piospecte,  p.  444.  Administrative 
Divisions,  p.  446. 

Appbndix  I.  Statistical  Tables         .        .        .        .        •        • **' 

„       II.  Ethnolooy  of  Nohth-East  Africa •        •        •        •  *68 

„      in.  Eotptian  Chronolooy    . •  *74 

Index  »       .       •        ■       t*      .       •        .       «       •        •       •        ••..••  489 


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.  447 

.  459 

.  474 

.  489 


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LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


MAPS  FEINTED  IN  COLOTTBS. 


1.  North-East  Africa 

2.  Northern  Abyssinia     . 

3.  Tho  Egyptian  Soudaii . 


rAuB 
•  16 

128 

876 


4.  Cairo  and  its  Environs.        if 
6.  The  Delta  and  Suez  Canal  . 


MOB 

.     400 
.     424. 


PLATES. 


Biahari  Oamel-driTer  .  .  .  Frmt\*pu«« 
The  Nile — View  taken   from  the    Island  of 

FhilsB        ....        To  face  page        6 
Group  of  Nubian  Women        .  .18 

Bishari  Gum-dealers  at  Eorosko  ...  22 
View  of  Victoria  Nyanza  taken  from  Murchison 

Bay 36 

General  View  of  Khartum  ....  44 
The  Nile  at  the  Second  Cataract  ...  66 
Colossal  Statues  of  Memnon  ....  68 
Banks  of  the  Nile— The  Shaduf       .        .        .72 

Natives  of  U-Ganda 92 

Murchison  Falls 94 

Group  of  Makrakas' 106 

General  View  of  Dem  Suleiman  .  .  .112 
Simen  Highlands— View  taken  from  the  Lamal- 

mon  Pass 134 

Shaikieh  Arab  and  Ethiopian  Female  Slaves 

at  Khartum      ......     150 

The  Gimp  at  Oondar  .        .        .        .162 

Adua,  Capital  of  Tigr£    .        .        .        .        .172 


To  fane  page 


General  V^  -?/  of  Massawah 

Somali  M. ..  "•  -d  Wonuin 

General  Vie\t  of  Ankober 

Obok — View  taken  from  the  Roadstead 

Primeval  Forest  at  Fazogl 

Kadi  of  Khartum  and  Hadendoa  Sheikh 

Pyramids  of  Meroe— Southern  Ghroop. 

General  View  of  Suakin  . 

Jobel-Ain 

Assoan,  North  Frontier  of  Nubia     . 
Entrance  of  the  Korosko  Route  at  Abu-Hamed 
Second.  Third,  and  Fourth  Pyramids 
Libyan  Desert— Mirage  on  the  Horizon   . 


180 
192 
200 
208 
220 
234 
248 
264 
274 
282 
286 
312 
320 


Cairo  Arabs 346 

Sefl  Canal  at  Fidemin-el-Fayum  .  ,  .  360 
Suez  Canal  at  the  Serapeum  ....  368 
Colossal  Statues  of  the  Ramesseum  at  Thebes  .  384 
A  Street  in  the  Old  Town,  Cairo  .  .  ,406 
The  Kait-Bey  Mosque,  Cairo  .  ■  .  .  .410 
Citadel  of  Cairo  .        .        •        .        .412 

G«neial  View  of  Alexandria    .        .  .432 


r?» 


LIST  Oi'  ILLUBTEATIONS. 


ILLUSTRATIOlSrS   TN  TEXT. 


7 
10 
11 
14 
21 
24 


no.  ,A0« 

1.  Highland*  ami  Plateaux  of  Centnil  Africa  .  4 
•i.  Hydrography     of    Africa    according    to 

Mediwval  Qeographera       ...  6 

3.  Outflow   of  Lako    Nyanza,    according  to 

S|)uko 

4.  Isothermal  Lines  of  Africa 
6.  Distribution  of  the  liainfall  in  Africa 

6.  Vegetable  Zone*  in  Africa 

7.  Languages  of  Africa  .... 

8.  Religions  of  Africa     .... 
0.  Chief  Routes  of  Explorers  in  the  Interior 

of  Africa  (1883) 28 

10.  Sources  of  the  Nile  and  Kyanza  Plateau    .  36 

11.  From  Dufll6  to  Lado          ....  42 

12.  Region  of  the  "  Sud  "        ....  43 

13.  Thk  Nile  at  Khartdm  ....  44 

14.  Meshra-er-Rek  in  the  Zariba  Region  .  46 
16.  Biisin  of  the  Nile  Affluents         ...  51 

16.  Catvact  of  Hannek 63 

17.  Kuibar  Cataract 54 

18.  The  Eeiieh  Valley  on  the  Route  to  Koseir  .  68 

19.  Head  of  the  Ibrahimieh  Canal  ...  69 

20.  Entrance  of  the  Fayum      ....  61 

21.  Fayum       .        .         .        ,        .        ,         .62 

22.  Rosetta  Mouth 64 

23.  Damietta  Mouth 66 

24.  Branch  of  the  Nile  flowing  to  Lake  Men- 

zaleh 68 

26.  Yearly  0«cillation8  of  the  Nile  ...  70 

26.  Section  of  the  Nile  Valley  at  Siftt              .  72 

27.  U-Eerewe  and  U-Sukuma ....  78 

28.  Karagwg 80 

29.  South  U-Qanda .  .        .        .        .86 
80.  U-Ganda  :  RuBAOA,  Pbinoipal  RsnoENOB 

OF  M'Tbsa 90 

31.  U-Nyoro 92 

32.  Water-parting  between  the  Nile  and  Congo  96 

33.  Skt'li  Musicians 100 

34.  Bahi  Smiths 102 

35.  Routes  of  Explorers  East  of  the  Bahr-el- 

Jebel  .  .  .103 

36.  Chief  Routes  of  Explorers  in  the  Zariba 

Region                 HO 

37.  Inhabitants  of  the  Zariba  Region  .114 
88.  Confluence  of  tue  Sobat  and  Yal        .        .118 


wo.  rAos 

39.  Shiliuk  Ttpi 120 

40.  Chief  Routes  of  Abyssinian  Explorers  127 

41.  Profile  of  Abyssinia  from  East  to  West      .     129 

42.  Davkzut    Fallh,   nbau  Samaha   (Debra- 

Tabok) 130 

43.  Northern  Spurs  of  the  Abyssinian  High- 

lands   183 

44.  The  Simen  Highland^  .  .188 

46.  I.akes  of  East  Abyssinia  .134 
40.  Lake  of  Alalbed          ...                .138 

47.  Intermediate    Abyssinian    Plateaux    and 

'         Valleys 140 

48.  Inhabitants  of  Abyssinia  .        .                .  lAl 

49.  Oondar 162 

50.  Debra-Tabor 104 

61.  Mtthdera-Mariain 166 

62.  Koaruta  and  Southern  Shore  of  Lake  Tana  106 

63.  Magdala 169 

64.  Adua  and  Aksum 172 

66.  Aksum 173 

66.  Kumaiili  Valley 176 

67.  Bogos  Territory 177 

68.  Massawah 179 

59.  Annesley  Bay 182 

60.  Routes  of  the  Chief  Explorers  in  the  Lower 

AwHsh  Region 180 

61.  Somali  Gibl 103 

62.  Routes  of  the  Chief  Explorers  in  South 

Abyssinia 196 

63.  Oaua  Girl 196 

64.  Populationa  of  South  Abyssinia .        .  190 

65.  Chief  Towns  of  East  Shoa  .  .201 

66.  Harrar  .        .        .         .         .        .204 

67.  Zeila 206 

68.  Course  of  the  Lower  Awash        .         .        .     206 

69.  Tajurah  Bay  and  Lake  Assal     .        .        .    207 

70.  Obok 208 

71.  Assab 200 

72.  Routes  of  the  Chief  Explorers  in  Taka  and 

Neighbouring  Districts       .         .         .     217 

73.  The  Lega  Country 223 

74.  Inhabitants  of  the  Blue  Nile      .        .        .226 
76.  Inhabitants   of   Taka  and  Neighbouring 

Districts 232 

76.  Shukuriih  Dua 286 


LIST  OP  IIJiirHTUATIONS 


1« 


PAO« 

120 
127 
129 

130 

132 
133 
134 
138 

140 

m 

164 
166 
166 
169 
172 
173 
176 
177 
179 
182 

189 
193 


no. 
77. 
78. 
79. 
80. 
81. 
82. 
83. 
84. 
86. 
86. 
87. 
88. 
80. 
90. 
91. 
02. 
93. 
04. 
96. 
96. 

07. 
08. 
00. 
100 


101, 
102 
103. 
104 
106. 
106 
107 
108 
100 


PAiiK  no, 

Faiogl  Oold  Minos 240  I    110. 

8enar 242  !    111. 

Confliienoe  of  the  Two  Nilen               .         .     248  i 

Khartum 246  I     1 12 

Pyramids  of  tleroS 247 

Kasula 361  113. 

Berber 263  |    114. 

8uakin  in  1882 264  I 

Suakin  Uplands 266  j    116. 

Central  Kordofan 262 

El-Obeid 267  116. 

Central  Region  of  Dar-Fdr         .                .273  117. 

Mineral  Region  of  the  Etbai  Uplands         .     282 

Nubian  Oold  Mines 284 

Korosko  Desert 28fi  118. 

Bayuda  Steppe 287  110. 

Dongola  and  the  Third  Cataract                .     301  120. 

Thk  Trmplr  Of  Abv-Simbil,  in  Nubia  806 

Density  of  the  Population  of  Egypt  .        .     316  121. 

AiwuAN :    Anuiint    Qcahry,  now   aban-  122. 

DONBU 317  123. 

Chains  of  Oases  West  of  Egypt  .                 .     324  124. 

The  Natron  Lakes 327  126. 

Isothermal  Lines  and  Rainfall  of  Egypt         386 

,  EoYPTiAM  Typb  :  Bas-Rbusfornambnt- 

IMO    TKB    TOUB    OF    SkEIKH    AbD-BL-  126. 

OuBNAH,  AT  Thrbbs  .                          .343  127. 

I  ViLLAOB  Huts 345  128. 

.  A  Bbdouin 347  120. 

Arab  Tribes  in  Egypt  .348 

,  A    ViLLAGB  SflBIKH            .           .          .           .340  130. 

Religions  of  Egypt 364  131. 

Domains  of  the  Dairah  in  the  Delta .        .    368  132. 

Trajan's  Oanal 366  133. 

,  Sues  in  the  year  1800      .        .                .366  134. 

.  Proposed  Freshwater  Oanal  from  Suez  to  186. 

Alexandria 368  136. 


Lake  Timstth 370 

Or«at   International    Routes  of  the   Old 

World 

AsMuan  and  the  First  Cataract  before  the 

Opening  of  the  liailwny     . 

Ruins  of  Thebes 

RuiNH  oi'  Thehks:  Phopylor,  or  Noiith- 

BKN  OaTB 

Enthancr  to  thb  Vai.lry  of  thb  Ruyal 
Tombs 

Kosseir 386 

Abvdoh  :  Bas-Rblibf  in  thb  Tbmplb  of 
8bti  I.,  hbfrbsbntino  a  Scbnb  of 
Adobation         .... 

Rbd  Pottbry  of  Siut    ... 

Ghscs  of  Khargeh  and  Dakhel . 

Undbbohound  Paisaob  at  Mbhbndi 
nbah  Mahabraka,  Nubia 

The  Biwah  Oases      .... 

Pyramid  of  Mbihum 

AsoBNT  OF  thb  Obbat  Pyramid 

Thb  Sphinx 

MVSHAKABIBH,      WITH     ScBBBN    IN    FroRT 

to  ooncraii  thb  Inmatbs  FBOM  THBIK 
Nriohbourm  .     ■  t.  :  t 

MosauB  of  Mohammbd  Au    . 

Barrage  of  the  Nile 

Suez 

Entrance  to  the  Wady  TumilAt,  Tell-el- 
Kebir 

Port  Said 

The  San  Morass 

Damietta 

Abukir  and  Alexandria    .... 

Alexandria  ...        .    481 

Alexandria  and  Lake  Mariut    .  438 

Egyptian  Railways  .        .       .        .       .441 


.371 

376 
880 

382 

384 


380 
301 
392 

393 
304 
300 
402 

406 


4ii 

414 

416 

417 
420 
422 
424 
439 


•       • 


106 
106 
100 
201 
204 
206 
206 
207 
208 
200 

217 
223 
236 


232 
2M 


ife/J! 


ppp 


»«^ 


«'' 


.  »       'i  ;     * 


#.-■• 


>) 


'?!* 


(  <S    ' 


,    «»      .  >V 


it.    ._.  _  U.- 


i       > 


'       i 


*  1 


.    ,r.vC  .•] 


'M 


III  lfftliirtii»w*«Biwaiii#wiB 


iM  iiiiiiiiiiiii  Miiiini 


mmmmg'Omim^mgfm'mmr^ 


THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  INHABITANTS. 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


CHAPTER  I. 

'     *  GENERAL  SURVEY. 

BOM  the  very  name  of  Africa,  it  is  evident  that  down  to  a  compara- 
tively receut  period  this  continent  still  formed  part  of  the  unknown 
world.  It  was  the  Libya  of  the  Greeks,  a  region  of  undefined  limits 
towards  the  south  and  the  setting  sua.  Amongst  other  mytholo- 
gical or  poetic  titles,  they  also  gave  it  the  vag^e  designations  of 
Eskhate,  or  "  The  World's  End,"  and  Hesperia,  or  "  Western  Land,"  a  term  which 
was  also  applied  to  Italy,  and  then  to  Spain,  and  which,  under  the  Arab  form  of 
Maghreb,  has  become  the  modem  name  of  Mauritania.  The  term  Africa  itself,  now 
applied  to  the  whole  continent,  is  of  doubtful  origin.  Whether  it  designated  the 
ancient  Carthage  in  the  sense  of  the  "  Separated,"  or  "  Colony,"  recalling  the 
supremacy  of  the  Phcenioian  Tyre,  or  whether  it  was  a  collective  name  of  the 
Berbers,  or  only  of  a  single  tribe,  that  of  the  Auraghen  or  Aurigha,  are  questions 
that  cannot  now  be  solved.  In  any  case  Africa,  already  so  named  by  Ennius  before 
the  second  Punic  war,  was  for  the  Romans  at  first  nothing  more  than  the  Libyan 
neighbour  of  Italy,  the  .Tunisian  Tell  still  called  Friga,  a  name  which  became 
gradually  extended  to  the  whole  continent,  just  as  the  Asia  of  the  Cayster  Yalley 
ultimately  embraced  India,  Siberia,  and  China. 

As  now  surveyed  around  its  entire  seaboard,  Africa  stands  out  as  the  best- 
defined  division  of  the  Old  World — a  vast  island,  attached  only  by  a  narrow  isthmus, 

1 — AF. 


Tfi 


I'" 
¥1 


T- 


■HMi 


ffp» 


I 


i  NOBTK-EAST  APBIOA.  _ 

90  miles  broad,  to  the  Asiatic  mainland.  Even  this  isthmus  itself  is  an  old  marine 
and  fluvial  basin — Mediterranean  alluvium  in  the  north,  a  deposit  of  the  Red  Sea  in 
the  south ;  between  these  two  marine  zones  an  ancient  Nilotic  delta,  which,  to  judge 
from  the  allied  faimas,  probably  at  one  time  communicated  with  the  Jordan.  But 
although  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  had  no  existence  in  Tertiary  times,  there  were  other 
stretches  of  land  connecting  Egypt  with  Cyprus  and  Syria  ;  for  nowhere  else  in  the 
periphery  of  the  globe  are  there  found  contiguous  marine  inlets  presenting  imoh 
differences  in  their  fauna  as  do  those  of  Suez  and  Gaza. 

But  if  the  waters  of  the  Indian  Ocean  have  remained  completely  distinct  from 
those  of  the  Mediterranean  since  the  Eocene  epoch,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of  a 
shallow  channel  flooded  in  Quaternary  times,  the  intervening  barrier  has  /it  last 
been  removed  by  the  hand  of  man.  Thanks  to  his  industry,  the  two  seas  hence- 
forth mingle  their  waters  in  the  inland  basin  of  Lake  Timsah,  and  the  circumnavi- 
gation of  Africa  is  open  to  the  largest  vessels  afloat.  Compared  with  this  southern 
continent,  whost^  contour  is  so  clearly  defined,  the  two  other  divisions  of  the  Old 
World  seem  to  merge  in  one  continental  mass.  Certainly  the  depression  skirting 
the  Ural  range  from  the  Gulf  of  Ob  to  the  Caspian,  and  the  Manich  isthmus  between 
the  Caspian  and  Euxine,  cannot  be  regarded  as  such  sharp  geographical  parting 
lines  as  the  marine  channel  now  flowing  between  Suez  and  Port  Said. 

But  however  clearly  severed  at  present  from  the  rest  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere, 
Africa  is  not  so  entirely  distinct  from  Europe  and  Asia  as  might  at  first  sight  be 
supposed.  Farts  of  its  seaboard  were  even  formerly  connected  directly  with  the 
regions  beyond  the  Mediterranean,  and  there  was  a  time  when  the  Atlas  Mountains 
effected  a  jimotion  ?eross  the  {>reseflt  Strait  of  Gibraltar  with  the  parallel  Sierra 
Nevada  range.  Even  dcwn  to  the  close  of  the  Pliocene  epoch,  Tunisia  was  still 
united  with  Sicily  and  Italy  through  a  broad  zone,  of  which  the  only  surviving 
fragments  are  the  little  Maltese  group  of  islets.  Greece  also  merged  southwards  in 
boundless  plains  watered  by  streams  whose  banks  were  frequented  by  the  elephant 
and  hippopotamus.* 

Although  now  detached  from  Spain  and  Italy,  North-west  Africa  is  still  in  its 
geology,  natural :  istory,  and  climate  essentially  a  Mediterranean  land,  forming  with 
the  opposite  European  seaboard  a  distinct  physical  region.  Along  both  coasts  the 
same  fossils  occur  on  the  old  rocks,  while  similar  floras  and  faunas  are  now  in 
possession  of  the  soil.  The  Mauritanian  coastlands  differ  far  more  from  Nigretia, 
from  which  they  are  separated  by  the  Sahara,  than  they  do  from  Provence,  and  as 
already  remarked  by  Sallust,  North  Africa  is  physically  a  part  of  Europe.  East- 
wards also  the  Ethiopian  shore  of  the  Red  Sea  belongs  to  the  same  formations  as  the 
opposite  coast  of  Arabia,  and  a  general  resemblance  oharacteriees  the  climate, 
natural  productions,  and  inhabitants  on  either  side  of  Bab-el- Mandeb. 

In  its  massive  outlines  Africa  presents  the  same  monotonous  appearance  as  the 
two  other  southern  divisions  of  the  globe — South  America  and  Australia.  It  is  even 
less  indented  than  the  corresponding  section  of  the  New  "World ;  nor  is  it  supple- 
mented, like  Australia,  by  a  vast  region  of  archipelagoes  and  islands,  scattered  over 

*  Bamsay ;  Zittal ;  Neumayr. 


smr. 


L-L^--i-«,'«_^n 


MOUNTAINS. 


8 


old  marine 
Red  Sea  in 
ih,  to  judge 
rdan.  But 
were  other 
)  else  in  the 
mting  imch 

stinct  from 
terhaps  of  a 
has  (it  last 
seas  hence- 
jircumnavi- 
lis  southern 
of  the  Old 
ion  skirting 
aus  between 
ical  parting 

liemisphere, 
rst  sight  be 
;ly  with  the 
)  Mountains 
■allel  Sierra 
sia  was  still 
y  surviving 
athwards  in 
he  elephant 

)  still  in  its 
arming  with 
1  coasts  the 
are  now  in 
m  Nigretia, 
snce,  and  as 
■ope.  East- 
Eitions  as  the 
the  climate, 

■ance  as  the 
It  is  even 
is  it  supple- 
attered  over 


the  northern  and  eastern  seas.  Its  very  size,  estimated  at  nearly  12,000,000  square 
miles,  or  over  three  times  that  of  Europe  and  four  times  that  of  Australia, 
contributes  to  its  heavy  uniform  aspect.  Notwithstanding  its  greater  bulk,  its 
coastline  is  considerably  less  than  that  of  Europe.  Exclusive  of  a  thousand  smaller 
inlets,  such  as  the  Scandinavian  fjords  and  the  firths  of  Scotland,  the  latter  has  a 
periphery  of  about  19,000  miles,  the  former  not  more  than  15,000,  much  of  which 
is  unbroken  by  a  single  creek  or  bay.  Its  general  form  is  that  of  an  ellipsoid, 
disposed  in  the  direction  from  north  to  south,  and  bidging  out  westwards  in  a  still 
less  varied  semi-elliptical  mass  between  Cape  Bon  and  the  Qulf  of  Guinea.  The 
prevailing  uniformity  is  modified  on  the  east  side  chiefly  by  the  sharp  peninsula 
terminating  at  Cape  Gardafui,  on  the  west  by  the  retreating  curve  of  the  coastline, 
by  which  the  Atlantic  basin  is  suddenly  doubled  in  width.  The  eastern  projection, 
which  is  separated  by  the  GuU  of  Aden  from  Hadramaut,  follows  the  direction 
of  the  south-eastern  extremity  uf  Arabia,  a  region  which  in  its  climate  and  other 
respects  forms  a  land  of  transition  between  the  two  continents. 


Mountains.  ♦ 

From  its  regular  contour,  Africa  might  seem  to  be  built  on  a  generally  uniform 
and  simple  plan.  But  such  is  not  the  case.  Europe,  notwithstanding  its  countless 
indentations,  may  be  compared  to  an  organism  furnished  with  a  backbone  and 
members ;  Asia  also  groups  its  boundless  plains  and  peninsulas  around  a  culminat- 
ing nucleus,  the  Great  Pamir,  or  "  Roof  of  the  World ;  "  while  both  Americas  have 
their  western  Cordilleras,  and  in  the  east  vast  alluvial  plains  and  river  basins 
separated  one  from  the  other  by  scarcely  perceptible  parting  lines.  But  Africa  is 
comporatively  speaking  an  almost  shapeless  mass,  with  a  rudimentar}'  organisation 
destitute  alike  of  central  uplands  and  regidar  watersheds.  Nevertheless  the  eastern 
coast  ranges,  running  parallel  with  the  Indian  Ocean,  may  in  some  respects  be 
regarded  as  forming,  if  not  a  backbone,  at  least  the  border  chain  of  one  great  con- 
tineutiil  highland  system.  Spite  of  the  broad  gaps  pierced  by  the  Limpopo, 
Zambezi,  and  Juba  rivers,  the  broken  fragments  of  a  vast  Cordillera  may  be  recog- 
nised in  the  uplands  stretching  interruptedly  from  the  Cape  northwards  to  the 
Abyssinian  highlands.  In  this  zone  of  border  ranges  occur  the  culminating  points 
of  the  continent,  the  extinct  Kilima-njaro  and  Kenia  volcanoes,  perhaps  the 
summits  known  to  the  ancients  as  the  "  Mountains  of  the  Moon."  West  of  these 
peaks  the  plateau  is  intersected  by  a  parallf)l  chain  of  other  volcanoes,  some  of 
which  are  said  still  to  emit  smoke ;  while  beyond  Victoria  Nyanza  a  third  range, 
dominated  by  Mfumbiro  and  Gambaragara,  woidd  seem  to  form  a  western  border 
system  or  water-partiag  between  the  Upper  Nile  and  Congo  basins.  Here  the 
plateau  expands  to  a  breadth  of  550  miles,  terminating  northwards  in  the  Abys- 
sinian highlands,  a  rocky  citadel  whose  base  exceeds  those  of  all  the  other  continen- 
tal orographic  systems.  These  Ethiopian  heights  stand  over  against  those  of  Yemen, 
and  like  them  are  a  remnant  of  the  border  range  sweeping  roimd  the  Indian  and 


U«*MMi<AtJkM|MMi 


IMrtBtiatfcJa<m'i  ««■■«•—*- 


mummmiuk 


tr 


f 


I: 


I 


4  NOBTH-EAST  AFEICA.  ^  ^^ 

Pacific  Oceans  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  Cape  Horn,  and  forming  a  vast 
semicircle  of  24,000  miles,  equal  to  the  circumference  of  the  globe. 

Although  not  yet  thoroughly  explored,  Africa  is  already  sufficiently  known  at 
least  in  the  main  features  of  its  general  relief.  More  compact  and  less  indented 
than  the  other  divisions  of  the  globe,  it  also  remains  less  accessible  through  the 

Pig.  1.— HlOHLANDB  AMD  PLATBAnX  OP  OlNTKAL  AfUICA. 

S«al«  1  :  an  000.000. 


.aoouoaa. 


work  of  erosion.  Its  mean  elevation  exceeds  that  of  Europe  and  Asia,  although 
there  are  scarcely  any  mountains  equal  to  the  Alps  and  Caucasus,  none  comparable 
to  the  Himalayas.  Considered  as  a  solid  mass  with  vertical  scarps  and  horizontal 
surface,  its  altitude,  according  to  Chevanne,  is  at  least  1,900,  possibly  2,200,  feet. 
An  oblique  line  drawn  from  Loanda  on  the  Atlantic  to  a  point  on  the  Red  Sea 
between  Suakin  and  Massawah  marks  off  a  region  which  forms  an  almost  continuous 


III.    i»i>Wii« 


IM'JWt  '» 


ing  a  vast 

known  at 
8  indented 
trough  the 


--:>,'.^jVr  EIVEBS.  | 

tableland,  intersected  by  mountain  ranges  resting  on  foundations  of  from  3,000  to 
4,500  feet.  The  Congo  and  Nile  basins  confine  on  the  north  and  west  this  region  of 
plateaux,  which  comprises  about  a  third  of  the  whole  continent.  On  the  other 
sides  the  border  ranges  are  considerably  less  elevated  and  much  more  divided  than 
those  of  South  and  East  Africa.  They  are  nowhere  continuous,  but  rise  in  scattered 
fragments  between  the  Congo  and  Niger,  between  the  Nile  and  Lake  Tsad,  in  the  heart 
of  the  Sahara,  which  is  broken  by  the  two  isolated  masses  of  Tibesti  and  Ahaggar,  in  the 
extreme  west,  where  the  scarps  of  the  plateaux  run  parallel  with  the  coasts  of  Upper 
Guinea  and  Senegambia ;  lastly  in  Mauritania,  where  the  Atlas  range  constitutes  a 
distinct  orographic  system,  formerly  connected  with  those  of  South  Europe.    South 

Fig.   2. — HTDaOOKAPHT  OF  ApEICA  AOOORDOia  TO   MiDUKTAL  GbuOHAPUBBB.  .^ 


of  this  system  the  continent  may  be  roughly  .described  as  a  vast  plane  inclined  in  a 
north-westerly  direction. 


lia,  although 
comparable 
d  horizontal 
'  2,200,  feet 
he  Red  Sea 
it  continuous 


Rivers. 

The  rudimentary  character  of  its  general  relief  is  also  reflected  in  its  hydrographio 
system.  The  African  rivers,  still  to  a  g^eat  part  entangled  in  the  intricacies  of  the 
plateau,  have  a  somewhat  irregular  and  imfinished  course,  often  forcing  their  way 
through  narrow  rocky  gorges,  and  obstructed  by  numerous  falls  and  rapids.  Even 
the  more  copious  streams  are  relatively  less  accessible  to  navigation  than  those  of 
the  other  continents.  In  this  respect  the  contrast  is  specially  striking  between 
Africa  and  South  America,  the  two  divisions  of  the  globe  which  are  more  frequently 
compared  with  each  other.  The  "Dark  Continent"  is  entirely  destitute  of  the 
great  estuaries  and  broad  arteries  giving  access  in  the  New  World  from  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  almost  to  the  foot  of  the  Andes.  The  comparative  absence  of  navigable 
waters,  of  islands  and  good  harbours,  combined  with  the  great  extent  of  desert 
wastes,  has  mainly  contributed  to  exclude  Africa  from  the  general  life  of  the  com- 
itaercial  world. 

AU  the  great  rivers — Nile,  Congo,  and  Niger — are  inteiTupted  by  cataracts  and 


ti 


iimj.iiM^i 


w 


i 


« 


NOETH-EAST  AFEIOA. 


rapids,  which  cut  o£E  from  outward  intercourse  populous  regions  whose  fluvial 
systems  ramify  over  many  hundred  millions  of  acres.  The  Nile  and  Congo  rising 
amid  the  higher  plateaux,  where  the  slope  is  still  undecided,  traverse  in  their  upper 
courses  many  great  lakes,  which  according  to  a  vague  tradition  once  constituted  a 
single  lacustrine  basin  of  enormous  extent.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  Portuguese 
explorers  had  some  idea  of  this  hydrographic  system.  But  in  tracing  the  outlines 
of  the  great  equatorial  lakes  they  seem  to  have  rather  copied  older  maps  than  relied 
on  positive  information.  But,  however  this  be,  they  appear  to  have  believed  in  the 
existence  of  a  single  source  for  the  Nile,  Congo,  and  even  the  Zambesi.  But  the 
streams  were  also  supposed  to  traverse  extensive  underground  regions,  and  an 
Italian  map  engraved  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  represents  a  Nile  with 
three  heads,  separated  by  a  vast  space  from  the  emissaries  of  the  chief  fountain. 
This  Nile  is  moreover  made  to  flow  in  the  direction  from  north  to  south,  a  small 
Egyptian  delta  corresponding  to  a  much  larger  delta  in  South  Africa. 

The  first  modern  explorers  of  the  same  region  were  also  influenced  by  these 
traditional  ideas.  Even  Speke  traced  the  course  of  four  rivers  issuing  from  various 
parts  of  Lake  Nj'anza  to  form  the  Nile,  while  Stanley  made  Tanganyka  the  source 
of  two  effluents,  one  flowing  northwards  to  the  Nile,  the  other  westwards  to  the 
Congo.  But  although  these  great  arteries  do  not  rise  in  a  common  source,  the 
water-parting  between  them  is  in  some  places  so  low  and  undecided  that  a  slight 
disturbance  of  the  surface  would  suffice  to  change  the  direction  of  many  affluents. 
It  is  even  possible  that  on  the  dividing  line  of  some  basins  there  may  exist  lakes  or 
swamps  draining  in  both  directions. 

The  unfinished  aspect  of  the  central  rivers,  the  cataracts  interrupting  their 
course,  the  lacustrine  reservoirs  scattered  over  the  plateaux,  produce  a  certain  resem- 
blance between  equatorial  Africa  and  the  Scandinavian  peninsula.  But  in  the 
northern  region,  still  under  ice  within  a  comparatively  recent  geological  epoch,  the 
rivers  have  scarcely  commenced  their  work  of  erosion.  The  climatic  conditions  are 
of  course  entirely  different,  and  although  the  existence  of  an  old  glacial  period  may 
be  suspected  even  in  the  torrid  zone,  the  long  ages  that  have  elapsed  since  that 
remote  epoch  must  have  effaced  nearly  all  trace  of  glaciers  and  moraines.  Hence 
the  rudimentary  character  of  these  fluvial  basins  is  probably  due  to  a  different  cause. 
The  climate,  which  was  formerly  much  more  humid  in  the  Sahara,  may  possibly 
have  been  correspondingly  drier  in  the  south-eastern  region  of  the  Nyanza  plateau. 
In  the  absence  of  a  copious  rainfall  the  rocks  would  remain  uneroded,  and  the  now 
flooded  cavities  unfilled  by  the  alluvia  of  running  waters.  -  During  its  long  geolo- 
gical life  the  earth  has  witnessed  many  shif tings  of  the  climatic  zones.  If  the  rains 
are  more  abundant  in  some  places  than  formerly,  in  others  they  are  more  rare,  and 
the  Igharghar  basin,  for  instance,  in  North-west  Africa,  belongs  to  one  of  these 
dried-up  regions. 

East  of  the  Nile  and  of  the  great  lakes  there  is  no  space  between  the  plateaux 
and  the  coast  for  the  development  of  large  streams.  From  the  Egyptian  uplands 
the  Red  Sea  receives  nothing  but  intermittent  wadies,  and  along  a  seaboard  of  about 
2,400  miles  southwards  to  Mozambique  the  Indian  Ocean  is  fed  only  by  such 


■ 


»<fefe«Bai)ai;jSi;g^^4agifeii:^ 


-.•■-.^•i  ti<t»S    ,  M  — 


.>IWWWH«l 


ose  fluvial 
mgo  rising 
;heir  upper 
nstituted  a 
Portuguese 
be  outlines 
than  relied 
9ved  in  the 
But  the 
ns.  and  an 
I  Nile  with 
t  fountain, 
th,  a  small 

d  by  these 
rem  various 
the  source 
irds  to  the 
source,  the 
at  a  slight 
y  affluents, 
ist  lakes  or 

pting  their 
tain  resem- 
3ut  in  the 

epoch,  the 
iditions  are 
period  may 

since  that 
es.  Hence 
Brent  cause, 
ay  possibly 
iza  plateau, 
ad  the  now 
long  geolo- 
[f  the  rains 
"e  rare,  and 
le  of  these 

le  plateaux 
an  uplands 
rd  of  about 
y  by  such 


g 

o 


a 

n 


§ 


a 
I 


A 


J: 


.'. ''v'' 


EIVERS.  7 

sluggisli  rivers  as  the  Juba,  Tana,  Lufiji,  and  Rovuma.  But  south  of  the  great 
central  lacustrine  plateaux  the  Zambezi,  whose  furthest  headsfcreams  rise  near  the 
west  coast,  drains  a  vast  tract  of  country  estimated  at  about  760,000  square  miles, 
or  nearly  three  times  the  size  of  France.  In  volume  it  ranks  third  amongst  African 
rivers,  but  in  length  fourth  only.  Still  farther  south  the  Limpopo  has  also  a  con- 
siderable discharge ;  whereas  the  Orange,  whose  basin  exceeds  400,000  square  miles 
in  extent,  contributes  to  the  South  Atlantic  very  little  of  the  rainfall  collected  in 


Fig.  8.— Outflow  of  Lakb  Ntakea,  accobpixo  to  Sfbkb. 
SoOe  1 :  1^000,000. 


180  UHm 


the  gorges  of  its  upper  course.  The  Kunene  and  Eoanza,  which  follow  from  south 
to  north,  although  more  copious,  have  stiU  but  a  slight  volume  compared  with  their 
respective  areas  of  drainage.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Ogowe,  which  rises  in 
the  peninsular  tract  formed  by  the  great  bend  of  the  Congo  east  of  equatorial 
Guinea. 

The  Niger,  or  "  Nile  of  the  Blacks,"  forms  with  the  Nile,  Congo,  and  Zambezi, 
one  of  the  four  great  arteries  of  Africa.  Even  down  to  the  beginning  of  this  cen- 
tury many  geographers  still  supposed  that  the  Nile  and  the  Niger  mingled  their 


8  NOETH-EAST  AFRICA. 

waters  across  the  continent.  Some  old  maps  represent  the  latter  as  rising  in  tho 
same  lake  as  the  eastern  Nile,  whereas  its  main  source  lies,  not  in  the  centre  of 
Africa,  but  at  Mount  Loma,  on  the  slope  of  the  Rokelle  Mountains,  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  west  coast.  A  space  of  at  least  2,700  miles  thus  intervenes  between  the  farthest 
headstreams  of  both  rivers,  while  the  nearest  affluents  are  still  separated  by  a  dis- 
tance of  some  720  miles.  The  Niger  in  fact  belongs  to  a  region  wholly  different 
from  that  of  the  Nile  in  the  form  and  disposition  of  its  plateaux.  On  the  other 
side  of  the  hills  where  it  takes  its  rise,  the  Congo,  Rio  Grande,  Gambia,  and  several 
other  streams  flow  to  independent  estuaries  on  the  west  coast,  while  farther  north 
the  Senegal,  rising  on  the  same  slope  as  the  Niger,  sweeps  roimd  the  hills,  forcing 
its  way  to  the  Atlantic  through  a  series  of  rocky  gorges  and  rapids. 

North  of  the  Senegal  no  large  river  reaches  the  coast,  and  for  a  space  of  4,800 
miles  from  the  bar  of  Saint  Louis  to  the  Nile  delta  nothing  is  met  except  a  few 
wadies  or  small  streams,  such  as  the  Draa,  in  the  south  of  Morocco,  the  Moluya, 
Shelif,  Mejerda,  flowing  to  the  Mediterranean.  The  Congo  alone  probably  discharges 
as  much  water  as  all  the  other  African  rivers  together.  Next  to  it  rank  the  Niger 
and  Zambezi,  the  Nile  in  this  respect  taking  only  the  fourth  place. 

Of  the  inland  basins  either  constantly  or  intermittently  closed,  the  most  impor- 
tant are  Lakes  Tsad  in  the  north,  and  Makarakara-Ngami  in  the  south,  both  lying  at 
nearly  equal  distance  from  the  middle  Congo,  and  thus  presenting  a  symmetrical 
disposition  on  either  side  of  the  equator.  Tsad,  much  the  largest  of  the  two,  is 
also  situated  in  the  northern  or  largest  section  of  the  continent,  the  extent  of  both 
thus  corresponding  with  that  of  the  surrounding  regions  draining  to  the  oceans. 
But  here  all  further  analogy  ceases,  at  least  if  it  be  true  that  Tsad  has  always  been 
a  closed  basin :  for  the  Ngami  reservoirs  certainly  communicated  at  some  former 
geological  epoch  with  the  Limpopo  and  Zambezi. 

Besides  these  central  depressions,  each  section  of  the  continent  has  its  deserts, 
strewn  with  secondary  basins  and  oases,  whose  waters  lose  themselves  in  the  sur- 
rounding sands.  Altogether  the  area  of  inland  drainage  is  estimated  by  Chavanne 
at  nearly  3,000,000  square  miles,  of  which  660,000,  or  less  than  a  fifth,  lie  south  of 
the  equator.*  Amongst  the  northern  tracts  without  any  outflow  there  are  some 
depressions  which  at  present  lie  below  sea-level.  These  are  probably  the  remains 
of  straits  and  inlets  formerly  belonging  to  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  Sea.  The 
largest  are  those  which  seem  to  form  a  continuation  of  the  Tunisian  Gulf  of  Cabes 
(Syrtis  Minor),  south  of  Algeria,  which  formerly  received  the  discharge  of  the  now 
dried  up  Igharghar,  a  river  780  miles  long,  and  consequently  longer  than  the 

*  Closed  hydrogrsphic  basins  of  the  African  continent  :— 

NoKTH  Africa. 

8q.  MilM. 

Basin  of  the  Tsad,  including  the  Fed6 -       .        730,000 

„       „        Igharghar 330,000 

Other  battins  and  waterless  spaces 1,346,000 

South  Africa. 

Basin  of  Lakb  Ngami 314,000 

Other  basins  and  waterless  spnces 257.000 


>*^'^'^\*i^^)i■i^t^i■^^^-':■'J^■^y," 


'    ISLANDS.  0 

Limpopo.  Other  cavities  below  sea- level  follow  in  succession  between  the  Great 
Syrtis  and  the  Nile  south  of  the  plateau  of  Cyrenaica.  At  the  foot  of  the  Abys- 
sinian highlands  on  the  Red  Sea  coast  are  also  found  deep  troughs,  the  surface 
waters  of  which  have  sunk  to  a  level  far  below  that  of  the  neighbouring  inlets.  In 
the  southern  section  of  the  continent  such  maritime  depressions  do  not  occur. 


Islands. 

Africa  is  as  poorly  furnished  with  a  complement  of  islands  as  it  is  with  large 
inlets  and  orographic  systems.  In  their  submarine  relief  those  in  the  Mediterranean 
belong  rather  to  Europe  than  to  this  continent.  Crete  is  connected  with  Asia 
Minor  and  with  Greece ;  Sicily,  Corsica,  and  Sardinia  with  Italy ;  the  Balearic 
group  by  .i  submarine  bank  with  the  coast  of  Yalentia ;  Jerba  alone  and  a  few  islets 
in  the  Gidf  of  Cabes  and  along  the  Mauritanian  shores  form  parts  of  the  northern 
seaboard.  On  the  Atlantic  side  little  occurs  beyond  some  rocks  and  low-lying  banks, 
such  as  the  Bissagos  or  Bishlas  Archipelago,  which  a  slight  alluvial  deposit  or  up- 
heaval of  the  land  would  suffice  to  connect  with  the  continent.  The  more  distant 
groups  of  Madeira  and  Porto  Santo,  the  Canaries  and  Cape  Verde  Islands,  are  of 
volcanic  origin,  and  separated  from  the  mainland  by  abysses  over  3,000  feet  in 
depth.  Of  igneous  formation  are  also  the  islets  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  Annabom, 
Saint  Thomas,  Prince,  Fernando- Po,  which  form  a  chain  of  volcanoes  all  more  recent 
than  the  neighbouring  mainland. 

The  small  groups  in  the  Red  Sea  are  mere  coral  reefs  dominated  here  and  there 
by  a  few  volcanic  peaks.  Even  in  the  Indian  Ocean  the  only  real  African  island  is 
Socotra,  the  "  spear-head  "  of  the  peninsula  at  present  terminating  at  Cape  Garda- 
fui,  and  farther  south  Pemba,  Zanzibar,  and  Mafia,  disposed  parallel  with  the 
coast.  The  Comoro  Group  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  Madagascar  too  far  removed 
from  Mozambique  to  be  regarded  as  a  dependency  of  the  continent.  Its  nearest 
headland  is  180  miles  distant,  and  even  this  space  is  doubled  for  ordinary  craft  by 
the  velocity  of  the  intervening  marine  currents.  Its  flora  and  fauna  also  show  that 
this  great  island  belongs  to  a  distinct  geological  domain.  Geoffroy  de  Saint-Hilaire 
looked  on  it  as  a  world  apart,  and  most  subsequent  zoologists  have  regarded  it  as  a 
fragment  of  "  Lemuria,"  a  vanished  continent,  which  also  embraced  the  granite 
groups  of  the  Seychelles  and  Rodriguez  as  well  as  Ceylon  and  the  Maldives,  and 
may  have  even  reached  as  far  as  Celebes  in  the  "Eastern  Archipelago. 

Climatb. 

Above  all  the  great  divisions  of  the  globe,  Africa  is  distinguished  by  the  general 
regularity  of  its  climatic  phenomena,  a  circumstance  due  to  its  massive  form  and 
to  its  equatorial  position.  In  the  region  approaching  nearest  to  the  northern  or 
southern  lines  of  the  equinoxes,  rain  falls  throughout  the  year,  thanks  to  the 
opposing  trade  winds,  which  by  neutralising  each  other  often  preserve  the  stillness 


/ 


inm,ipni,jjiii.i^. 


9^ 


10 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


of  the  atmosphere,  and  enable  the  local  vapours  to  condense  and  precipitate  them- 
aolvca  on  the  spot.  In  the  northern  hemisphere  a  zone  of  two  wet  seasons  stretches 
from  the  equator  to  the  fifteenth  degree  of  latitude.  In  summer,  copious  rains  are 
caused  by  the  moisture-bearing  south-west  winds ;  in  winter,  those  blowing  from 
the  north-west  become  in  their  turn  the  bearers  of  heavy  rain-charged  clouds  to  the 
southern  hemisphere.  But  on  both  sides  of  the  torrid  zone,  which  comprises  about 
seven-tenths  of  the  whole  continent,  the  difterence  in  the  disposition  of  the  winds 


Fig.  4. — IlOTHBHHAL  LlNKR  OP  AfBIOA. 

Seal*  1 :  Tn.ono,oou. 


1,900  nam. 


causes  a  corresponding  contrast  in  the  rainfall.  Here  the  trade  winds  maintain 
their  normal  direction  constantly,  or  with  but  slight  temporary  deviations ;  blowing 
from  the  north-east  in  the  northern,  from  the  south-east  in  the  southern  hemisphere, 
they  divert  to  the  equator  most  of  the  vapours  crossing  their  path,  leaving  else- 
where clear  skies  and  arid  lands.  Thus  it  happens  that  Africa  has  two  almost  com- 
pletely barren  zones  of  rocks,  gravels,  marls,  clay  and  sand — the  Sahara  and 
Libyan  desert  in  the  north,  Kalahari  and  other  wastes  in  the  south.     This 


^-.- 


^M 


tate  them- 
8  stretches 
8  rains  are 
ring  from 
)Uc1h  to  the 
rises  about 
the  winds 


■^^ 


3  maintain 
s ;  blowing 
emisphere, 
iving  else- 
Imost  com- 
iahara  and 
ith.     This 


OlilMATE. 


11 


symmetrical  disposition  of  the  climates  is  completed  by  the  regular  alternation  of 
winds  and  ruins  in  the  zones  of  Mauritania  and  the  Cape  of  Oood  Hope,  both 
belonging  to  the  region  of  sub-tropical  rains,  which  fall  in  the  respective  winters 
of  each  hemisphere.  Africa  is  thus  disposed  from  north  to  south  in  successive  grey 
and  more  or  less  intensely  green  belts,  presenting  to  the  iububitunts  of  the  other 

Fig.  6.— DiBTRinuTioN  of  thb  Rainvall  in  Africa. 
Scale  1 :  T,ji00,0ua 


El 

Under  4 
loobes. 


4to!U 
nohee. 


90  to  40 
Inohei. 


40toeO 
Inohee. 


60  to  80 
Inobea. 


M^Mdieaaad 
upward*. 


LSOOUilM. 


planets  an  aspect  perhaps  analogous  to  that  offered  to  our  gaze  by  the  parallel 
cloudy  zones  round  about  Jupiter. 

These  different  zones  of  moisture,  whose  limits  coincide  in  several  places  with 
the  isothermal  lines,  are  developed  across  the  continent  with  sufficient  regularity 
to  enable  M.  Chayanne  to  map  them  out.  Africa  is  more  sharply  distributed  in 
distinct  regions  by  its  deserts  than  it  could  have  been  by  broad  arms  of  the  sea, 


•^mm''''9f' 


12 


NORTII-KAflT  AFBIOA. 


and  the  Jintribution  of  itH  inhabituntn  han  almi  Imhmi  dotomiinod  almont  cxclunively 
by  tho  climatio  conditiona,  doponding  ovorywhoro  on  the  ubuudunce  of  ruin  and 
vegetation.  ,  i 

Flora  and  Fauna. 

In  itH  florii  und  fuunu,  aa  well  as  its  climuto  and  geology,  North  Africa  belongs 
to  the  zone  of  trunHition  between  Europe  and  Asia.  The  apparent  unity  imparted 
to  the  continent  by  its  compact  form  is  not  realised  when  we  examine  in  detail  the 
phenomena  of  life.  Cyrenaica  and  the  whole  Mauritauian  seaboard  on  the  slope  of 
tho  Atlas  range  belong  to  the  vegetable  domain  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  which 
are  also  comprised  Spain,  Provence,  Italy,  the  Balkan  peninsula,  the  shores  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  Syria.  The  zone  of  the  Sahara,  which  stretches  under  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer  aorofi  the  continent,  is  continued  in  Arabia  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
even  through  some  of  their  rarer  species  embraces  the  Baluchistan  coast,  Thar,  the 
Ilann,  and  the  Eathyawar  peninsula  in  India.  Lastly,  the  floras  of  Yemen  and 
Iladraraaut  resemble  those  of  Sudan,  the  narrow  Red  Sea  having  been  easily 
traversed  by  African  species. 

For  the  whole  continent,  the  characteristic  vegetable  zone  is  that  of  Sudan  and 
the  equatorial  regions,  which  stretches  from  sea  to  sea,  and  from  desert  to  desert, 
between  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  Oceans,  between  the  Sahara  and  Kalahari. 
Speaking  broadly,  it  is  much  poorer  in  distinct  species  than  the  other  tropical 
regions,  such  as  India  and  the  Sunda  Islands,  and  even  than  some  sub-tropical 
lands,  such  as  Asia  Minor.  Nevertheless  certain  central  districts  in  Africa 
possess  a  remarkable  variety  of  plants,  as  for  instance,  the  territory  watered  by  the 
Di(\r,  not  far  from  the  dividing  line  between  the  Nile  and  Congo  basins.  Here 
Schweinfurth  collected  in  five  months  nearly  seven  hundred  flowering  species, 
which  it  would  be  impossible  to  do  in  the  richest  European  lands. 

Most  of  the  African  tropical  domain  is  exposed  to  the  periodical  rains,  with 
long  intervening  periods  of  dryness.  Hence  arborescent  vegetation  nowhere 
displays  greater  exuberance  and  vigour  than  on  the  plains  between  the  Cong^  and 
Nile,  where  the  streams  often  disappear  amid  dense  masses  of  foliage,  and  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Bight  of  Benin,  which  enjoys  far  more  humidity  than  the 
interior.  A  larg^  extent  of  the  zone  of  the  Sudan  is  occupied  by  prairies,  although 
some  tracts  are  so  overgrown  with  gpraminaceous  and  other  herbs  that  animals 
refuse  to  penetrate  into  them.  In  the  Nile  marsh  lands,  certain  andropogonous 
varieties  have  non-woody  stalks  over  twenty  feet  high,  affording  to  the  giraffe 
cover  from  the  hunter.  The  various  graminaceous  plants  of  Central  Africa  are  not 
intermingled  like  those  of  the  European  fields,  and  tracts  several  hundred  square 
miles  in  extent  are  sometimes  occupied  by  a  single  species. 

Thorny  plants  are  relatively  very  abundant  in  the  forests  of  the  Sudan,  and  after 
clearances  the  trees  appear  not  to  spring  up  so  rapidly  in  this  zone  as  in  South 
America.  Varieties  of  the  palm  family  are  ten  times  more  numerous  in  Asia  and 
America  than  in  Africa,  which  has  consequently  a  wider  range  for  its  prevailing 
species.    The  equatorial  regions  of  other  continents  have  scarcely  any  cocoa-nut 


I 


"^V^M** 


MSM 


f^ym^at^m^fm 


••»»»~" 


PT.ORA  ANT)  FATTNA. 


II 


icluHJvely 
ruin  uiid 


a  belongs 
imparted 
detail  the 
e  nlope  of 
in  which 
shoreH  of 
he  Tropio 
Gulf,  and 
Thar,  the 
amen  and 
en   easily 

iudan  and 
to  desert, 
Kalahari, 
r  tropical 
b- tropical 
in  Africa 
'ed  by  the 
18.  Here 
species, 

Ains,  with 

nowhere 

bngo  and 

nd  in  the 

than  the 

although 

1;  animals 

>pogonou8 

he  giraffe 

ca  are  not 

ed  square 

and  after 
in  South 
Asia  and 
)reTailing 
cocoa-nut 


forosts  oxoopt  on  flu<  W^abar  coast,  in  C'oylon,  and  around  tho  r/iirihb<«an  noulMmrd, 
whoruufl  in  N»»rth  Afrvca  the  dttm  palm  {^hyplurne  thvhnica),  uiid  tho  dolob  {^fiorantut 
fiabell{fonnin),  uh  w»^U  b«  the  dufr  (p/i'fuu-  dort;fl\tera)  cover  oxtenHivo  tructn  in  the 
00U08  of  tho  northern  Sahiira.  C'omparod  with  tho  number  of  its  spocioH,  tho 
Nigrotiun  flora  pus«(  uses  many  '('•"•s  with  un  abnoi;mul  dovolopmont  of  stom,  louf, 
and  fruits.  The  buooali  in  noted  for  (ii§  enonnous  sixo  of  its  trunk,  while  the 
kiyr/ia  unci  some  other  bigitoniuuou)  have  fruits  (^^'o  feet  long,  and  tho  eiinele,  a 
variety  of  the  niusaceuo,  displays  the  largent  foliage  iu  the  entire  vegetable 
kingdom. 

The  Kalahari  flora,  south  of  the  tropical  domain,  resembles  that  of  the  Sahara,, 
except  that  it  forms  no  oases,  nor  are  the  few  watered  tracts  anywhere  shaded  by 
palms.  This  flora  is  distinguished  by  its  thorny  acacias  and  mimosas,  and,  like 
that  of  Northern  Nigretia,  it  abounds  in  g^minaoeous  species.  On  its  northern 
margin  some  almost  rainless  districts  grow  the  teelicitachia,  a  remarkable  plant,  so 
flush  with  the  ground  as  often  to  escape  the  notice  of  travellers.  Burrowing 
downwards  in  the  form  of  a  reversed  cone,  it  displays  above  ground  nothing  but  a 
rough  surface  over  a  yard  long,  throwing  off  right  and  left  two  cotyledons  of  a 
leathery  appearance,  and  occasionally  exceeding  16  feet  in  length  after  a  growth 
of  one  hundred  years. 

On  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  the  transition  between  the  vegetable  zones  is  more 
gradual  than  on  the  opposite  side,  where  the  tropical  domain  is  abruptly  limited  by 
the  Kalahari  desert.  Along  the  Indian  Ocean  the  change  takes  place  imper< 
ceptibly  from  north  to  south  through  the  Limpopo  basin  and  Natal.  On  this 
seaboard,  which  is  skirted  by  the  warm  Mozambique  stream,  the  southern  limit  of 
the  palm  lies  16  degrees  lower  down  than  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  But  on  the 
whole  the  vegetation  south  of  the  Orango  River  is  clearly  distinguished  from  that 
of  the  rest  of  the  continent.  Although  the  rainfall  is  limited  and  the  geological 
formations  far  from  varied,  tho  Cape  flora,  consisting  chiefly  of  grasses,  shrubs, 
and  bushes,  is  altogether  unique  for  the  multitude  uf  its  intermingled  species.  In 
this  respect  it  is  unrivalled  even  by  the  richest  European  countries.  Nowhere 
else  do  the  mountain  slopes  present  more  vegetable  forms  disposed  in  belts  sharply 
separated  from  each  other  by  the  several  zones  of  altitude.  It  may  be  asked 
whether  this  Cape  flora  is  not  a  survival  from  far  more  extensive  lands  engulfed  in 
the  sea,  most  of  whose  vegetation  has  found  a  refuge  in  the  relatively  limited  tract 
bounded  northwards  by  the  basin  of  the  Orange  River.  In  the  same  way  the 
island  of  Madagascar  appears  to  have  preserved  a  great  part  of  the  flora  of  the 
vanished  "  Lemurian  "  continent.  It  still  possesses  over  forty  vegetable  families 
peculiar  to  itself. 

The  appearance  of  Europeans  and  Semites  has  been  accompanied  by  the 
introduction  of  many  new  species,  which  in  several  districts  have  displaced  and 
even  exterminated  the  indigenous  forms.  Elsewhere  the  range  of  certain  plants 
appears  to  have  been  modified  even  without  the  intervention  of  man.  Thus  the 
papyrus,  which  three  thousand  years  ago  was  characteristic  of  the  Egyptian  Nile, 
is  now,  according  to  Sohweinfurth,  found  only  on  the  Upper  Nile  near  the  equator. 


t 

I 
I 


■■r— 


^|>.Ti-wwfB|rwj|pytty.wyii|ji  i|j.iiuiHJl'..WW/i' '■'*-'  <  ' 


"""^(^ 


u 


NORTU-EAST  AFEICA. 


The  pink  lotus  also  {nehimbiiim  specioHum^,  whose  flower  symbolised  the  fertilising 
stream,  the  sun,  and  the  sun-god,  no  longer  flourishes  on  the  Egyptian  waters. 
On  the  mummies  of  the  tombs  in  Upper  Egypt  are  found  floral  wreaths  containing 


Fig.  6. — Veoetablk  Z0NB8  OF  Afuioa. 
Scale  1 :  7^0OO,O0O. 


Mediterranean.    Hasauderan.         Steppes. 


BavaimaR. 


Tropical    Foreat  traots  within 
the  aavannaa 


ID       IZH 


Cape. 


Madagaaoar. 


Abyssinian 
Plateaux. 


Deeert. 


,  1,200  Miles. 


Oasis. 


V 

numerous  species,  such  as  the  eentaurea  depressa,  which  have  aince  disappeared 
from  the  local  flora,  or  at  least  no  longer  grow  spontaneously. 

The  zones  of  the  African  fauna  are  less  clearly  defined  than  those  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom.  Migrating  more  easily  than  the  plants,  the  animals  have 
crossed  many  frontiers  within  which  the  plants  have  been  confined  by  the  climatic 
conditions.      Hence  the  same  animal  types  prevail  throughout  Nigretia  and  the 


FLOBA  AND  FAUNA. 


18 


fertilising 
in  waters, 
containing 


ithin 


lisappeared 

ose  of  the 
imals  have 
he  climatic 
:;ia  and  the 


region  north  of  Cape  Colony.  Numerous  species  of  mammals  and  birds  are  met 
from  the  southern  extremity  of  the  continent  to  the  banks  of  the  Senegal ;  nor  are 
the  plateaiix  and  highlands  anywhere  lofty  enough  to  prevent  the  migrations  of 
animals,  which  in  Africa  are  kept  apart  rather  by  the  broad  desert  wastes  than  by 
moimtain  barriers. 

The  Mascarenhas,  and  especially  Madagascar,  are  centres  of  independent  life, 
the  latter  containing  over  one  hundred  animal  species  not  found  elsewhere.  But 
the  immigrations  of  Arabs  and  Europeans  have  added  several  species  to  the 
African  fauna,  in  exchange  for  those  they  have  contributed  to  extirpate.  The 
camel,  without  which  it  seems  impossible  for  caravans  to  cross  the  Sahara  in  its 
present  arid  state,  is  nevertheless  a  comparatively  recent  arrival,  its  image  occurring 
nowhere  either  on  the  old  Egyptian  monuments  or  on  the  "  inscribed  stones  "  of 
the  ancient  Berbers.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  Sahara  was  not  always  a  desert ; 
and  valuable  inscriptions,  confirming  the  text  of  Herodotus,  prove  that  the  ox  and 
the  zebu  were  the  first  pack  animals  of  the  Garamantes  on  the  route  between 
Fezzon  and  Sudan.  Now  man  has  been  followed  by  his  ordinary  companions, 
such  as  the  horse  and  dog,  at  least  wherever  they  have  been  able  to  adapt  them- 
selves to  the  climate.  When  the  American  Chaill^-Long  appeared  on  horseback  at 
the  court  of  the  King  of  Uganda,  north  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  the  natives 
fancied,  like  the  Mexicans  at  the  first  appearance  of  the  Spanish  cavalry,  that 
horse  and  man  formed  one  animal,  and  when  the  stranger  dinmounted  they  ran 
off  terror-stricken  at  the  sight  of  this  centaur  dividing  itself  into  two  distinct 
beings. 

The  greatest  obstacle  to  the  development  of  Africa  is  caused  by  the  tsetse 
i^ghssina  moraitans),  a  simple  fly,  whose  bite  is  fatal  to  horses,  camels,  oxen,  and 
dogs  although  harmless  to  man,  the  calf,  goat,  and  wild  beasts.  This  destructive 
insect,  which  is  supposed,  rightly  or  wrongly,  to  infuse  anthrax  virus  into  its 
victims,  is  very  common  in  certain  districts  of  South  and  Central  Africa,  but  does 
not  extend  farther  north  than  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  and  Senaar,  and  is  unknown  in 
the  north-west.  The  donderobo,  another  two-winged  pest  observed  to  the  south  of 
the  Eilima  Njaro,  spares  cattle,  but  attacks  the  ass,  goat,  and  sheep. 

Africa  is  the  home  of  the  largest  living  quadrupeds,  such  as  the  elephant, 
various  species  of  the  rhinoceros,  the  hippopotamus,  giraffe,  and  other  herbiferous 
animals.  At  the  same  time  the  African  elephant  is  smaller,  less  vigorous,  and 
more  difficult  to  tame  than  its  Indian  congener,  from  which  it  differs  in  its  convex 
frontal  bone,  large  ears,  and  some  other  physical  characteristics.  The  attempts  made 
by  Gordon  to  domesticate  this  animal  and  employ  it  in  warfare  were  not  successful, 
and  in  this  respect  Europeans  have  still  to  discover  the  secrets  known  not  only  to 
the  Hindus,  but  even  to  the  ancients,  and,  according  to  Duveyrier,  to  the  tribes 
south  of  Mauritania,  and  to  the  Wakorays  of  the  western  Sahara. 

The  lion  of  the  Atlas  highlands  is  fiercer  than  the  Babylonian  species;  the 
gorilla  is  the  strongest  and  most  formidable  of  the  ape  family;  of  all  hoofed 
animals  the  zebra  is  the  most  indomitable ;  neither  the  American  caiman  nor  the 
Indian  gavial  approach  the  dimensions  of  the  African   crocodile,  and  of  all 


-TSSPTSSaSS 


"fmm 


.*fc^. 


16 


NORTH-EAST  AFBICA. 


running  birda  the  African  ostrich  is  the  most  powerful.  This  continent  excels  not 
only  in  the  number  and  size  of  its  animal  species,  but  also  in  the  multitude  of 
individuals.  Thus  on  the  central  plateaux  travellers  have  observed  vast  plains 
covered  by  countless  herds  of  ruminants,  and  Livingstone  tells  us  that  he  had  to 
force  his  way  through  the  dense  troops  of  antelopes.  But  since  then  wide  gaps 
have  already  been  made  amongst  these  teeming  multitudes  by  destructive  hunting 
expeditions  in  the  Nile  basin  and  in  the  southern  plains.  It  is  calculated  that  the 
15,600  cwts.  of  ivory  yearly  imported  into  Europe  cost  the  lives  of  60,000 
elephants.  Whole  species  are  threatening  to  disappear,  as  the  small  Mauritanian 
elephant  and  certain  animal  forms  in  the  Mascarenhas  Islands  have  already 
vanished.  The  range  of  the  rhinoceros  formerly  comprised  south-west  Morocco, 
where  it  has  not  been  seen  in  historic  times. 


■-■-     ■'-  ■''"^''-  ■■'■■' '--■^  '-*■  Inhabitants. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  present  century  European  geographers,  still 
unacquainted  with  the  interior,  were  naturally  inclined  to  exaggerate  the  extent 
of  the  desert  regions,  and  readily  regarded  as  solitudes  all  spaces  left  blank  on  the 
maps.  The  continent  was  supposed  to  contain  some  fifty  or  sixty,  or  at  the 
utmost  a  hundred,  million  inhabitants.  Since  that  time  more  accurate  statistics 
have  been  taken  in  some  of  the  European  colonies  or  possessions  on  the  coast ; 
rough  estimates  have  also  approximately  determined  the  population  of  some 
districts  near  the  maritime  ports,  and  travellers,  yearly  increasing  in  numbers, 
have  brought  from  the  interior  at  least  sufficient  data  to  enable  us  to  classify  the 
inland  regions  according  to  the  greater  or  less  density  of  their  populations.  In 
some  of  these  districts  the  people  aro  as  closely  packed  as  in  Belgium,  while 
elsewhere  village  succeeds  village  for  several  leagues  together.  The  basins  of 
Lake  Tsad  and  the  Joliba  (Niger),  as  well  as  most  of  Nigritia  south  of  the  Sahara, 
are  thickly  peopled,  as  are  also  the  region  of  the  great  lakes,  the  Nile  delta,  the 
White  Nile  in  the  Shilluk  territory,  and  the  lands  watered  by  the  Congo  and  its 
chief  affluents.  The  population  of  the  whole  continent  cannot  be  estimated  at  less 
than  two  hundred  millions,  or  seven  times  more  than  the  calculations  of  Pinkerton 
and  Volney  nearly  a  century  ago.  More  recently  Balbi  fixed  the  number  at  sixty 
millions,  which  was  long  accepted  as  the  most  probable.  The  hypothetical  element 
in  all  these  rough  estimates  will  doubtless  be  gradually  diminished  by  the 
systematic  work  of  modern  explorers.* 

To  Africa  the  expression  "  Dark  Continent "  is  frequently  applied,  as  if  all  its 
inhabitants  were  Negroes  properly  so  called,  analogous,  in  type  to  the  maritime 
populations  in  the  west  equatorial  region.  The  term  Beled-es-Sudan,  or  "  Black 
Land,"  would  thus  be  extended  to  the  whole  continent.  But  the  true  Negroes, 
although  perhaps  forming  a  majority  of  the  inhabitants,  occupy  less  than  half  of 
the  land.  The  regions  to  the  north,  east,  and  south  belong  to  tribes  and  peoples 
of  diverse  physical  appearance,  and  grouped  in  distinct  races  or  sub-races.     Some 

•  Approximate  estimate  of  the  population  of  Africa  by  Behm  and  Wagner  in  1882,  206,825,000. 


excels  not 
Liltitude  of 
ast  plains 
he  had  to 
wide  gaps 
e  hunting 
d  that  the 
of  60,000 
auritanian 
e  already 
I  Morocco, 


ihers,  still 
;he  extent 
ink  on  the 
or  at  the 
)  statistics 
the  coast ; 
I  of  some 
.  numhers, 
ilassify  the 
itions.  In 
um,  while 
basins  of 
he  Sahara, 
)  delta,  the 
go  and  its 
ited  at  less 
Finkerton 
ler  at  sixty 
»il  element 
5d  by   the 

aa  if  all  its 
3  maritime 
or  "  Black 
e  Negroes, 
lan  half  of 
nd  peoples 
ces.    Some 

,825,000. 


•#:■ 


T-- 


"^.Xi^slfcfet-n.,-.  _,  , 


'''iWf'lWWiifH;.  ,1^..;  ...„,T".".,"r',^.;», 


™»ppp«r 


aiiijijiiiinjiinij.il  ..1 .11  .iiii.i|!winii.i 


I 't- 


V^ 


9S^^wf?^mm*' 


INHABITANTS. 


17 


ethnologists  have  supposed  that  all  the  "  Children  of  Ham,"  from  the  Berbers  to 
the  Hottentots,  are  descended  from  one  original  stock,  and  that  their  diverging 
types  are  due  to  gradual  adaptation  to  different  environments.  But  such  a 
hypothesis  is  unsupported  by  any  proof,  and  the  observer  is  struck  especially  by 
the  ethnical  contrasts,  whether  fundamental  or  derived,  which  are  presented  by 
the  various  African  populations,  as  he  advances  from  north  to  south.  Even 
within  the  strictly  Megro  division  the  anatomy,  muscular  system,  physiognomy, 
colour,  and  speech  offer  as  great  a  diversity  of  forms  as  is  found  amongst  the  white 
peoples  of  Europe  or  the  yellow  Asiatics.  At  the  same  time  the  classifications 
hitherto  proposed  by  anthropologists,  and  based  on  physical  resemblances  or 
linguistic  affinities,  are  of  a  purely  conventional  or  provisional  character.  Numer- 
ous communities,  of  which  little  is  known  beyond  their  name,  are  grouped  now  in 
one,  now  in  another  division.  We  seem  at  times  to  be  lost  in  the  maze  of  names 
of  tribes  and  races  collected  by  travellers  in  the  various  regions  of  Africa,  and  the 
chaos  is  often  intensified  by  the  reckless  use  of  these  names,  the  same  term  being 
applied  in  one  place  to  two  distinct  peoples,  while  in  another  the  same  group  is 
indicated  on  the  maps  by  several  different  appellations. 

The  Mediterranean  seaboard  differs  from  the  rest  of  the  continent  as  much  in 
its  inhabitants  as  it  does  in  its  geological  history,  its  physical  features,  its  animal 
and  vegetable  species.  The  bulk  of  the  Mauritanian  popidation  consists  of  the 
so-called  Berbers  (Imazighen,  Imohagh),  who  approach  the  European  type  more 
closely  than  the  other  African  races.  Amongst  them  are  met  several  tribes  in 
which  blue  eyes  and  fair  or  light  chestnut  hair  are  so  common  that  they  have 
often  been  wrongly  regarded  as  of  European  descent.  These  Berber  peoples  seem 
to  be  allied  to  the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  whole  of  North  Africa  and  Southern 
Europe  may  have  even  been  peopled  from  one  ethnical  source  in  prehistoric  times, 
the  populations,  like  the  animal  and  vegetable  species,  thus  radiating  from  a 
common  centre.  The  oases  and  upland  valleys  in  the  Sahara  have  also  been 
oncupied  by  the  Berbers,  some  of  whose  tribes,  designated  by  the  name  of 
"  Moors,"  dwell  even  south  of  the  desert  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Senegal. 

Some  of  the  Berber  communities,  such  as  the  Imohaghs  or  Tuaregs  of 
Ahaggar,  and  the  Imazighen  or  Kabyles,  that  is,  "  Tribes,"  and  especially  those 
of  Morocco,  appear  to  be  of  pure  stock.  But  in  the  plains,  and  still  more  in  the 
towns,  endless  crossings  have  modified  the  type  in  a  thousand  ways,  and  given  rise 
to  half-caste  populations  bearin<r  a  great  variety  of  names.  As  in  Europe 
"  Moorish "  blood  still  flows  in  the  veins  of  Andalusians,  Murcians,  Yalentians, 
and  Algarves,  so  in  Africa  Phoenicians,  B<»mans,  Vandals,  Spaniards,  Provenfals, 
Italians,  Greeks,  and  Frenchmen  have  left  some  traces  of  their  presence,  either  as 
slaves  or  conquerors. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  dark  aborigines  of  the  Sahara  and  the  Negroes 
imported  from  the  south  into  every  part  of  Barbary  have  become  diversely  inter- 
mingled with  the  Berber  tribes,  while  fresh  elements  have  been  introduced  from 
the  east  by  the  Arabs.  Under  this  term  "  Arab "  were  moreover  comprised 
Syrians  and  Easterns  of  all  kinds,  and  it  has  even  been  extended  to  a  large  part  of 

2— AF. 


ii^H 


18 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


the  Mauritanian  population,  Arabs  only  in  speech,  traditions  of  conquest,  religion 
and  some  doubtful  genealogies. 

In  the  Nile  basin  great  mixture  has  also  taken  place,  but  in  this  intermingling 
the  European  and  Turkish  elements  are  but  slightly  represented,  whereas  the 
Arabs  and  other  Semites  have  had  a  preponderating  influence  in  the  formation  of 
many  communities  in  North-east  Africa.  Historians  have  often  attempted  to  draw 
an  absolute  line  between  the  Egyptians  and  the  Nilotic  peoples  above  the  cataracts. 
They  considered  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  three  Egyptian  provinces  should  be 
grouped  either  with  the  Semites  or  Aryans,  or  else  regarded  as  a  distinct  race. 
The  Retu  (Rotu),  that  is,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  Lower  Nile,  have  thus 
been  affiliated  to  a  so-called  "  Proto-Semite  "  stock,  whence  the  Arabs  also  were 
supposed  to  be  descended.  Although  arguments  based  on  the  element  of  speech 
have  but  a  relative  value,  it  is  generally  admitted  that  the  "  Hamitic  "  linguistic 
family,  comprising  Old  Egyptian,  Galla,  and  Berber,  presents  in  its  structure  a 
remote  affinity  to  the  Semitic  idioms.  But  Old  Egyptian  and  its  modem  repre- 
sentative, the  Coptic,  is  much  more  clearly  related  to  the  Berber  dialects.  The 
Retu  type  itself,  surviving  in  that  of  the  modem  Fellahin  in  spite  of  coimtless 
crossings  and  modifications,  is  by  no  means  Semitic.  Nor  is  it  akin  to  that  of  the 
Negroes  of  the  interior.  Doubtless  many  Egyptians,  as  has  been  remarked  by 
Champollion  the  younger,  resemble  the  Barabra  of  Nubia,  who  themselves  differ 
little  from  the  Beja.  Travellers  ascending  the  Nile  assure  us  that  the  type  of  the 
northern  Fellahin  merges  by  insensible  transitions  in  that  of  the  southern  popula- 
tions. But  this  phenomenon  is  the  inevitable  result  of  racial  interminglings.  The 
original  type  has  been  modified  in  a  thousand  ways  by  crossings,  migrations, 
conquests,  the  introduction  of  slaves,  diet,  and  other  social  conditions.  Thus  have 
been  developed  numerous  mixed  races,  and  the  most  varied  contrasts  in  figure, 
colour,  habits,  speech  and  political  institutions  between  neighbouring  populations. 

In  the  region  of  the  great  lakes  and  of  the  western  affluents  of  the  Upper  Nile, 
the  Negro  nations,  properly  so-called,  are  represented  by  the  Fung,  the  Shilluks, 
the  Bari,  Denka,  and  other  dark  communities.  But  the  majority  of  these  Negroes 
are  far  from  being  characterised  by  the  black  and  shining  skin,  the  pouting  lips, 
the  projecting  jaws,  flat  features,  broad  nose,  and  woolly  hair  which  are  usually 
supposed  to  be  characteristic  of  all  Africans.  Even  the  Monbuttu,  a  nation 
dwelling  to  the  south  of  the  Niam-niam,  between  the  Congo  and  Upper  Nile  basins, 
are  distinguished  by  an  almost  light  complexion,  a  tolerably  full  beard,  a  straight 
or  aquiline  nose,  and  amongst  them  are  frequently  met  persons  with  hair  of 
an  ashy  blonde  colour.  Schweinfurth  estimates  these  "fair  negroes"  at  over 
a  twentieth  of  the  whole  Monbuttu  nation.  Possibly  their  carnivorous  diet, 
comprising  even  human  flesh,  may  contribute  to  some  extent  to  give  a  relatively 
light  complexion  to  these  aborigines.  At  least  the  observations  of  M.  Antoine 
d'Abbadie  on  the  Ethiopian  tribes,  observations  confirmed  by  several  other  travellers, 
tend  to  show  that  flesh-eating  peoples,  even  those  of  hot  lowlands,  have  a  much 
fairer  complexion  than  those  living  on  a  vegetarian  diet,  even  when  the  latter 
dwell  at  a  higher  elevation  on  lofty  plateaux  and  mountain  slopes.    The  Negroes 


fc^ 


est,  religion 

itermingling 
whereas  the 
formation  of 
pted  to  draw 
he  cataracts. 
IS  should  be 
istinot  race, 
e,  have  thus 
bs  also  were 
at  of  speech 
( "  linguistic 
J  structure  a 
)dem  repre- 
alects.  The 
of  countless 
)  that  of  the 
remarked  by 
iselves  differ 
)  type  of  the 
lem  popula- 
^lings.     The 

migrations, 
Thus  have 
tts  in  figure, 
wpulations. 
Upper  Nile, 
bhe  Shilluks, 
[lese  Negroes 
pouting  lips, 
L  are  usually 
tu,  a  nation 
'  Nile  basins, 
d,  a  straight 
vith  hair  of 
es"  at  over 
ivorous  diet, 
s  a  relatively 

M.  Antoine 
ler  travellers, 
lave  a  much 
m  the  latter 
The  Negroes 


GROUP  OF  NUBIAN  WOMBN. 


'  ..'V   ■* 


h 


■?^S''' 


INHAMTANTS.  U 

who  approach  nearoHt  to  the  traditional  typo  aa  popularised  on  the  fltafi^  are  <  m 
of  the  Atlantic  scalmard.  Nowhere  else  has  the  slave-trade  caused  greater  i  .  oc 
than  amongst  these  tribes,  and  the  hatred  of  the  white  niuste;*  for  his  siux  las 
tended  to  exaggerate  the  repulsive  typo  attributed  to  the  slave  races  in  gi'iiertu 

According  tn  physiologists,  the  blood  of  the  Negro  is  thicker  and  less  red  than 
that  of  the  whites.  It  coagulates  more  rapidly  and  flows  more  sluggishly.  The 
Negro,  like  the  yellow  Asiastio  Mongol,  is  of  a  less  sensitive  temperament  than  the 
European.  He  suffers  less  under  surgical  operations,  und  runs  less  danger  from 
their  consequences  ;  his  nervous  life  is  less  intense,  his  pulsation  less  active,  than 
that  of  Europeans.  Several  of  the  maladies  common  in  Europe  are  unknown,  or  at 
least  very  rare,  in  Africa.  Cancer,  croup,  dental  curies,  typhoid  and  marsh  fevers, 
seldom  attack  the  Negro,  who  on  the  other  hand  siiffers  more  from  bilious  und 
cutaneous  disorders.  Tetanus  also  is  much  dreaded  by  them,  and  the  least  change 
of  climate  exposes  them  to  pulmonary  affections.  Where  the  whites  and  blacks 
live  side  by  side  on  the  same  plantations,  the  former  fall  victims  to  yellow  fever, 
the  latter  to  cholei-a.  Home-sickness  is  also  one  of  the  most  fatal  affections  of 
the  African  race. 

The  portion  of  Africa  lying  in  the  southern  hemisphere  is  mainly  occupied  by 
the  BantuB,  whose  various  conunimities  present  a  somewhat  analogous  type,  and 
speak  languages  derived  from  a  common  stock,  as  had  alrtmdy  been  observed  by 
Lichtenstein  at  the  beginning  of  the  century.  The  Kafirs  of  Natal  and  Cape 
Colony  are  amongst  the  finest  of  this  noble  Buutu  race,  which  rivals  the  Barabra 
of  the  Nile  in  its  proud  carriage  and  graceful  attitudes.  But  in  direct  contact 
with  these  superb  Africans  are  found  other  aborigines  presenting  a  totally  different 
and  far  less  noble  type.  These  are  the  Eoikoin,  or  Hottentots,  characterised  by 
a  yellowish  complexion,  low  stature,  and  slightly  developed  muscular  system. 
These  communities,  as  distinct  from  the  Bantus  as  are  the  Chinese  from  the 
Aryans,  may  perhaps  represent  a  vanquished  race  driven  by  the  invaders  gradually 
to  ike  southernmost  limits  of  tho  continent.  But  such  a  hypothesis  seems  much 
more  justified  in  respect  of  certain  "  pigmy  peoples  "  scattered  over  a  great  part  of 
Africa.  Such  are  the  San,  or  Bosjesmen,  that  is  "  Bushmen,"  of  South  Africa,  the 
DokoB  of  Eaffa,  the  Akka  or  Tikki-tikki  of  the  "Welle  River,  the  Obongo  of  the 
Ogow6  basin.  In  connection  Mrith  these  dwarfish  populations,  and  especially  the 
Bushmen,  anthropologists  have  observed  that  if  Africa  is  the  continent  of  the  great 
anthropoid  ape»,  such  as  the  gorilla  and  chimpanzee,  it  is  also  the  home  of  the 
most  ape-like  human  races.  In  this  region  of  the  globe,  they  tell  us,  the  two 
orders  of  primates  approach  nearest  to  each  other.  One  is  tempted  to  regard  these 
pigmies  as  a  remnant  of  the  aboriginal  element  deprived  of  their  lands  by  stronger 
intruding  races.  .  '       .    ^  -'" 

The  inhabitants  of  Madagascar  are  only  partly  connected  with  those  of  the 
neighbouring  continent,  for  a  portion  of  the  population  is  ceiiainly  of  Malay 
origin.  Like  the  local  plants  and  animals,  it  bears  witness  to  the  geog^phical 
independence  of  the  island.  But  in  the  adjacent  Comoro  groui)  the  prevailing 
speech  is  African. 


10  NOUTII-KAHT  AFUIOA. 

Natinnul  projurlico,  for  which  hiHtoriiiiiN  fuil  to  make  duo  allowance,  haii  g^von 
rise  to  tho  widoHpn<iul  iinprosflion  that  tho  AfrioauH  huvo,  ih>  to  Hay,  taken  no  part 
in  the  general  work  of  civiliwition.  The  HrHt  example  which  preaontii  itself  to  the 
mind  is  that  of  the  king  of  Dahomey,  celebrating  the  "  great  custom  "  by  a  general 
masHacre  and  the  Hooding  of  a  lake  with  human  blood;  or  else  we  conjure  up  tho 
image  of  thoHO  armed  Monbuttu  hordes  which  rush  to  battle  grinding  their  teeth 
ond  shouting  "  Moat !  Meat !  "  But  these  frightful  pictures  are  not  an  epitome  of 
tho  history  of  Africa.  On  tho  contrary,  we  are  irresistibly  attracted  by  the  study 
of  our  own  social  evolution  to  tho  Nile  basin  in  North- East  Africa.  Looking  bock 
through  the  long  perspective  of  tho  past,  far  beyond  the  heroic  times  of  Oroece, 
where  was  crudled  our  distinctly  European  culture,  we  ascend  from  century  to 
century  to  the  remote  ages  when  the  Pyramids  were  raise<l,  when  the  first  plough- 
share turned  up  the  rich  soil  of  tho  Nile  delta.  In  Egypt  are  found  the  very 
oldest  documents  of  authentic  history.  So  well  established  was  its  claim  to  the 
foremost  place  in  the  development  of  civilisation,  thut  the  Greeks  themselves 
regarded  the  Nilotic  region  as  tho  common  cradle  of  mankind.  Whatever  be  the 
constituent  ethnical  elements  of  the  nation  to  which  wo  trace  the  ;  iirms  of  our 
intellectual  life,  it  is  certain  that  their  civilisation  was  of  African  origin.  It  had 
its  earliest  seat  in  the  narrow  and  fertile  valley  of  the  Nile,  between  the  arid  rock 
and  the  still  more  arid  sands  of  the  wilderness.  Through  this  mysterious  stream, 
flowing  from  the  depths  of  the  continent,  were  first  established  mutual  intercourse 
and  civilising  influences  amongst  the  various  regions  of  the  old  world.  The  north 
African  lands  lying  farther  west  were  almost  entirely  excluded  from  any  share  in 
this  movement,  at  least  before  the  introduction  of  the  camel  into  the  Dark 
Continent,  for  till  then  they  remained  separated  by  the  vast  intervening  desert 
from  the  thickly  peopled  regions  of  Sudan.  ->;<•,. 

From  the  remotest  antiquity  the  Africans,  even  beyond  Egypt,  took  part  in  the 
triumphs  of  mankind  over  nature.  They  were  either  stockbreeders  or  tillers  of  the 
land,  and  to  them  we  are  indebted  for  many  valuable  plants  and  domestic  animals. 
From  the  African  continent  comes  the  variety  of  sorgho  which,  under  the  name  of 
durra,  is  cultivated  from  the  banks  of  the  Nile  to  the  shores  of  the  southern  ocean, 
and  which  is  rivalled  only  by  wheat  and  rice  in  its  economic  importance  to 
mankind.  From  Africa  we  have  also  received  the  date,  for  the  Berbers  and 
Sudanese  were  probably  the  first  to  study  the  habit  of  this  palm,  which  g^rew 
spontaneously  in  their  forests.  According  to  Schweinfurth,  the  wild  stock  of  the 
Ethiopian  banana,  known  to  botanistn  by  the  name  of  mma  ensete,  gave  rise  to  the 
hundred  varieties  of  the  cidtivated  banana,  whose  fruit  serves  as  a  staple  of  food  in 
many  American  lands.  To  these  three  important  vegetable  species  must  also  be 
added  the  kaffa  shrub,  or  co£fee  plant,  so  highly  prized  by  a  third  of  mankind  for 
the  stimulating  properties  and  delicious  aroma  of  its  berry. 

The  civilised  world  is  also  indebted  to  the  natives  of  Africa  for  several  domestic 
animals.  Certain  varieties  of  the  dog,  the  cat,  the  pig  of  Senaar,  and  the  ferret, 
have  been  tamed  by  them ;  the  ass  also  is  certainly  of  African  origin,  and  to  the 
same  source  should  perhaps  be  traced  the  g^at,  the  sheep,  and  the  ox.     In  recent 


"#Mmif 


"•iMPiiina 


mvifmnKf^if''^ 


INIIAHITANTH. 


tl 


),  hail  (^ivon 
Icon  no  part 
tflolf  to  the 
)y  u  gonoral 
juro  up  the 

thoir  tooth 
1  epitome  of 
y  the  Ktudy 
M)kin(|r  back 
I  of  Greece, 

century  to 
rst  plough- 
id  the  very 
laitn  to  the 

themsolvos 
Aivcr  bo  the 
»rm8  of  our 
in.  It  had 
le  arid  rock 
0U8  stream, 

intercourse 

The  north 
,ny  share  in 
)  the  Dark 
ning  desert 

part  in  the 
illers  of  the 
tic  animals, 
the  name  of 
;hem  ocean, 
portance  to 
lerbers  and 
vhich  grew 
itock  of  the 
9  rise  to  the 
e  of  food  in 
aust  also  be 
lankind  for 

■al  domestic 

[  the  ferret, 

I  and  to  the 

In  recent 


times  tho  guinea-fowl  was,  so  to  say,  rwllHoovcrcd  by  tho  Pc.rtujruoso  in  this 
continent,  whonco  it  had  boon  originally  obtuinod  by  tho  U rooks  and  UonumH,  but 
hod  again  disupiMJarod  during  modi«)val  times. 

Evon  in  the  sphere  of  industries,  Africa  bos  oontributod  a  certain  sharo  to  tho 
common  iuhoritanco  of  mankind.     Tho  monuments  of  Egypt,  her  highways,  canals. 

Pig.  7.— Lanovaoim  or  ArHioA. 
Boal*  1 1  TNOOOiOOO. 


:l:■^ 

lis 


rrmi 


Hemite*  Berber* 

(Arab  iind  (Kabrle*, 

Abfuinian).       Touareg.J 


Hamites. 


NnlM. 


Fula.  Niam-Niam.        Negritos*. 


Bantu  San  »nd  Koin-Koln        Halayo-  Vndawiiled 

V  u,!?"  (Hottentota,  Polynesiana.  languagea. 


ArTnna. 


Turka. 


£ulua). 


Buabmen). 


l,a00MUea. 


embankments,  her  costly  fabrics,  gems,  and  furniture,  her  carved  woods  and 
wrought  metals— in  a  word,  the  thousand  objects  found  in  her  burial-grounds— 
cannot  all  have  been  the  work  of  the  Retu  alone.  Amongst  the  products  of  the 
old  Egyptian  industry  are  frequently  recognised  certain  forms  ako  recurring  in 


22 


NORTH-EAST  APEICA. 


Nubia,  in  Abyssinia,  and  even  in  Sudan.  The  smelting  and  working  of  iron,  most 
useful  of  all  metallurgic  discoveries,  has  been  attributed  to  the  Negroes  as  well  as 
to  the  Chalybes  of  Asia  Minor ;  and  the  Bongos  of  the  White  Nile,  as  well  as  some 
other  African  tiibes,  have  constructed  furnaces  of  a  very  ingenious  type.  Their 
smelters  and  forgers  are,  for  the  most  part,  satisfied  with  rude  and  primitive 
implements,  in  the  use  of  which  they,  however,  display  marvellous  skill.  The  Fans 
of  the  Ogowe  basin  produce  excellent  iron,  whose  quality  is  scarcely  equalled  by 
Europeans  themselves.  In  most  of  the  native  tribes  the  smiths  constitute  a  special 
caste,  much  respected  and  even  dreaded  for  their  reputed  knowledge  of  the  magic 
arts.  In  Abyssinia  and  Senaar  they  are  accused  of  changing  themselves  at  night 
into  hyosnas  and  other  wild  beasts,  which  prowl  about  the  villages  and  disinter  the 
bodies  of  the  dead. 

In  agriculture  and  industry  the  Africans  so  far  co-operated  in  the  development 
of  human  culture.  But  their  direct  influence  in  the  trade  of  the  world  was  felt 
only  through  Egjrpt  and  Mauritania  along  the  Mediterranean  seaboard.  Com- 
mercial intercourse  was  doubtless  carried  on  throughout  the  whole  continent,  but 
very  slowly,  and  through  a  thousand  intermediary  tribes.  The  produce  of  Central 
Africa  reached  Europe  long  after  all  trace  of  its  source  had  disappeared.  In  the 
same  way  the  riverain  populations  along  the  banks  of  the  Niger  received  their 
Manchester  cottons  and  hardware  from  Birmingham  without  suspecting  that  their 
river  flowed  into  the  sea,  or  that  there  are  other  great  divisions  of  the  globe  beyond 
the  Bark  Continent.  Nevertheless,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  for  thousands  of 
years  an  active  trade  has  been  carried  on  with  the  interior.  Down  to  a  recent  epoch 
caravans  were  regarded  as  sacred,  passing  fearlessly  through  contending  armies 
and  across  disturbed  regions.  The  spirit  of  traffic  prevails  amongst  numerous 
tribes  in  Mauritania,  the  Upper  Nile,  and  Sudan,  as  amongst  the  Jews  and 
Armenians  elsewhere,  and  their  dealers  display  all  the  shrewdness,  tenacity,  and 
inexhaustible  obsequiousness  everywhere  characteristic  of  the  mercantile  classes. 

From  time  immemorial  the  cowries  of  the  Maldive  Islands  {cyprcea  moneta), 
gradually  replacing  other  small  objects,  such  as  grains  of  durra  and  various  seeds, 
have  penetrated  as  a  symbol  of  exchange  as  far  as  West  Africa.  Through  the 
Calcutta,  London,  or  Zanzibar  routes,  they  are  still  imported  to  the  Bight  of  Benin, 
whence  they  are  forwarded  to  the  markets  of  Lake  Tsad.*  But  the  natives  now 
use  them  chiefly  as  ornaments.  European  travellers  find  that  the  Turkish  piastres 
and  Maria  Theresa  crowns  have  already  preceded  them  in  most  of  the  unknown 
regions  of  the  interior.  The  Bongo  tribe  was  even  acquainted  with  the  art  of 
minting,  and  current  coins  are  also  the  bits  of  iron  four  inches  long  which  are  in 
common  use  amongst  the  Ogow^  Fans. 

But  in  maritime  commerce  the  Africans  scarcely  take  any  part.  With  the 
exception  of  Alexandria,  which,  thanks  to  its  position  on  the  route  between  Europe 
and  India  is  an  essentially  international  point,  Carthage  was  the  only  continental 
city  that  rose  to  power  by  its  trade.  But  Carthage  was  itself  a  Phoenician  colony, 
founded  on  a  headland  projecting  into  the  Mediterranean  in  the  direction  of 
*  John  E.  Hertz,  "  Proceedings  of  the  Hamburg  Geographical  Society,"  1880-81. 


f  iron,  most 
88  as  well  as 
i^ell  as  some 
iype.  Their 
id  primitive 
,  The  Fans 
equalled  by 
ute  a  special 
)f  the  magic 
lyes  at  night 
.  disinter  the 

development 
jrld  was  felt 
lard.      Com- 
jntinent,  but 
ee  of  Central 
red.     In  the 
3ceived  their 
ig  that  their 
^lobe  beyond 
thousands  of 
recent  epoch 
iding  armies 
^t  numerous 
e  Jews  and 
tenacity,  and 
le  classes. 
raa  moneta), 
arious  seeds, 
Through  the 
;ht  of  Benin, 
J  natives  now 
rkish  piastres 
the  unknown 
;h  the  art  of 
which  are  in 

.  With  the 
;ween  Europe 
y  continental 
lician  colony, 
direction  of 


BISHABI  aUM-DBA]:.BBS  AT  KOR08KO. 


>-81. 


iii<iHi»i||^ft#ij»!!iijViimi»  iiiiiiniimLiii « *j  iiin  j  i 


BELIOION.  2B 

Europe.  Seafaring  con  nunities  are  rare  along  the  African  coasts.  The  list  is 
almost  exhausted  by  the  mention  of  the  Somali  at  the  eastern  "  horn,"  and  of  the 
Kra  or  Kroomen  on  the  Atlantic  side.  But  the  former  scarcely  get  beyond  the 
Gulf  of  Aden,  passing  with  the  shifting  trade  winds  from  shore  to  shore,  while  the 
latter  seldom  venture  far  from  the  coast  lagoons  and  estuaries. 


Religion. 

Since  the  fall  of  Carthage  and  the  decadence  of  Egyptian  culture,  the  most 
important  event  in  African  history  has  been  the  Moslem  invasion.  In  the  Dark 
Continent  the  zealous  missionaries  of  Islam  have  reaped  the  richest  harvests.  The 
simplicity  of  the  Mussulman  creed,  which  limits  itself  to  proclaiming  the  unity, 
omnipotence,  and  goodness  of  God  ;  the  clearness  of  its  precepts,  recommending 
above  all  prayer,  and  cleanliness  as  the  outward  symbol  of  purity  ;  the  zeal  of  its 
preachers,  the  prestige  of  its  victories  over  the  "  infidel,"  all  combined  to  seduce 
the  Egyptians,  the  Berbers,  and  Negroes.  From  age  to  age  the  Mohammedan 
domain  has  grown  in  extent,  \mtil  it  now  comprises  nearly  half  of  the  continent, 
from  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  to  the  sources  of  the  Niger,  and  even  to  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea.  During  the  first  period  of  its  triumphs,  Islam,  heir  to  the  sciences  received 
from  the  Byzantine  world,  infused  new  life,  as  it  were,  into  Egypt  and  Mauritania, 
endowed  them  with  a  fresh  civilization,  and  through  the  caravan  trade  with 
Morocco,  aL-eady  the  emporium  of  Mussulman  Spain,  raised  Timbuctu,  on  the  Niger, 
into  a  great  centre  of  commercial  and  intellectual  movement. 

In  Nigretia  the  propagation  of  Islam  also  coincides  with  important  political 
and  social  changes.  Large  states  were  foiuided  in  regions  hitherto  a  prey  to  a 
hundred  mutually  hostile  and  savage  tribes.  Manners  were  thus  softened,  and  a 
sentiment  of  solidarity  sprang  up  between  communities  formerly  engaged  in  ever- 
lasting warfare.  Mohammedanism  thus  enjoys  more  material  cohesion  in  Africa 
than  in  Europe  and  Asia,  where  the  faithful,  scattered  amid  populations  worship- 
ping at  other  altars,  are  often  separated  from  each  other  by  extensive  wastes  and 
arms  of  the  sea.  In  the  Dark  Continent  they  occupy  a  compact  domain  as  large  as 
all  Europe,  stretching  uninterruptedly  from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Atlantic,  and  here 
their  common  belief  tends  everywhere  to  diffuse  the  social  ideas,  the  habits,  usages, 
and  speech  of  the  dominant  Arab  race. 

In  recent  times  Christianity  has  attempted  to  dispute  the  field  with  its  Moham- 
medan rival.  Protestant  missionaries  have  even  obtained  some  little  success, 
especially  in  South  Africa.  But  compared  with  the  apostles  of  Islam  they  stand 
at  a  great  disadvantage,  for  they  are  unable,  except  in  a  figurative  sense,  to 
announce  themselves  as  the  brethren  of  their  black  proselytes.  The  "  messenger 
of  the  good  tidings  "  cannot  give  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  his  Christian  Negro 
convert.  Colour  keeps  them  apart,  and  both  remain  men  of  different  race  and 
caste. 

Having  become  the  inheritance  of  the  faithful  by  the  triumph  of  Islam,  Africa 
has  witnessed  the  birth  of  prophets  powerful  enough  to  declare  the  "  holy  war." 


B4 


NORTH-EAST  AFEICA. 


During  the  invasion  of  Egypt  by  the  French  under  Buonaparte  at  the  close  of  the 
last  century,  a  mahdi — that  is,  a  "  spiritual  guide  "  foretold  by  old  prophecies — 
summoned  his  followers  to  exterminate  the  stranger.  Recently  other  mahdis  have 
stirred  up  the  tribes  in  the  "West  against  the  French  of  Senegambia,  in  the  East 
against  the  Turks  and  English  in  Egypt.     In  the  North,  also,  fanatics  are  prepar- 

Fig.  8. — Rblioionb  of  Africa. 
8eal«  1 :  76,000,000. 


nvi> 


Nature  Hohamroedans. 

Wonhippen. 


Monophysitei 
and  Gnoatics. 


Froteitants.  CatboUca. 

_   l,SOOHilM. 


lernu. 


ing  emissaries  in  Algeria,  Tripoli,  and  Senusiya,  and  sending  them  from  mosque  to 
mosque  in  order  to  excite  the  congregations  against  the  infidel.  In  Mecca  the 
most  zealous  pilgrims,  that  is,  those  subject  to  the  most  frequent  fits  of  religious 
frenzy,  are  the  Takrur  or  Takr&rir,  a  term  usually  applied  collectively  to  the  West 
African  Negroes,  but  in  a  more  special  sense  to  those  of  Wadai  and  Bomu,  and  to 
the  inhabitants  of  Metammeh,  in  the  north-west  of  Abyssinia.     Notwithstanding 


..,w^ 


lose  of  the 
tphecies — 
ihdis  have 
L  the  East 
re  prepar- 


t 


350' 


'em. 


mosque  to 
Mecca  the 
)f  religious 
0  the  "West 
mu,  and  to 

thstanding 


SLAVERY. 


M 


the  difficulties  of  the  journey,  thousands  of  these  Takrurs  undertake  the  pilgrimage 
every  year. 

In  West  Africa  the  propagators  of  Islam,  although  using  the  language  of  the 
Prophet,  are  not  Arabs,  but  Negroes  of  various  tribes.  As  traders  or  artisans,  they 
visit  the  populations  along  the  banks  of  the  Gambia,  and  penetrate  even  as  far  as 
Ashanti  and  Dahomey,  on  the  Gold  Coast  and  Bight  of  Benin.  In  East  Africa  the 
propaganda  is  also  very  active  on  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  although  here 
the  Arab  or  Swahili  dealers  take  no  interest  in  the  conversion  of  their  wretched 
victims.  On  the  contrary,  they  prefer  to  keep  them  pagan,  in  order  to  retain  the 
right  of  persecuting  and  plundering  them.  Once  converted,  even  by  the  mere 
initial  rite  of  circumcision,  the  natives,  of  whatever  race  and  colour,  acquire  the 
privilege  of  common  fellowship  with  the  rest  of  the  faithful.  Nor  is  there  lack  of 
honest  Mohammedans,  who  zealously  labour  in  the  spirit  of  the  precepts  of  the 
Koran  for  the  emancipation  of  their  slaves.  In  the  province  of  Bahr-el-Ghazal 
Felkin  met  the  son  of  a  slave-dealer,  who  finding  himself  by  his  father's  death  the 
owner  of  several  hundred  Negroes,  immediately  liberated  all  of  them. 

:  \       '■■'"    ''''■■■■■"■'/  '''  '      '      Slavery.  '. 

But  like  their  Christian  rivals,  the  Arab  traders  dealt  till  recently  for  the  most 
part  in  human  flesh  rather  than  in  elephants'  tusks,  cotton,  ground-nuts,  or  palm 
oil.  Unfortunately  for  themselves,  the  Negroes  are  the  most  docile  and  devoted 
of  servants.  Anthropologists  have  remarked  on  their  essentially  feminine  type  as 
compared  with  that  of  the  whites.  They  are  generally  noted  for  their  soft  voice, 
scant  beard,  delicate  articulation,  pink  nails,  velvety  skin,  and  rounded  muscles.* 
However  physically  strong,  in  manners  and  demeanour  they  also  approach  the 
general  type  of  woman.  They  are  timid  and  inquisitive,  jealous  and  coquettish, 
great  gossips  and  scandal-mongers,  quick  to  love,  as  quick  to  fall  out  and  make  up 
their  quarrels  again.  Like  so  many  women,  they  also  delight  in  abject  submission, 
even  sacrificing  themselves  for  those  who  despise  and  oppress  them. 

Hence  from  the  remotest  times  the  blacks  were  most  highly  esteemed  as  slaves, 
and  of  the  tributes  or  presents  forwarded  to  the  Asiatic  and  European  sovereigns, 
those  were  most  acceptable  which  were  accompanied  by  African  captives.  In 
Africa  itself  almost  every  community  has  its  slaves,  and  amongpst  many  tribes  one 
half  of  the  population  is  enslaved  to  the  other.  Prisoners  of  war,  considered  as  so 
much  merch&udise,  are  bartered  or  sold  to  the  highest  bidder,  destined  either  to  till 
the  lands  of  their  owner  or  to  increase  the  nmnber  of  retainers  attached  to  some 
powerful  chief ;  or  else,  in  some  districts,  to  be  immolated  in  honour  of  the  gods  or 
ancestors  of  some  obscure  potentate ;  or  lastlj,  as  amongst  the  Monbuttu,  to  be 
roasted  and  served  up  at  the  great  feasts.  Nevertheless,  the  position  ox  the  slave  is 
not  generally  one  of  great  hardship.  He  often  himself  accepts  this  lot  to  escape 
from  starvation  in  times  of  distress,  and  if  badly  treated  by  his  owner  he  enjoys 
the  prescriptive  right  of  transferring  his  services  elsewhere.     By  renouncing  his 

•  WinwoodRende;  O.  d'EichthaL 


!!'• 


26 


NOETH-EAST  APMCA. 


I 


:U 


personal  freedom  be  enters  a  new  family,  and  the  offspring  of  the  free  woman 
whom  he  marries  are  free  like  their  mother. 

It  miist  be  confessed  tbat  the  condition  of  the  African  slave  has  been  aggra- 
vated mainly  through  the  influence  of  European  civilisation.  Even  long  before  the 
discovery  of  the  Coast  of  Guinea  by  the  white  navigators,  and  before  the  founda- 
tion of  European  colonies  in  the  New  World,  slave  markets  were  held  in  Seville 
and  Lisbon.  But  when  Portugal  had  taken  possession  of  the  seaboard,  and  the 
Spaniards,  Portuguese,  English,  French,  and  Lutch  required  robust  hands  to 
replace  the  exterminated  natives  on  their  remote  western  plantations,  then  a  large 
part  of  Africa  was  transformed  to  a  vast  hunting-g^und  for  human  quarry,  and 
the  name  of  "  white  "  became  synonymous  with  "  caimibal,"  as  it  still  is  in  the 
Galla  language.  All  roimd  the  coast  stations  sprang  up  as  outports  for  this  new 
merchandise.  The  Portuguese  forwarded  to  Brazil  the  Negroes  captured  in 
Angola ;  Jamaica,  Barbadoes,  and  Virginia  received  their  supplies  from  the  Cape 
Coast ;  Louisiana  and  the  French  Antilles  from  Senegal  and  the  Slave  Coast ;  New 
Amsterdam  from  Elmina.  Every  American  settlement  thus  had  its  corresponding 
emporium  in  Guinea.  The  horrors  of  the  "  middle  passage  "  exceeded  all  descrip- 
tion. To  save  space  the  living  freight  was  packed  in  the  smallest  compass  on 
board  ship,  where  large  numbers  were  swept  away  by  typhus,  heat,  thirst,  and 
suicide.  It  would  be  impossible  even  roughly  to  estimate  the  multitude  of  human 
beings  sacrificed  by  the  slave-trade,  through  the  wars  it  fomented  around  the 
African  seaboard,  the  epidemics  it  propagated,  the  revolts  and  massacres  of  which 
it  was  the  consequence. 

Although  the  Africans  removed  to  the  New  World  must  be  reckoned  by  many 
millions,  the  coloured  population,  consisting  almost  exclusively  of  men,  increased 
very  slowly  on  the  plantations.  In  the  present  century,  however,  the  equilibrium 
of  the  sexes  has  at  least  been  established  amongst  the  exiled  race.  At  present  the 
number  of  pure  or  half-caste  Negroes  in  America  exceeds  twenty-five  millions,  and 
amongst  them  there  are  still  about  one  million  five  hundred  thousand  unemanci- 
pated.  But  since  the  sanguinary  civil  war  waged  in  the  United  States  for  the 
liberation  of  the  blacks,  this  ancient  form  of  servitude  is  finally  condemned,  and 
the  number  of  slaves  is  daily  diminishing  in  its  last  strongholds,  Cuba  and 
Brazil.  ,  •  -      /  •'  '  ■    ./■<;", /^  ':>i'  ,'  ■  :,i  •   ' 

In  Africa  itself,  the  institution  has  received  a  fatal  blow  by  the  closing  of  the 
maritime  outports,  and  whatever  may  at  times  be  said  to  the  contrary,  very  few  of 
the  Arab  and  other  craft  engaged  in  the  traffic  succeed  in  forcing  the  blockade 
along  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean.*  Many  however  still  cross  the  Red  Sea,  in 
defiance  of  the  English  at  Aden,  of  the  French  at  Obock,  and  of  the  Italians  at 
Assab,  while  tens  of  thousands  continue  to  fall  victims  to  the  Arab  and  other 
kidnappers  in  the  interior  of  the  continent.  During  the  heyday  of  the  slave- 
traders  the  traffic  cost  the  lives  of  at  least  half  a  million  Negroes  every  year. 
Compared  with  that  already  remote  epoch,  the  present  must  be  regarded  as  an  age 

•  *  SlaverR  captured  and  condemned  on  tiie  east  coast  of  Africa,  1876-7, 27  with  438  slavM ;  1877-8,  16 
with  60  slaves. 


EXPLOEATION. 


17 


0  woman 

m  aggra- 
lefore  the 

1  founda- 
n  Seville 
,  and  the 
hands  to 
sn  a  large 
any,  and 
is  in  the 
this  new 

)tured  in 
the  Cape 
ftst;  New 
jsponding 
1  descrip- 
mpass  on 
hirst,  and 
jf  human 
'ound  the 
of  which 

by  many 
increased 
uilibrium 
resent  the 
lions,  and 
memanci- 
jB  for  the 
nned,  and 
Zuba  and 

■■V' 

ng  of  the 
sry  few  of 

blockade 
ed  Sea,  in 
Italians  at 
and  other 
^he  slave- 
-ery  year. 

as  an  age 

;  1877-8,16 


of  progress.  The  outports  on  the  coast  are  no  longer  crowded  with  captives,  and, 
as  in  the  New  World,  the  wars  stirred  up  by  the  dealers  in  human  flesh  involve  the 
ultimate  ruin  of  their  infamous  traffic. 


Exploration. 

Henceforth  supported  by  other  produce  than  that  of  slaves,  the  commerce  of 
Africa  already  finds  the  interior  more  accessible  to  its  agents,  and  the  continent 
thus  becomes  daily  more  closely  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  world.  Large 
numbers  of  explorers  starting  from  various  points  round  the  coast  are  continually 
invading  new  or  little -known  regions,  and  amongst  them  are  many  brave 
volunteers  ever  ready  to  sacrifice  their  lives  in  the  sole  interest  of  science  and 
humanity.  It  is  one  of  the  glories  of  our  age  to  have  produced  so  many  heroes, 
some  who  have  achieved  fame,  others  whose  very  names  are  already  forgotten,  but 
all  alike  devoting  themselves  merely  to  fill  up  the  blank  spaces  on  the  map  of  the 
Dark  Continent.  A  "  necrological "  Map  of  Africa  has  been  prepared  by  M.  Henri 
Duveyrier,  showing  the  names  of  the  chief  European  explorers  who,  between  the 
years  1800  and  1874,  have  either  been  murdered  by  fanatical  Mohammedans  or 
fallen  victims  to  the  deadly  climate  and  the  hardships  undergone  in  their  effort*- 
to  advance  g^graphical  knowledge.  Since  then  (ae  list  has  been  considerably 
augmented,  and  the  names  of  Flatters  and  his  associates— of  Schuver,  Sacconi, 
Keith  Johnston  and  many  others — ^have  been  enrolled  amongst  the  martyrs  of 
science.  ■  , 

In  the  history  of  African  discovery,  as  in  that  of  all  other  human  conquests, 
progress  has  not  always  been  continuous.  Until  recently  the  work  of  exploration 
has  rather  been  carried  on  interruptedly,  and  at  times  even  discontinued  for  long 
intervals.  Between  the  first  voyage  of  circumnavigation,  mentioned  by  Herodotus 
as  having  been  accomplished  under  Pharaoh  Necho,  and  that  of  Yasco  de  Gama, 
there  was  an  interval  of  twenty-one  centuries,  during  which  numerous  discoveries 
already  made  had  been  forgotten.  The  geographers  of  the  fifteenth  century  were 
acquainted  witb  the  results  of  the  older  explorations  only  through  Ptolemy's 
inaccurate  statements,  which  were  made  still  mure  confusing  by  the  carelessness  of 
copyists  and  the  imagination  of  commentators.  The  coasts  already  known  to  the 
Phoenicians  had  to  be  rediscovered,  for  Hanno's  voyage  to  the  south  of  the  Senegal 
Biver,  accomplished  nineteen  hundred  years  before  the  Portuguese,  had  long  ceased 
to  be  remembered.  Even  after  Gama's  "  periplus,"  and  the  occupation  of  a  large 
portion  of  the  coast  by  the  Portuguese,  our  knowledge  of  the  regions  already 
visited  was  more  than  once  obscured,  thanks  mainly  to  the  jealousy  of  rival  nations 
anxious  to  keep  for  themselves  the  secret  of  their  expeditious. 

At  present  learned  writers  are  patriotically  engaged  in  vindicating  for  their 
respective  countries  the  honour  of  having  been  the  first  to  explore  many  since- 
forgotten  regions.  It  seems  certain  that  long  before  the  Portuguese,  Italian 
navigators  had  surveyed  most  of  t{ie  north-west  seaboard,  and  even  the  islands  and 
archipelagoes  lying  off  the  coast.     A  sketch  by  the  Yenetiau  Marco  Pizzigani, 


28 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


dated  1367,  and  preserved  in  the  library  of  Parma,  lays  down  the  African  coast  as 
far  as  Cape  Bojador,  in  a  way  generolly  in  conformity  with  the  results  of  the  most 
careful  modern  surveys.  The  people  of  .Dieppe  on  their  part  claim  for  their 
ancestors  the  glory  of  having  founded  a  "  Little  Dieppe  "  on  the  Guinea  Coast  in 
1364,  and  of  having  in  1402  colonised  the  Canaries  under  the  orders  of  Jean  de 
B^thencourt.*     The  Portuguese  also,  whose  navigators  claimed  to  be  the  first  to 

Fig.  0.— Chief  Ruutm  of  Explobbu  in  thb  I^TBBIOB  of  Afbica  (1883). 

8a*la  1 :  7S,000,000. 


The  oonnes  of  riven  and  ontUnee  of 
lake*  are  not  shown  on  tMi  map. 


Well  knnwn  oounMes  of  which  aoour<te  maps 
have  already  been  made  are  shnded  in  grey. 

1^1,800  MUes. 


sail  into  the  waters  of  the  "  Impenetrable  Sea  "  and  open  up  the  "  Dark  Ocean," 
regard  their  missionaries  of  the  sixteenth  century  as  the  pioneers  in  the  chief 
discoveries  made  in  the  interior  of  the  continent.  Yet  long  after  the  time  of  these 
missionaries,  the  maps  of  Africa  continued  to  be  disfigured  by  the  names  of  peoples 
described  as  the  "•  Tongueless,"  the  "Noseless,"  the  " Opistodactyles,"  with  fingers 
grown  backward,  or  of  "  Pygmies  fighting  the  cranes  for  their  food." 

*  D'Avezar,  «  Eaqniaae  g£n6rale  de  TAfriqae." 


•'^n^^m^f^m^^mmtrtifnm^^^fpmmmir^mmm 


EXPLOBATION. 


1  coast  as 
the  most 
for  their 
Coast  in 
Jean  de 
le  first  to 


■50' 


maps 
rey. 


t  Ocean," 
the  chief 
e  of  these 
of  peoples 
th  fingers 


In  our  doys  geographical  results  ore  so  carefidly  recorded  that  there  can  be 
no  doubt  as  to  tho  routes  followed  by  travellers  in  the  interior,  ond  we  are  enabled, 
at  least  roughly,  to  trace  the  network  of  the  itineraries  by  which  our  knowledge 
of  the  continent  has  been  enlargped.  During  the  last  hundred  years — that  is,  since 
the  foundation  in  1788  of  the  English  Society  for  the  exploration  of  Africa,  who** 
first  heroes  and  victims  were  Mungo  Park  and  Hornemann — tho  whole  continent 
has  been  several  times  crossed  from  sea  to  sea.  Livingstone,  Cameron,  Stanley, 
Serpa  Pinto,  Massari,  Wissmann,  Buonfanti,  have  all  performed  this  exploit,  while 
scores  of  other  less  distinguished  explorers  have  penetrated  in  some  directions 
thousands  of  miles  from  the  seaboard.  Nor  is  mere  distance  always  a  measure  of 
the  importance  of  these  expeditions,  and  many  trips  of  short  duration  deserve  to 
find  a  place  in  the  records  of  African  discovery.  Sufficient  data  have  already 
been  obtained  to  prepare  complete  maps  of  certain  coastlands,  such  as  the  Cape, 
the  Nile  Delta,  Tunis,  Algeria,  while  the  list  of  positions  astronomically  determined 
comprises  several  thousand  names,  and  is  daily  increasing.  Scarcely  a  week  passes 
without  bringing  the  news  of  some  fresh  g^graphical  conquest.  The  routes  of 
explorers  are  so  interlaced,  and  overlap  each  other  at  so  many  points,  that  few 
blank  spaces  of  great  extent  remain  to  be  filled  up ;  and  even  in  the  unexplored 
regions  enough  is  known  of  the  general  trend  of  rivers,  valleys,  and  mountain 
ranges  to  at  least  facilitate  the  work  of  future  expeditions. 

At  present  the  greatest  extent  of  terra  incognita  lies  parallel  with  the  equator 
north  of  the  Ogow^  and  Congo,  stretching  from  the  Crystal  Mountains  and  those 
of  Mfumbiro  and  Qambaragara,  between  the  Nile  and  Congo  basins.  It  comprises 
on  area  of  at  least  400,000  square  miles,  or  about  the  thirtieth  part  of  the  whole 
continent.  But  it  is  already  being  approached  from  several  points  around  its  peri- 
phery, and  so  recently  as  December,  1883,  the  last  link  was  completed  of  the 
permanent  stations  reaching  by  the  Congo  route  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Indian 
Ocean.  The  continent  is  now  traversed  from  shore  to  shore  by  a  continuous  line 
of  exploration. 

The  whole  of  Africa  might  perhaps  have  already  been  discovered  had  all 
the  white  explorers  made  the  way  easy  for  their  successors  by  considerate  treat- 
ment of  the  natives.  By  their  liumano  conduct  men  like  Speke,  Livingstone, 
Barth,  Piaggia,  Gessi,  Schweinfurth,  Emin-Bey,  ward  off  dangers  from  those 
following  in  their  footsteps;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  many  needless  obstacles  have 
been  created  by  the  threats  and  violence  of  less  sympathetic  pioneers.  At  the 
same  time  it  must  be  confessed  that  whatever  policy  they  may  adopt,  all  alike  are 
mistrusted  by  the  aborigines,  who  have  too  often  good  reason  for  regarding  them 
as  forerunners  of  warlike  expeditions.  Thus  even  the  best  of  -Europeans  are  in 
some  respects  necessarily  considered  as  hostile,  their  very  success  inviting  the 
presence  of  less  scrupulous  followers.  How  often  must  the  humane  explorer, 
while  accepting  the  hospitality  of  some  native  chief,  reflect  with  feelings  akin  to 
remorse  on  the  future  which  he  is  preparing  for  his  generous  hosts  I  However 
tmintentionally,  he  leads  the  way  for  the  trader  and  the  soldier,  thereby  insuring 
the  ruin  of  his  friendly  entertainers.      To  justify  himself  in  his  own  eyes,  he  is 


80 


NORTU-EART  AFBIOA. 


fttin  to  rofloct  that  wars  and  conquoats  and  violent  annexations  arc  the  inevitable 
prcliininurieH  of  universal  peace  and  brotherhood. 

Mo8t  of  the  African  seaboard  has  already  been  seized  by  various  European 
states,  and  every  frcBh  discovery  in  the  interior  enables  their  officials,  troops,  and 
collectors  to  penetrate  further  inland.  Trade  also  expands  from  year  to  year,  and 
the  foreign  exchanges  of  Egypt  alone  now  exceed  those  of  the  whole  continent 
during  the  lost  generation,  which  in  18U0  were  estimated  at  about  £38,000,000. 
Highways  are  being  constructed  from  the  coasts  towards  the  inland  plateaux, 
whereby  future  expeditions  must  bo  greatly  facilitated.  Lines  of  railway  have 
even  beg^n  to  wind  their  way  from  a  few  seaports  along  the  neighbouring  valleys, 
here  and  there  ficaling  the  escarpments,  and  slowly  moving  towards  the  centre  of 
the  continent,  where  they  must  one  doy  converge.  To  these  first  links,  sfArting 
from  the  coasts  of  Egypt,  Tunis.  Algeria,  Senegambia,  the  Cape,  and  Natal,  others 
will  soon  be  added,  resembling  the  trenches  cut  by  a  besieging  force  round  the 
ramparts  of  some  formidable  stronghold.  The  whole  of  Africa  may  thus  be 
compared  to  a  vast  citadel,  whose  disunited  garrison  of  some  two  hundred  million 
men,  acting  without  unity  or  concert,  must  sooner  or  later  open  their  gates  and 
capitulate  to  their  European  conquerors  or  patrons.  For  the  possession  of  the 
interior  must  inevitably  fall  ultimately  to  the  masters  of  the  sea  and  surrounding 
coastlands.  Even  were  any  of  the  central  states  temporarily  to  acquire  command 
of  the  seaboard,  they  would  be  compelled  to  treat  with  some  maritime  European 
power,  and  thus  prepare  the  way  for  the  invasion  of  their  territories.  Thus, 
although  not  yet  completely  discovered,  Africa  is  none  the  less,  from  the  political 
standpoint,  already  a  mere  dependence  of  Europe.  By  the  opening  of  the  Suez 
Canal  it  has  been  doubly  severed  from  Asia.  To  the  European  States  thus  belongs 
the  exclusive  privilege  of  introducing  a  new  civilisation  into  the  Dark  Continent, 
and  restoring  to  the  inhabitants,  under  another  form,  the  very  culture  which 
Europe  herself  received  from  the  people  of  the  Nile  Valley. 


I 


inevitable 

European 
roopn,  und 

year,  ond 

continent 
8,000,000. 

plateaux, 
Iway  have 
ig  valleys, 
I  centre  of 
s,  8f4irting 
ital,  others 
round  the 
y  thus  be 
■ed  million 
gates  and 
[on  of  the 
irrounding 
)  command 

European 
es.  Thus, 
le  political 
the  Suez 
us  belongs 
Continent, 
ore  which 


■  ^■f 


\ 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  NILE  BAHIN. 
The  River. 


]£SCENDINQ  from  the  south  to  the  north,  and  in  its  lower  course 
traversing  broad  open  plains,  the  Nile  gives,  as  it  wore,  a  general 
inclination  to  the  whole  of  North- East  Africa  towards  the  Mediter- 
ranean basin.  Notwithstanding  a  difference  of  outline,  its  delta 
corresponds  to  another  opening  at  once  maritime  and  fluvial,  that  of 
the  Dardanelles  and  Bosphorus,  through  which  the  regions  watered  by  the  streams 
o"  East  Europe  also  slope  towards  the  Mediterranean.  Thus  like  an  inner  within 
an  outer  circle,  there  is  developed  in  the  centre  of  the  Old  World  a  zone  of  riverain 
lands,  forming,  so  to  say,  a  little  world  apart,  and  comprising  such  famous 
historical  cities  as  Memphis,  Alexandria,  Jerusalem,  Tyre,  Antioch,  Epheaus, 
Miletus,  Smyrna,  Athens,  and  Constantinople. 

In  the  length  of  its  course  the  Nile  is  one  of  the  great  rivers  of  the  world,  and 
by  many  of  the  tribes  along  its  banks  the  earth  is  supposed  to  be  divided  into  two 
parts  by  this  mysterious  stream,  coiled  like  a  snake  round  the  globe  and  grasping 
its  tail  in  its  mouth.  It  certainly  exceeds  all  the  other  rivers  of  the  eastern 
hemisphere,  not  excepting  the  Yangtze-Eiang  or  the  three  great  Siberian  arteries. 
In  this  respect  it  even  surpasses  the  Amazo^^  ftself,  and  probably  yields  to  the 
Missouri-Mississippi  alone.  Tet  the  chief  '.'iver  falling  into  the  Yiotoria  Nyanza, 
and  thus  forming  the  true  upper  course  of.  the  Nile,  has  not  yet  been  determined 
with  absolute  certainty.  It  may  even  be  larger  than  has  been  supposed,  so  that 
calculating  from  its  farthest  source  south  of  the  equator,  the  African  river  may 
possibly  be  superior  in  length  to  its  North  American  rivaL  But  taking  it  from  the 
Nyanza  alone,  it  is  at  least  3,750  miles  long,  and  in  a  straight  line  along  the 
meridian  from  lake  to  sea  the  distance  is  thirty-one  and  a  half  degrees  of  latitude, 
or  about  2,100  miles.*    But  to  reach  the  farthest  headstreams  of  the  Nile  basin  we 


•  Length 

of  t'ne  Miwouri-Miuiwippi 

4,230  miles. 

» 

»i 

Nile,  with  the  Nyanza  headstream  . 

4,200    „ 

»i 

<i 

Amazon,  with  the  Apurimio    . 

3,600    „ 

!• 

n 

Irtish-Ob 

3,410    „ 

ft 

II 

Selenga-Angara- Yenisei  .... 

3,300    „ 

f> 

II 

Vitiin-I«na 

3,280    „ 

» 

11 

Yangtce-Kiang 

2,790    „ 

NORTH-EART  AFRICA. 


should  poi-hapH  doncond  uvor  iivo  do^roon  to  tho  Houth  of  tho  t>quator  and  two  to 
tho  oast  of  tho  omismiry  fntin  tho  grout  lako.  Tho  winding  of  its  bod  lengthens 
its  whole  course  by  over  throe-fourths. 

Ill  suporfiuiul  urea  tho  Nile  basin  is  inferior  both  to  tho  Amazon  and  tho  Mis- 
sissippi, and  uppurontly  about  o(|uuI  to  the  Congo.*  Kxcopt  in  its  middle  (M)urse, 
botwoon  tho  Mukraru  territory  and  Abyssinia,  tho  lateral  river  vuUoys  are  of  Nlight 
extent,  and  owing  to  tho  arid  character  of  most  of  its  basin,  it  cannot  compare  in 
volume  to  any  of  tho  other  groat  rivers  of  tho  world.  According  to  recent  esti- 
mates, the  Atnito,  which  falls  into  tho  Carriboan  Hea  noar  tho  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
has  a  greater  discharge,  although  its  basin  is  nearly  a  hundred  times  smaller  than 
that  of  tho  Nile. 

Tho  general  tilt  of  tho  land  from  tho  central  plateaux  to  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean  coincides  with  the  Nile  Valley.  Nevertheless  to  its  main  fluvial 
arteries  the  whole  of  this  region  is  exclusively  indebte<l  for  its  geographical  unity. 
The  lacustrine  uplands  of  tho  interior,  the  marshy  tracts  where  its  chief  affluents 
join  the  White  Nile  from  tho  south-west,  the  isolated  Abyssinian  highlands,  the 
Kordofan  uplands  encircled  by  solitudes,  the  Nubian  deserts,  the  narrow  winding 
vulley  of  Upper  Egypt,  lastly  the  smiling  plains  through  which  tlie  main  stream 
ramifies  as  it  approaches  the  Mediterranean,  are  all  so  many  distinct  geographical 
domains,  which  must  have  had  a  purely  local  development  but  for  the  unity 
imparted  to  them  by  the  hydrographio  system  of  the  Nile.  Thanks  to  the  facilities 
for  communication  afforded  by  this  great  water  highway,  its  lower  reaches  were 
peopled  by  Nubian  colonies  from  remote  times;  the  old  Egyptian  culture 
advanced  up  to  Meroe,  and  even  farther  south ;  frequent  wars  were  waged  between 
the  Ethiopians  and  the  lowlanders  for  the  command  of  the  stream;  and  for  centuries 
Egyptian  viceroys  have  made  incessant  efforts  to  extend  their  possessions  to  the 
whole  of  the  Upper  Nile  basin  as  far  as  the  equatorial  lakes  and  the  "  Great  Divide." 
Along  this  main  highway  of  North-East  Africa  the  natural  divisions  between  the 
riverain  populations  are  marked  by  the  obstructing  cataracts  and  the  confluences  of 
the  great  affluents.  Hence  the  study  of  the  stream  to  which  the  surroimding  lands 
owe  their  historic  evolution  claims  our  first  attention. 

The  ancients  asserted  that  the  Nile  had  its  source  in  the  "  Mountains  of  the 
Moon,"  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  the  southernmost  affluents  of  the  lacustrine 
system  whence  it  escapes  were  mot  by  Speke  in  the  "  Land  of  the  Moon."  But 
amongst  these  affluents  is  there  one  copious  and  large  enough  to  be  regarded  as  the 
main  upper  stream?  This  "  head  of  the  Nile  "  is  still  being  sought,  and  as  in  the 
time  of  Lucan,  no  one  can  yet  boast  of  having  seen  the  farthest  source  of  the  Nile. 
According  to  the  maps  prepared  from  the  itineraries  of  Stanley,  Smith,  Pearson,  and 
the  French  missionaries,  the  Mwaru  (Liwumba,  Luwamb^),  which  rises  beyond 
the  fifth  degree  of  southern  latitude,  and  flows  north  and  north-west  towards  the 

*  Approxima'e  area  of  the  great  river  basina: —  .-"^.w^ 

Amazon •        .     '   .  2,800,000  square  miles. 

MiiwiBsippi 1,390,000      „        „ 

Nile 1,340,000      .,        „ 

Congo 1,280,000      „        „      i 


I  I 


.* 


Tin-:  NILE  lUBIN. 


id  two  to 
icngtheus 

tho  MlB- 
le  (H)urw, 
I  of  Hli(|[ht 
jinpuro  in 
cent  osti- 
'  Panama, 
iUer  than 

08  of  the 
bin  fluvial 
ical  unity. 
:  affluents 
lands,  the 
v  winding 
lin  stream 
ngraphical 
the  unity 
e  facilities 
iches  were 
n    culture 
d  between 
r  centuries 
ms  to  the 
it  Divide." 
itween  the 
fluences  of 
ding  lands 

ins  of  the 
laoujstrine 
on."  But 
*ded  OS  the 
d  as  in  the 
the  Nile, 
jarson,  and 
es  beyond 
awards  the 

miles. 


Nyanaa,  would  opponr  to  bo  tho  true  "  Nile  of  tho  Moon,"  at  least  in  thu  longth  of 
its  course.  Dut  if  tho  baromotric  altitudes  taken  by  Pearson  can  bo  truNted,  this 
stntam  cannot  iM)HHibIy  roach  the  lacustrine  basin,  for  it  flows  at  a  lower  level.  On 
tho  other  hand,  it  cannot  trend  westwanU  in  the  direction  of  Lake  Taiiganyka,  from 
which  it  is  He[)arated  by  ridges  some  600  feet  high.*  Hence  it  probably  runs  out 
in  some  landlo<;ked  basin. 

Speko  was  informed  by  the  natives  that  this  region,  comprised  Iwtweon  the  groat 
take  and  tho  lofty  coast  ranges,  is  studded  with  lakes  and  salines,  like  those  heard 
of  by  Denhardt,  Erhard,  and  Wakefield  as  lying  further  north.  Till  recently 
copious  streams  might  still  bo  supposed  to  flow  from  tho  western  slope  of  Kilima- 
Njaro,  the  giant  of  African  mountains,  whose  two  snowy  peaks  rise  somo  240 
miles  to  tho  cast  of  Nyanza.  Hut  the  waters  escaping  from  tho  gorges  of  this 
volcano  flow  mainly  cast  and  south  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  while  tho  rivulets  descend- 
ing from  its  west  side  lose  themselves  in  the  depressions  of  the  plateau.  None  of 
tho  watercourses  observed  by  Stanley  and  other  travellers  on  the  east  side  of  Nyanza 
are  of  considerable  size,  and  all  of  them  rise  at  some  distance  from  Eilima-Njaro. 

The  water-parting  between  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Nile  is  lower  than  the 
eastern  ranges,  and  has  rather  the  appearance  of  an  elevated  cliff  terminating 
abruptly  eastwards,  and  sloping  gently  towards  the  west.  Above  it  at  intervals 
rise  volcanic  cones,  and  the  statement  of  the  Arabs,  that  several  of  them  still  show 
signs  of  activity,  has  been  recently  confirmed  by  the  evidence  of  the  traveller 
Fischer.  Erruptions  are  even  said  to  occur,  and  two  of  the  cones  take  the  name  of 
Duny^-M'buro,  or  "  Smoky  Mountain."  Another  is  known  as  the  Duny^-Ngai, 
or  "  Heavonly  Mountain,"  and  copious  thermal  streams  flow  from  the  fissures.  The 
foot  of  the  eastern  escarpments,  some  4,320  feet  high,  is  skirted  by  a  thennal  lake, 
which  is  continued  by  swampy  tracts  where  soda  is  deposited.  In  this  district  the 
chain  of  volcanoes  is  separated  by  a  deep  depression  from  Eilima-Njaro,  and  the 
lake  itself  is  little  over  2,000  feet  above  sea-level. 

Of  all  the  affluents  of  Lake  Nyanza,  the  Eagera  (Tang^r^  or  river  of  Eitangul^), 
which  joins  it  from  the  west,  has  the  best  claim  to  be  considered  as  the  main  head- 
stream  of  the  basin,  at  least  so  far  as  regards  its  volume.  This  river,  which  by  its 
first  explorers  was  named  tho  Alexandra  Nile,  rises  in  a  highland  region  some  60 
miles  south  of  the  equiator,  and  nearly  2,340  miles  in  a  straight  line  from  the  Medi- 
terranean. After  collecting  the  torrents  from  Mount  Mfumbiro  it  takes  a  normal 
north-easterly  course  towards  Nyanza.  Stanley  penetrated  into  the  valley  of  this 
Upper  Nile  below  its  confluence  with  the  emissary  of  Lake  Akanyaru,  which  had 
also  received  the  name  of  Lake  Alexandra  even  before  it  had  been  actually  visited 
by  any  European.  In  the  district  explored  by  Stanley  the  Eagera  traverses  several 
lakes  and  receives  the  overflow  from  other  lacustrine  basins,  flooding  the  surround- 
ing depressions.  It  has  a  mean  depth  of  fifty  feet,  and  the  horizon  is  completely 
shut  out  by  the  tall  mosses  of  papyrus  fringing  its  banks.  Speke  and  Grant,  who 
were  the  first  to  visit  this  Upper  Nile,  crossed  it  much  lower  down,  below  the 
Morongo  Fall,  one  or  two  days*  march  from  its  confluence  with  Nyanza. 
*  E.  G.  BaTenstein,  "  Map  of  Eastern  Equatorial  A(Uc»." 

8— AF.  ■;■-.'.:■:,  ^:  ' 


M 


84 


NOETH-EAST  AFBIOA. 


The  Kagera  is  evidently  a  very  copious  stream,  which  during  the  rainy  season 
overflows  its  banks  for  several  miles,  in  a  way  that  reminded  Grant  of  the  Hugli 
between  Calcutta  and  Chandemagor.  When  Speke  crossed  it  in  January,  1862, 
that  is,  at  low  water,  it  was  only  250  feet  wide ;  but  here  it  resembled  a  canal  cut 
through  dense  masses  of  reeds,  and  was  too  deep  for  the  boatmen  to  employ  their 
poles.  Its  current  is  very  rapid,  running  at  least  3^  miles  an  hour  and  at  its 
mouth  xoriving  a  large  estuary  over  430  feet  wide,  and  varying  in  depth  from  80 
w  l30  feet.  For  several  miles  from  the  shore  its  dark  grey  stream  continues  to  flow 
in  a  separate  channel  without  intermingling  with  the  blue  waters 'of  the  lake. 

The  natives  have  a  great  veneration  for  their  river,  and  one  of  the  titles  they 
give  it  seems  to  justify  the  hypothesis  that  it  is  really  the  main  headstream  of  the 
Nile.  According  to  Stanley  they  call  it  the  "  mother  "  of  the  "  Stony  Current," 
that  is,  of  the  emissary  of  Lake  Nyanza  in  Uganda.  At  its  north-west  angle  the 
lake  is  joined  by  the  Ealonga,  another  copious  river  rising  in  the  west  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Lake  Mwutan-Nzig^.  Although  it  has  a  course  of  over  120  miles,  its 
volume  is  certainly  inferior  to  that  of  the  Kagera. 


Lake  Victoria  Nyanza. 

The  Nyanza,  that  is  "  lake "  in  a  pre-eminent  sense,  known  also  as  the 
Ukerewe,  and  now  as  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  is  the  largest  lacustrine  basin  in  Africa. 
According  to  Stanley's  provisional  map,  which  will  soon  be  superseded  by  the  more 
matured  work  of  Mackay,  it  is  exceeded  in  superficial  area  only  by  one  other  lake — 
Superior,  in  North  America.*  Both  Michigan  and  Huron  are  smaller  by  several 
thousand  square  miles ;  and  Aral  itself,  although  generally  designated  by  the  name 
of  "  Sea,"  appears  to  yield  in  extent  to  Nyanza. 

In  the  depth  of  its  waters  also  this  vast  basin  rivals  the  great  lacustrine  cavities 
of  the  world.  In  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  east  coast,  and  close  to  some 
islands  and  islets,  the  sounding  line  recorded  a  depth  of  590  feet,  which  may  pro- 
bably be  exceeded  in  the  middle  of  the  lake.  Should  this  prove  to  be  the  case, 
Nyanza  will  take  the  first  place  amongst  fresh- water  basins  for  the  volimie  of  its 
liquid  contents.  Its  altitude  above  the  sea  has  been  variously  estimated  by 
different  observers,  but  4,000  feet  has  been  provisionally  adopted  as  not  far  from 
the  truth. 

By  Speke,  who  discovered  it  in  1858,  this  g^reat  inland  sea  has  been  named  the 
Victoria  Nyanza,  in  honour  of  the  Queen  of  England.  But  every  tribe  along  its 
shores  gives  it  a  different  name,  while  the  Swaheli  of  Zanzibar  know  it  as  the 
Bahari-ya-Pila,  or  "Second  Sea."  Many  other  names  also  occur  in  history  which 
evidently  have  reference  to  this  sheet  of  water.  The  title  of  Eerewe  is  taken  from 
Ukerewe,  the  largest  island  on  the  south  coast,  which  is  separated  from  the  main- 
land by  the  narrow  strait  of  Rugeshi,  a  mere  ditch  almost  completely  choked  by 

•  Area  of  the  chief  lakes  of  the  world :— Superior,  33,600  sqnare  miles ;  Kyancs,  26,600 ;  Knl,  26,300; 
Huron,  24,600;  Michigan,  23.600;  Erie,  11,300. 


••llM«NWllli|l' 


LAKE  VICTOfilA  NYANZA. 


80 


liny  season 

the  Hugli 
aary,  1862, 
a  canal  cut 
aploy  their 

and  at  its 
;h  from  80 
lues  to  flow 
lake. 

titles  they 
ream  of  the 
jT  Current," 
t  angle  the 

the  neigh- 
0  miles,  its 


ilso  as  the 
a  in  Africa, 
jy  the  more 
ther  lake — 
r  by  several 
y  the  name 

•ine  cavities 
lose  to  some 
ih  may  pro- 
be the  case, 
tlume  of  its 
timated  by 
ot  far  from 

named  the 
be  along  its 
wit  as  the 
story  which 

taken  from 
1  the  main- 
'  choked  by 

i;  Ami,  20,300; 


the  papyrus  and  other  aquatic  plants.     But  according  to  "Wilson  the  most  general 
appelation  is  simply  Nyanza,  that  is,  the  "  lake  "  in  a  superlative  sense. 

South  of  Ukerewe  a  large  bay  penetrating  far  inland  has  by  Stanley  been  named 
after  Speke,  his  precursor  in  the  exploration  of  equatorial  Africa.  The  stagnant 
pools  and  lagoons  fringing  this  inlet  are  infested  by  crocodiles  of  enormous  size. 
Others,  which  frequent  the  reedy  banks  of  the  Tangur^,  are  by  the  natives  regarded 
as  demi-gods,  personifying  the  tutelar  deity  of  the  stream.  Some  of  the  islands  are 
in  the  undisputed  possession  of  fierce  hippopotami,  grouped  in  regular  tribes 
and  families,  which  tolerate  the  presence  of  no  other  large  animals  in  their  respeo- 

Fig.  10.— SOVBCBB  OP  THE  NiLE  AND  NyaNZA  PlATIAU. 
Betie  1  : 7,800,000. 


llOMiln. 


tive  territories.  For  the  capture  of  these  monsters  the  natives  have  constructed 
boats  of  a  peculiar  build ;  but  such  hunting  expeditions  are  always  attended  with 
great  risk. 

The  ooastlands,  which  apart  from  a  thousand  small  indentations  have  a  circum- 
ference of  over  720  miles,  present  an  endless  variety  of  landscape.  Along  the 
rocky  shores  the  prevailing  formations  are  everywhere  gneiss,  granite,  or  basalts. 
But  in  some  places  the  riverain  tracts  spread  out  in  level,  treeless  plains,  while 
elsewhere  the  margin  of  the  lake  is  skirted  by  high  hills  and  even  mountains 
diversified  with  patches  of  verdure  and  enlivened  by  groups  of  villages.     Between 


86 


NOETH-EAST  AFEIOA. 


the  Ealimga  and  Tangur^  rivers  the  coast  is  generally  low,  and  here  the  shallow 
water  nowhere  exceeds  a  few  feet  in  depth  for  two  or  three  miles  from  the  land. 
But  farther  south  the  shore  is  fringed  by  bare  cliffs,  varied  with  strips  of  red  or 
orange  lichens,  giving  them  the  appearance  of  blocks  of  iron,  and  several  have  in 
fact  been  found  to  consist  of  ferruginous  ores. 

The  most  charming  prospects  are  displayed  towards  the  north-west  in  the 
territory  of  IJ-Ganda.  Here  the  inlets  along  the  coast  appear  to  be  divided  by  the 
intervening  wooded  headlands  into  lakelets  of  imequal  size.  Limpid  streams  are 
everywhere  seen  sparkling  amid  the  dense  masses  of  verdure ;  down  every  dell 
flows  a  silver}'  rivulet  fringed  with  tall  grasses  or  shrubs,  above  which  are  inter- 
laced the  branches  of  forest  trees.  Probably  no  other  region  in  Central  Africa 
enjoys  a  more  equable  climate  or  a  richer  soil  than  this  land  of  U-Ganda.  The 
plants  of  the  temperate  zone  recently  introduced  by  Europeans  thrive  well. 

Off  the  coast  of  U-6anda  an  archipelago  of  four  hundred  islands,  of  which  the 
largest  group  bears  the  name  of  Sess^,  stretches  in  a  continuous  chain  between  the 
high  sea  and  the  creeks  along  the  shore.  The  scenery  of  this  insular  world  is  even 
more  diversified  and  its  vegetation  more  exuberant  than  on  the  opposite  mainland. 
Here  magnificent  timber  clothes  the  slopes  of  the  hills  down  to  the  beach,  which  is 
everywhere  bordered  by  masses  of  papyrus.  Towards  the  west  the  basalt  island  of 
Bukereb^,  Stanley's  Alice  Island,  raises  its  blackish  walls  over  300  feet  above  the 
lake.  But  of  all  the  insular  masses  lining  the  shores  of  Nyanza,  the  most  remark- 
able is  that  to  which  Stanley  has  given  the  name  of  "  Bridge  Island."  This  rock, 
which  lies  not  far  from  the  north-east  comer  cf  the  lake,  consists  of  two  basaltic 
columns  connected  by  an  irregular  elliptical  arch  with  a  spring  of  about  twenty-four 
and  a  depth  of  twelve  feet.  Trees  have  struck  their  roots  deep  into  the  interstices 
of  the  rocks,  which,  overgrown  with  brushwood  and  tall  grass,  leave  nothing 
visible  except  two  columnar  masses  of  verdure  hanging  in  graceful  festoons  down 
to  the  water.  Through  this  archway  of  tropical  vegetation  a  glimpse  is  afforded 
of  the  hazy  coast-range  bounding  the  horizon  on  the  opposite  mainland. 

The  beauty  of  the  Nyanza  scenery  is  enhanced  by  the  native  craft  which  en- 
liven its  waters,  and  which  are  at  times  grouped  in  large  fleets.  Some  of  the 
surrounding  communities  have  sailing-boats ;  the  traders  have  launched  vessels  of 
considerable  size,  resembling  the  dhows  of  the  Zanzibari  Arabs,  and  the  European 
missionaries  have  constructed  sloops  on  the  English  model.  But  roost  of  the  skiffs 
are  still  of  a  primitive  type,  mere  barges  with  round  stems  sunk  deep  in  the  water, 
and  sharp  prows  projecting  clean  above  the  surface  and  adorned  with  two  antelope 
horns  and  a  bunch  of  feathers.  From  a  distance  they  present  the  appearance  of  an 
animal  raising  its  neck  above  the  water  in  search  of  prey.  These  boats,  nuinned 
by  crews  of  from  ter  to  forty-eight  hands,  carry  neither  mast  nor  sail,  and  are  pro- 
pelled only  by  the  paddle.  Rudely  constructed  of  trunks  of  trees  lashed  together 
with  flexible  branches,  and  caulked  with  a  mixture  of  bark  and  mud,  they  offer 
but  a  slight  resistance  to  the  waves ;  hence  accidents  are  frequent,  although  they 
seldom  venture  far  from  the  shore. 

Before  the  arrival  of  the  Europeans  the  fleets  of  the  king  of  IJ-Ganda  seldom 


he  shallow 
I  the  land. 
I  of  red  or 
al  have  in 

est  in  the 
ded  by  the 
itreams  are 

every  dell 

are  inter- 
tral  Af  lica 
mda.  The 
sU. 

which  the 
3tween  the 
»rld  is  even 
I  mainland, 
h,  which  is 
It  island  of 
i  above  the 
>st  remark- 

This  rock, 
(TO  basaltic 
wenty-four 
I  interstices 
re  nothing 
toons  down 

is  afforded 

.  which  en- 
ome  of  the 
d  vessels  of 
e  European 
>f  the  skiffs 
I  the  water, 
wo  antelope 
irance  of  an 
its,  manned 
{oi  are  pro- 
ed  together 
I,  they  offer 
hough  they 

mda  seldom 


%,        -.     •    V.    ,', 


X 


rlji'li  j||l»  I 


l4lllJljiT')i||T||jll#ll>»ilLII|(iiyyjieltll||  |<illl"<>>lli,||jk^iii|ili|ii[iil|Ljaiiiw>lil;i>iiii|i^p<p;i|ii.>uj<iW,iwi|»<i.j>wu<ii 


■'t^-iftiiiii^^^. 


THE  SOMERSET  NILE. 


87 


dared  to  approach  the  island  of  F-Vuma.  The  islanders,  armed  with  nothing  but 
a  knife,  would  swim  towards  the  boats,  dive  under  the  keels,  and  sever  the  connect- 
ing wooden  ropes.  Presently  the  frail  craft  were  swamped  and  their  crews 
struggling  in  the  water.  These  and  other  dangers  of  the  navigation  insure  for 
the  divinities  of  the  lake  the  respect  of  all  the  surrounding  populations.  The 
water- gods,  who  dwell  on  the  islands,  condescend  to  communicate  with  mortals  only 
through  their  envoys,  who  dare  not  be  approached  by  empty-handed  votaries. 
But  the  steam  launches  must  ere  long  deprive  these  local  deities  of  their  prestige 
and  reduce  them  to  the  level  of  ordinary  mortals.  When  the  American  Chailld- 
Long  wanted  to  embark  on  the  lake,  the  king  of  U-Ganda  struck  off  the  heads 
of  seveK  wizards  who  had  hitherto  been  both  worshipped  and  hated  as  the  evU 
genii  of  Nyanza.  By  this  summary  process  he  hoped  to  ensure  the  safety  of  his 
guest.  Storms  and  waterspouts  arefrequent  on  the  lake.  Wilson  has  also  deter- 
mided  the  existence  of  a  current,  which  sets  steadily  from  Speke  Bay  parallel  with 
the  coast  westwards.  It  is  caused  by  the  south-east  trade  winds,  which  prevail 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 

The  superfluous  waters  of  the  inland  sea  flow  gently  through  a  broad  opening 
on  the  north  coast  over  against  the  island  of  U-Vuma.  This  emissary,  forming  the 
head  of  the  Nile  properly  so  called,  gradually  narrows  its  banks  to  the  proportions 
of  a  river,  when  its  liquid  contents  are  precipitated  over  a  tremendous  cascade,  to 
which  Speke  has  given  the  name  of  the  Ripon  Falls.  A  group  of  boulders,  on 
which  a  few  trees  have  taken  root,  stands  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  stream,  which 
is  here  about  .1,300  feet  broad.  Other  less  elevated  blocks  divide  the  current 
right  and  left,  which  lower  down  is  studded  with  other  reefs  and  rocks  scarcely 
rising  above  the  surface  of  the  seething  waters.  Hence  the  expression  Jinja,  or 
"  Stones,"  Applied  by  the  natives  to  these  falls.  Although  they  have  a  vertical 
height  of  13  feet,  hundreds  of  fishes  crowding  the  lower  reach  are  able  to  leap  the 
rapids  and  pass  to  the  upper  stream,  which  a  short  distance  higher  up  is  gentle 
enough  to  be  crossed  by  a  ferry.  Here  the  iew  of  the  lake  is  to  a  great  extent 
concealed  by  a  wooded  headland,  while  the  line  of  separation  between  the  gulf 
and  the  course  of  the  river  is  marked  by  a  low  peninsula  crowned  with  a  clump  of 
palms.  The  hills  of  the  mainland  merge  farther  on  in  the  verdant  isles  of  the 
lake. 

"  -  The  Somerset  Nile.  \ 

According  to  Stanley,  the  Kivira,  as  the  Nile  is  here  called,  is  about  a  third 
larger  than  the  Tangur^,  the  chief  afliuent  of  Nyanza.  It  flows  with  a  mean 
breadth  of  660  yards,  at  first  towards  the  north-west,  and  after  passing  a  few 
smaller  rapids,  spreads  out  right  and  left  in  vast  reedy  lagoons.  But  even  here  its 
normal  depth  is  maintained,  and  some  60  miles  below  the  falls  it  enters  the  Gita- 
Nzig^,  another  lake,  to  which  the  name  of  Ibrahim  has  been  given  by  Chailld- 
Long,  who  discovered  it  in  1876.  Compared  with  the  other  equatorial  basins,  it  is 
of  small  extent,  having  an  area  of  probably  not  more  than  200  square  miles.  In 
this  region  the  Nile  receives  a  number  of  tributaries,  including  the  Luajerri,  which 


m 


88 


NORTH-EAST  AFMOA. 


rises  in  the  U-Ganda  hills  near  the  shores  of  Nyanza,  and  which  was  supposed  by 
Speke  to  flow  from  the  lake  itself.  On  his  map  he  sketched  a  third  emissary,  the 
Eafu,  which  after  a  course  of  about  120  miles  joined  the  Nile  lower  down.  But 
such  a  phenomenon  as  three  rivers  flowing  from  the  same  lake  and  meeting  again 
after  traversing  a  hilly  region  would  indeed  be  remarkable.  In  point  of  fact  the 
Eafu,  like  the  Luajerri,  rises  not  in,  but  near  the  lake,  with  which  it  has  no 
communication. 

Soon  after  leaving  Lake  Ibrahim  the  Nile  is  described  by  Chaill^-Long  as 
again  expanding  into  a  vast  morass  covered  with  vegetation,  and  with  a  mean 
depth  of  scarcely  more  than  10  or  12  feet.  This  is  the  Eioja  or  Eapeki  lagoon, 
which  was  discovered  by  the  Italian  explorer  Piaggia,  and  a  short  distance  below 
which  the  Nile  is  joined  by  the  navigable  river  Eafu.  Farther  on  it  describes  a 
bend  towards  the  east  and  north,  after  which  it  trends  abruptly  westwards  to  its 
confluence  with  the  great  lake  Mwutan-Nzig^,  or  Albert  Nyanza.  Throughout 
this  section  of  its  coiirse  the  Nile  is  usually  designated  on  English  maps  by  the 
name  of  Somerset.  ^=^ 

The  river,  which  has  here  a  mean  breadth  of  over  1,300  feet,  would  be  perfectly 
navigable  but  for  its  precipitous  incline.  According  to  the  approximate  measure- 
ments taken  by  travellers,  the  total  fall  in  this  distance  of  about  90  miles  appears 
to  be  2,310  feet,  or  about  1  in  206  feet.  The  Euruma,  the  first  fall  occurring  in 
this  part  of  the  Nile,  is  rather  a  rapid,  where  the  water,  confined  between  walls  of 
syenite,  escapes  in  sheets  of  foam  down  a  total  incline  of  about  10  foet.  But  this 
is  followed  by  the  Tada,  Nakoni,  Assaka,  Eadia,  Wad^,  and  Eetutu  Falls,  forming 
the  chief  barriers  to  the  Nile  on  its  descent  from  the  high  plateaux.  In  a  space  of 
18  miles  it  passes  from  gorge  to  gorge,  rushing  over  rocky  boulders,  filling  the 
atmosphere  with  vapours,  which  are  precipitated  as  rain  on  the  trees  lining  its 
banks.  The  action  of  the  stream  has,  so  to  say,  sawn  through  its  stony  walls, 
while  gradually  lowering  its  level.  On  the  south  bank  the  cliffs  rise  to  a  vertical 
height  of  from  140  to  160  feet  above  the  boiling  waters. 

This  boisterous  course  of  the  Somerset  Nile  terminates  in  a  magnificent  falL 
i'or  about  12  miles  above  it,  the  bed  of  the  river  is  so  steep  that  rapids  follow  in 
quick  succession,  with  a  mean  incline  of  at  least  10  in  1,000  yards.  Suddenly  the 
cxurent,  contracted  to  a  width  of  scarcely  more  than  160  feet,  is  precipitated  over  a 
ledg^  between  two  black  cliffs,  plunging  from  a  height  of  115  feet  into  a  cauldron 
of  seething  waters,  above  which  floats  an  iridescent  haze  quivering  in  the  breeze. 
Some  300  feet  above  the  ever-restless  flood  the  cliffs  are  fringed  with  the  waving 
branches  of  the  feathery  palm.  To  this  cataract  Baker,  its  discoverer,  gave  the 
name  of  the  Murchison  Falls,  in  honour  of  the  learned  president  of  the  English 
Geographical  Society.  Almost  immediately  below  its  last  eddies  the  water 
becomes  quite  still,  expanding  to  a  breadth  of  from  500  to  800  feet  without  any 
perceptible  current,  and  resembling  a  backwater  of  Lake  Albert  Nyanza  rather  than 
the  continuation  of  a  rapid  stream.  This  phenomenon  is  said  to  be  due  to  a  lateral 
affluent  flowing  north-west  to  the  Lower  Nile  without  traversing  the  lake,  and 
constituting  the  real  main  stream. 


>po8ed  by 
ssary,  the 
vn.  But 
ing  again 
i  fact  the 
it  has  no 

!-Long  as 
h  a  mean 
ki  lagoon, 
ace  below 
lescribes  a 
irds  to  its 
liroughout 
ips  by  the 

5  perfectly 
)  measure- 
es  appears 
curring  in 
)n  walls  of 

But  this 
s,  forming 
a  space  of 
BUing  the 
lining  its 
ony  walls, 
I  a  vertical 

icent  falL 
9  follow  in 
Idenly  the 
ited  over  a 
a  cauldron 
the  breeze, 
he  waving 
,  gave  ihe 

6  English 
the  water 
ithout  any 
ather  than 
o  a  lateral 

lake,  and 


'  >il%Hii)i^i|ii»||»iHirii    u>ii<i|»<lii>'ill!iii*>«i|Nllf>»iwi|i||i»ii 


LAKE  ALBERT  NYANZA. 


Lake  Albfrt  Nyanza. 


89 


The  lake  discovered  by  Baker,  and  by  him  named  the  Albert  Nyanza,  is  known 
to  the  people  on  its  east  bank  as  the  Mwutan-Nzig^,  or  "  Grasshopper  Sea." 
Others  call  it  the  "  Great  Water,"  although  far  inferior  in  extent  to  the  Victoria 
Nyanza.  It  stretches  south-west  and  north-east  for  a  distance  of  about  90  miles, 
with  a  mean  breadth  of  over  18  miles.  According  to  Mason's  rough  survey  it  has 
a  superficial  area  of  1,850  square  miles,  and  stands  at  an  altitude  of  2,300  feet. 
From  the  Victoria  to  this  lower  basin  the  Nile  has  consequently  descended  nearly 
half  of  the  entire  elevation  of  the  continent  between  the  plateaux  and  the 
Mediterranean.  Like  the  Dead  Sea,  the  Mwutan-Nzig4  seems  to  fill  a  fissure  in 
the  earth's  crust.  It  is  enclosed  right  and  left  by  steep  mountains,  whereas  at  its 
northern  and  southern  extremities  it  terminates  in  gently  shoaling  bays  and  low- 
lying  beaches.  The  high  cliffs  on  the  east  side,  consisting  of  granite,  gneiss,  and 
red  porphyry,  form  a  first  stage  in  the  ascent  towards  the  U-Nyoro  and  U-Ganda 
plateaux.  The  streams  flowing  from  the  swamps  on  these  uplands  have  not  yet 
completed  their  work  of  erosion  by  furrowing  regular  channels  across  the  outer 
scarps  of  the  plateau.  Hence,  like  the  Nile  at  Murchison  Falls,  they  have  all  still 
to  make  their  way  through  cataracts,  where  the  volume  of  water  is  less  but  the 
fall  much  greater,  being  approximately  estimated  for  most  of  them  at  about 
320  feet. 

Livingstone  and  other  explorers  of  Central  Africa  supposed  that  Lake 
Tanganyka  belonged  to  the  Nile  basin,  sending  its  overflow  north-eastwards  to  the 
Albert  Nyanza.  But  subsequent  investigation  has  shown  that  the  two  lakes  have 
no  communication  with  each  other.  During  their  trips  round  the  latter,  both 
Gessi  and  Mason  ascertained  that  from  the  south  it  receives  no  affluent  except  a 
shallow,  sluggish  stream,  almost  choked  with  vegetation.  In  this  marshy  district 
it  is  covered  with  a  floating  or  half-submerged  forest  of  ambach  (ambaj),  a 
leguminous  plant  {herminiera  elaphrooeylon),  18  or  20  feet  high,  with  star-shaped 
leaves  and  golden  yellow  flowers  like  those  of  the  broom.  Its  wood,  which 
resembles  cork  in  appearance,  is  the  lightest  known  to  botanists,  so  light  that  a  raft 
strong  enough  to  support  eight  persons  forms  the  load  of  a  single  porter.  It 
g^ws  so  densely  that  the  native  boats  are  imable  to  penetr&te  the  tangled  masses 
of  vegetation  springing  from  the  muddy  bottom  of  the  lake.  Beyond  this  aquatic 
forest  Gessi  beheld  a  vast  prairie  rolling  away  between  two  steep  mountains,  which 
formed  a  southern  continuation  of  the  coast  ranges. 

Lake  Albert,  continually  renewed  by  contributions  from  the  Nile,  is  everywhere 
sweet  and  pure,  except  in  the  southern  shallows,  where  the  water  is  turbid  and 
brackish,  and  in  some  places  on  the  east  side,  where  it  mingles  with  saline  springs, 
utilised  by  the  people  of  U-Nyoro.  Although  no  distinct  undercurrents  have 
been  observed,  the  navigation  is  rendered  very  dangerous  by  the  sudden  squalls 
sweeping  round  the  headlands  and  down  the  mountain  gorges.  When  embarking 
on  their  frail  craft  the  natives  never  fail  to  cast  some  valued  object  into  the  lake 
as  a  propitiatory  offering  to  the  water-gods.    A  chief,  one  of  Baker's  friends, 


:-» 


40 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


obtaimid  from  him  a  quantity  of  glass  trinkets  for  the  purpose  of  insuring  the 
stranger's  safety  by  employing  them  in  this  way.  But  since  those  first  visits 
Lake  Albert,  already  temjwrarily  annexed  to  the  Khedive's  possessions,  has  been 
navigated  in  every  direction  by  two  steamers,  which  to  pass  the  Nile  cataracts 
had  to  be  taken  to  pieces  and  put  together  again  above  the  lost  portages.  The 
transport  of  the  Khedive  required  no  less  than  4,800  hands,  of  which  600  were 
needed  to  haul  the  boiler  across  the  swamps,  through  the  woods,  and  over  the  hills. 
The  escarpments  along  the  east  coast  are  far  more  elevated  than  those  on  the 
opposite  side. 

It  is  sometimes  asserted  that  the  Nile  traverses  Lake  Albert  without  mingling 
with  the  surrounding  waters.  But  recent  inquiry  has  shown  that  such  is  not  the 
case.  According  to  the  varying  temperatures,  the  warmer  fluvial  current  spreads 
in  a  thin  layer  over  the  surface  of  the  lake,  gradually  blending  with  it  under  the 
influence  of  the  winds.  But  when  the  stream  is  colder  it  descends  to  the  lower 
depths  of  the  lacustrine  cavity,  where  it  replaces  the  lighter  fluid.  Hence, 
although  the  inflow  is  distant  scarcely  12  miles  from  the  outflow,  the  Somerset 
Nile  becomes  lost  in  the  great  lake,  whose  superfluous  waters  must  be  regarded  as 
the  main  feeder  of  the  emissary. 

The  White  Nile. 

This  emissary,  variously  known  as  the  Kir,  the  Meri,  the  Bahr-el-Jebel,  or 
"  Mountain  River,"  and  by  other  names  according  to  the  dialects  of  the  riverain 
populations,  flows  normally  north  and  north-east  in  a  tranquil  stream  winding  at  a 
width  of  from  2,000  to  6,500  feet  between  its  verdant  banks.  In  the  middle  of  the 
channel  the  depth  varies  from  16  to  40  feet,  so  that  throughout  the  year  it  is 
accessible  to  large  vessels  for  120  miles  below  the  lake.  The  shores  are  fringed 
with  wooded  islands  and  islets,  whi?t)  large  masses  of  tangled  vegetation  drift  with 
the  current,  especially  at  the  beginning  of  the  floods.  These  floating  islands 
consist  of  a  substratum  of  decomposed  foliage  and  reeds  strong  enough  to  support 
an  upper  layer  of  living  vegetation,  by  whose  roots  and  tendrils  the  whole  mass 
becomes  solidly  matted  together.  During  the  course  of  five  or  six  years  the  flora 
becomes  renewed,  the  surface  growth  decomposing  in  its  turn,  and  causing  the 
aquatic  garden  to  break  up  and  float  away  in  smaller  sections  with  the  stream. 
But  it  often  happens  that  the  vegetable  refuse  accumulates  in  sufficiently  large 
quantities  to  enable  these  floating  islands  to  strike  root  here  and  there  in  the  bed  of 
the  stream,  and  in  the  Nile  basin  whole  rivers  have  sometimes  been  covered  with 
such  buoyant  masses,  firm  enough  to  bear  even  the  weight  of  caravans.  Owing  to 
the  rapid  development  of  this  rank  vegetation,  the  Nile  has  frequently  been  choked 
in  its  upper  reaches  and  compelled  to  cut  new  channels  in  the  surrounding  alluvia. 
On  the  plains  stretching  west  of  the  present  Nile  traces  are  seen  in  many  places  of 
these  old  beds,  or  "  false  rivers,"  as  they  are  called.  The  low  chain  of  hills  skirting 
this  plain  on  the  west,  and  forming  the  water-parting  between  the  Nile  and  Congo 
basins,  might  not  inaptly  be  named  the  "  Explorers'  Range."   The  crests  following 


m 


111 


I 


TIIE  WHITE  NILE. 


41 


ring  tho 
pst  visits 
has  been 
cuturacta 
:e8.  The 
iJOO  were 
the  hills. 
;e  on  the 

mingling 
8  not  the 
it  spreads 
under  the 
the  lower 
Henoe, 
Somerset 
igarded  as 


-Jebel,  or 
e  riverain 
iding  at  a 
Idle  of  the 
year  it  is 
re  fringed 
drift  with 
g  islands 
o  support 
hole  mass 
the  flora 
using  the 
le  stretvm. 
atly  large 
the  bed  of 
rered  with 
Owing  to 
en  choked 
ig  alluvia. 
f  places  of 
Is  skirting 
ind  Congo 
following 


from  south  to  north  bear  tb    names  of  Schwoinfurth,  Junker,  ChippcnduU,  Spt-ke, 
Emin,  Baker,  Gordon,  and  Qessi. 

The  great  bend  described  by  the  Nile  b  .ow  the  Dufli  station,  at  an  elevation  of 
about  2,100  feet  above  the  sea,  marks  a  very  important  point  in  the  hydrography  of 
its  basin.  Here  it  is  joined  by  several  copious  affluents,  including  the  Asua  or 
Asha,  supposed  by  some  geographers  to  flow  from  Lake  Mbaringo  (Baringo,  Bahr 
Ingo),  which  Speke  at  one  time  identifiod  with  a  north-east  inlet  of  Victoria 
Nyanza,  and  whose  very  existence  has  since  been  questioned.  But  tho  question 
has  been  practically  settled  by  Thomson,  who  visited  the  district  in  1884,  and  who 
determined  the  existence  of  Baringo  and  another  large  lake  fartli>     ^outh. 

The  Asua,  however,  rises  not  in  a  luke,  but  in  a  hilly  region  east  of  the 
Somerset  Nile,  while  the  Mbaringo  is  a  landlocked  basin  without  any  outflow. 
At  their  junction  buih  the  Nile  and  the  Asua,  skirted  right  and  left  by  hills, 
are  ob'tructed  by  reefs,  and  even  above  the  confluence  the  navigation  of  the  main 
stream  is  completely  obstructed  by  the  Fola  Rapids,  which  Wilson  has  named 
the  "  Eighth  "  Cataract.  Here  all  vessels  on  the  Upper  Nile  have  to  stop  and 
tranship  their  cargoes,  an  inconvenience  which  has  caused  the  Nile  route  to  be 
almost  abandoned  above  the  rapids.  After  leaving  the  bend  at  Dufli,  caravans  for 
Victoria  Nyanza  strike  south-eastwards,  rejoining  the  Somerset  Nile  at  Foweira, 
above  the  Earuma  Bapids.  This  route,  which  has  also  been  taken  by  the  recent 
military  expeditions  from  Egypt,  is  twice  as  short  as  that  by  the  winding  valley 
of  the  river. 

Below  the  Asua  confluence  the  Nile  is  still  obstructed  here  and  there  by  rocky 
ledges,  as  at  Yerbora,  where  it  rushes  between  huge  boulders,  at  Makedo,  where  it 
develops  two  falls  over  six  feet  high,  and  at  Teremo-Garbo  and  Jenkoli-Garbo, 
where  other  rapids  occur.  But  all  of  these  impediments  may  be  passed  during  the 
floods.  Steamers  freely  ascend  for  nine  months  in  the  year  as  far  as  Ragat  or 
Rejaf,  and  to  the  winding  at  Bedden  below  the  falls  forming  the  "  Seventh  " 
Cataract.  But  during  low  water  they  are  unt^ble  to  get  beyond  the  famous  station 
of  Gondokoro,  or  Ismailiya,  which  was  long  the  capital  of  Upper  Egyptian  Sudan. 
The  head  of  the  navigation  for  larg^  vessels  is  indicated  by  the  sandstone  eminence 
of  Rejaf,  a  perfectly  regular  cone  of  volcanic  appearance  terminating  in  a  tower- 
shaped  rock,  which  rises  over  330  feet  above  the  surrounding  plain. 

At  this  point  the  Nile,  according  to  the  estimates  of  Dovyak  and  Peney,  has  a 
normal  discharge  of  about  20,000  cubic  feet,  oscillating  between  10,000  at  low  and 
30,000  ut  high  water.  During  the  floods  it  presents  on  imposing  appearance  at 
Gondokoro  and  Lado  (Lardo),  the  new  capital  of  the  province  of  the  equator. 
But  flowing  through  an  almost  level  plain,  it  soon  ramifies  into  numerous  lateral 
channels,  while  other  secondary  streams,  intermingled  with  marshes  and  lagoons, 
wind  right  and  left  of  the  Bahr-el- Jebel,  or  Eir,  as  this  section  of  the  NUe  is 
called  by  the  Dinkas.  The  main  stream  itself  branches  off  completely,  the  Nile 
proper  continuing  i*s  north-westerly  course,  while  the  Bahr-ez-Zaraf,  or  "  Giraffe 
River,"  winds  for  160  miles  through  swamps  and  prairies  northwards  to  a  point 
where  the  two  branches  again  unite.     The  Zaraf  is  described  by  Mamo  not  as  a 


.=:mi>p 


4S 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


river  in  the  proper  Hense,  but  merely  a  khor  or  watercouriie,  which  is  becoming 
yearly  lesH  navigablo,  and  already  inaccessible  to  boats  except  for  a  short  time 
during  the  floods.  The  whole  low-lying  region  at  present  intersected  by  the 
Bahr-el-Jebel,  the  Zaruf  and  all  their  countless  affluents,  channels,  and  branches 
^'as  evidently  at  one  time  a  vast  lake,  that  has  been  gradually  tilled  up  by  the 

alluvia  of  these  rivers.     Its  northern 


Fig. 


11.— Fhom  DuFitft  TO  Lauo. 
BotU  1 :  1,800,000. 


margin  is  indicated  by  the  abrupt 
change  in  the  course  ox  the  Nile  at  the 
confluence  of  th(>  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  or 
"Gazelle  River."  At  this  point  the 
whole  system  of  waters  is  collected  in 
a  single  channel,  which  is  deflected 
eastwards  along  the  escarpment  of  the 
upland  Eordofan  plains.  A  cavity  of 
the  old  depression  is  still  flooded  by  a 
remnant  of  the  lake  called  the  No,  Nu, 
or  Birket-el-Ghazal,  whicsh,  however, 
under  the  action  of  the  currents  and 
periodical  floods,  is  continually  over- 
flowing its  marshy  banks,  shifting  its 
place  and  modifying  its  outlines. 

Nowhere  else  is  the  Nile  more 
obstructed  by  vegetable  refuse  as  along 
this  section  of  its  course.  The  floating 
islands  drifting  with  the  current  being 
arrested  by  the  abrupt  winding  of  the 
stream  are  collected  together,  and 
stretch  at  some  points  right  across  the 
channel,  which  thus  becomes  displaced. 
But  the  new  channel  is  soon  blocked 
by  fresh  masses  of  sedd,  as  it  is  called, 
which  in  many  places  covers  a  space 
of  twelve  miles.  This  sedd  often 
acquires  great  consistency,  supporting 
a  dense  g^wth  of  papyrus,  and  even 
of  arborescent  vegetation,  beneath 
which  the  main  stream  continues  its 
sluggish  course.  Numerous  families 
of  the  Nuer  tribe  pitch  their  tents  on  the  verdant  surface,  living  exclusively  on 
fish  caught  by  piercing  the  foundations  of  their  dwellings^  and  on  the  grain  of 
various  species  of  nymphaoacese.  In  certain  places  along  the  banks  of  the  river 
and  surrounding  swamps  are  seen  myriads  of  earth-mounds,  all  raised  above  the 
highest  level  of  the  inundations  by  their  architects,  the  termites,  who  ascend  and 
deaoend  from  story  to  story  with  the  flowing  and  ebbing  stream.     One  of  the  most 


5', 

y 

3* 

30' 

^^ 

3* 

io 

'3I'50-             E   -of   Greanwioh                'SS'lS 

.aOMllea. 


.-Si 


mmmm 


THE  WHTTK  NILE. 


48 


becoming 
ihort  time 
id  by  the 

branches 
up  by  the 

northern 
10  abrupt 
^ile  at  the 
^hazal,  or 
point  the 
>llect«d  in 

deflected 
ent  of  the 

cavity  of 
toded  by  a 
e  No,  Nu, 

however, 
'rents  and 
ftUy  over- 
bifting  its 
aes. 

file  more 
e  as  along 
le  floating 
rent  being 
ing  of  the 
iher,  and 
across  the 
displaced. 
)n  blocked 
;  is  called, 
■s  a  space 
edd  often 
lupporting 

and  even 
beneath 
Ltinnes  its 
IB  families 
usively  on 
e  grain  of 

the  river 
above  the 
scend  and 
f  the  most 


remarkable  inhabitants  of  this  watery  rogion  is  the  haUenicepa  rfr,  a  curious  long- 
legged  aquatic  bird  with  grey  plumage,  which  when  perched  on  a  termite's  hillock 
looks  from  u  distance  like  a  Nuer  fisherman. 

From  the  time  when  the  envoys  of  Nero  faUed  to  penetrate  the  sea  of  floating 
vegetation,    explorers    of    the 

Fig.  12.— Rmion  or  tmb  "Hud." 
Ba»l«  1 :  a,ooc  .ja 


i-A 


/■:*V-_ 


Nile  have  been  frequently  ar- 
rested by  this  obstacle.  Dur- 
ing the  latter  half  of  the 
present  century  most  of  them 
have  had  to  force  their  way 
through  the  tangled  masses, 
and  one  of  the  channels  thus 
formed  by  Miss  Tinne's  steamer 
still  bears  the  name  of  Maya 
Signora.  During  the  seven 
years  from  1870  to  1877  the 
river  was  completely  blocked, 

obliging  all  travellers  to  con- 
tinue   their   journey    by   the 

Bahr-ez-Zaraf .  Many  were  de- 
tained for  weeks  and  months 

on    these    pestiferous  waters, 

over  which  hover  dense  clouds 

of    mosquitoes.      Here    Gessi 

was  arrested  in  1880  with  five 

hundred  soldiers  and  a  large 

number  of  liberated  slaves,  and 

three   months  elapsed   before 

an    Egyptian    flotilla,    under 

Mamo,    was    able    to   rescue 

them   by  opening  a   passage 

from  below.    Devoured  by  the 

insects,  wasted  by  fever,  and 

reduced  to  live  on  wild  herbs 

and  the  dead  bodies  of  their 

unfortunate     comrades,    most 

of  the  captives  found  a  grave 

in  the   surrounding    swamps, 

and  nearly  all  the  survivors 

perished  of    exhaustion  soon 

after.     Gtessi  himself  outlived 

the     disaster     only     a     few  n 

months.    To  the  lagoon  of  No  must  be  attributed  those  "  green  waters  "  noticed  at 

Cairo  during  the  early  days  of  June,  when  the  stream,  charged  with  vegetable 


30*I0- 


aoMfle*. 


44 


NOUTII  KAST  AFIUCA. 


c»IluloN,  (icquiroN  u  murNhy  tastu  iiiid  Im'coiiich  unwhoIcNoino.  But  uU  thin  rofumt  is 
swppt  uway  or  doMtroywl  by  tljo  (irst  flotxlH  from  the  AbyHHiniun  riverH,  which  thui 
reHtoro  to  the  Nilo  water  itn  oxceUcnt  |   opertios. 

The  "  Ottzello,"  which  joinft  the  muin  Htr^am  in  the  No  baiiin,  in  a  "  bahr," 
that  is,  a  conHideruble  river,  flowing  from  the  west,  and  during  the  AchmIh  bringing 
nufficiont  water  to  Hweop  away  the  temporary  obHtructionH.  In  itH  chaun(!l  are 
collected  a  hundred  other  rivers,  whoso  numbers  and  copiousness  fonn  a  striking 
contniNt  to  the  poverty  or  total  absence  of  running  waters  characteristic  of  the 
Nile  basin  farther  north.     Altogether  the  affluents  of   the  great  river  are  dis- 

Fi«.  13.— Tmi  Nit«  AT  Kmahtvm. 


tributed  very  irregularly,  thus  illustrating,  as  it  were,  the  discrepancies  of  the 
climate.  In  the  region  of  the  plateaux  the  Victoria  Nyanza  and  Somerset  Nile 
receive  feeders  both  from  east  and  west,  for  the  rainfall  is  here  sufficiently  heavy 
to  cause  watercourses  to  converge  from  all  directions  in  the  great  lacustrine 
reservoir.  But  north  of  the  Albert  Nyanza  the  affluents  occur  alternately  now  on 
one  now  on  the  other  bank  of  the  Nile.  In  the  section  of  its  course  terminating 
in  the  No  lagoons  it  receives  contributions  only  from  the  west,  and  farther  north 
only  from  the  Abyssinian  highlands  lying  to  the  east.  Then  for  a  distance  of 
1,500  miles  no  more  permanent  tributaries  reach  its  banks  either  from  the  right  or 
the  left.    Even  during  the  rainy  season  the  gorges  opening  on  its  valley  send 


,jm 


i  rofum)  ia 
biuh  thus 

i  "bahr," 
1  bringing 
uiuu!l  are 
I  Htrikiiig 
:io  of  tho 
*  are  dis- 


asm 


ies  of  the 
erset  Nile 
itly  heavy 
lacustrine 
ly  now  on 
rminating 
her  north 
iBtance  of 
e  right  or 
dley  send 


m 


\^ 


r' 


,^ 


THE  WHITE  NILE. 


45 


down  very  little  water,  and  none  at  all  for  the  rest  of  the  year.  Unique  in  this 
respect  among  the  great  rivers  of  the  globe,  the  Nile  seems  for  the  greater  part 
of  its  course  to  be  a  river  destitute  of  tributary  basins.  On  its  west  bank  nothing 
occurs  for  2,200  miles  from  its  mouth  except  some  wadies  flushed  during  the 
rains. 

But  then  follows  a  sudden  and  remarkable  contrast,  due  to  the  changed  climatic 
conditions.  All  the  triangular  region  comprised  between  the  Bahr-el-Jebel,  the 
Nile,  and  Congo  water-parting,  and  the  Dar-For  uplands,  is  intersected  by 
numerous  perennial  streams  nearly  converging  in  the  direction  of  the  old 
lacustrine  basin  now  filled  with  alluvia  and  vegetable  refuse.  With  their  minor 
headstreams  and  affluents  they  form  a  vast  and  intricate  hydrographic  system, 
extremely  difficult  accurately  to  survey,  especially  owing  to  the  varied  and  shifting 
nomenclature.  Like  the  Nile  itself,  every  secondary  branch  bears  as  many  names 
as  there  are  tribes  in  its  valley  or  neighbourhood.  The  most  important  appear  to 
be  the  Yei,  which  is  lost  in  the  swamps  bordering  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile ;  the 
Rol,  flowing  to  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal ;  the  Roa  and  Tonj,  whose  united  waters  form 
the  Apabu  ;  the  Diur,  which  reaches  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  near  Meshra-er-Rek,  and 
which  is  the  most  copious  of  its  many  affluents ;  the  Pango,  a  branch  of  the  Diur ; 
lastly  the  Famikam,  better  known  as  the  Bahr-el-Arab,  which  forms  the  northern 
limit  of  the  whole  region,  and  which,  after  its  junction  with  the  Ghazal,  deflects 
the  Nile  eastwards.  :•  1 

Most  of  these  streams  have  a  very  gentle  incline,  the  most  rapid  being  those 
that  take  their  rise  in  the  mountains  near  lake  Albert  Nyanza.  Some  have  their 
source  altogether  in  the  plains,  offering  an  almost  imperceptible  transition  to  the 
basin  of  the  Congo.  In  their  lower  course  the  Rol,  Diur,  and  some  others  have 
too  slight  a  fall  to  scour  their  beds  of  the  vegetation  constantly  accumulating. 
The  consequence  is  that,  like  the  Nile,  they  overflow  their  banks,  during  the 
floods  converting  the  whole  country  for  some  thousands  of  square  miles  into  an 
impassable  morass.  A  large  portion  of  the  rainfall  in  this  part  of  the  Nile  basin 
evaporates  before  reaching  the  main  stream.  Here  the  annual  rains  represent  a 
volume  greater  than  the  whole  discharge  of  the  Nile  at  Cairo. 

At  the  point  where  it  resumes  its  normal  northerly  course  beyond  the  region 
of  sedd,  the  Nile  is  joined  on  its  east  bank  by  the  Sobat,  which  is  also  knowa  by  a 
great  variety  of  names.*    The  Sobat,  which  drains  a  very  large  area,  and  which 

•  Nomenclature  of  the  Upper  Nile  and  ita  afilanntii : — 

Mle :  Kivira,  Somerset  (between  lakes  Victoria  and  Albert)  ;  Mori  (in  the  Madi  country) ;  Karre  (by 
the  Bari  people) ;  Kir  (by  the  Denkas) ;  Ter  (by  the  Nuer)  ;  Bahr-el-Jebel  (by  the  Arabs  between  Lakes 
Albert  and  No) ;  Bahr-el-Abiad,  or  "  White  Kiver"  (by  the  Arabs  below  the  Sobat). 
1V»:  Ayi,  Doghiirguru,  Jemid,  Eodi,  Bahr-Lau. 

A>/:  Nam-Pol,  Ferial,  WeUi.Yabo,  Nam-Gel.  "7.      .^-v    v,    :  v      / 

£oa:  Meriddi.  Bahr-jaii.  ''1;  -.  ':r,/  \ :f.  '    .  ,^ 

Tin/:  Tondy,  Lessi,  Dnggoru,  Kuan.  j        ,       vf 

JHur:  Her6,  Nyenani,  Bahr-Wau,  Ugul,  Relaba.  ;i      lyS   >:         ^^^^'y-.^ui,^:.^:'-^^^^^.:^,-'-- 

Pango:  Ji,  Divhi,  Ugakuer,  Bahr-el-Homr. 

Famikam  :  Bahr-el-Arab,  Lialui,  Lol,  Lolln,  Komkom.  . 

Sobat :  Bahr-el-Mogald,  Walk,  Telflu,  Wah,  or  Tab  (by  the  Shiluks).  Pinyin,  or  Tilfi  (by  the  Nuer), 
Biel,  Eieti,  Eidi,  or  Kiradid  (by  the  Dinkas). 


"Wi"-:I'e'UMKig«JSWi:-,.. 


46 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


Russegger  mistook  for  the  Nile  itself,  is  the  first  affluent  that  receives  any 
contributions  from  the  Ethiopian  highlands.  It  frequently  sends  down  a  greater 
volume  than  the  main  stream,  whose  waters  during  the  floods  are  stemmed  and 
driven  back  by  its  current.  To  judge  from  its  whitish  fluid  contents,  in  which  the 
blackish  Nile  water  disappears,  the  Sobat  has  the  best  claim  to  the  title  of  Bahr- 
el-Abiad,  or  "  White  River."  Some  of  its  affluents  rise  on  the  low-lying  plains 
stretching  east  of  the  Nile ;  but  the  most  important  has  its  source  much  farther 
east,  in  the  upland  valleys  of  the  Ghesha  range,  which  forms  the  water-parting 
between  the  Indian  Ocean  and  Mediterranean  basins.  The  Baro,  which  is  one  of 
the  dozen  different  names  of  this  affluent,  on  entering  the  plain  traverses  the 


Fig.  14. MuHRA-BR-Rnc  IN  THB  Zabiba  Beoion. 

Soole  1 : 2,900,000.  .  , 


aoltilM. 


marshy  Lake  Behair  of  ti.o  Arabs,  or  "  Sea  of  Haarlem,"  as  it  has  been  renamed 
oy  the  Dutch  explorer  Schuver.  During  the  rainy  season  the  Sobat  sends  down  a 
vast  quantity  of  water,  on  June  15,  1862,  estimated  by  Pruyssenaere,  70  miles 
above  the  confluence,  at  42,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  Hence  during  the  floods  the 
whole  of  its  lower  course  is  easily  navigated ;  but  if  large  craft  linger  too  long  on 
its  treacherous  flood  they  run  the  risk  of  being  landed  high  and  dry  on  some 
shifting  sandbank,  as  happened  to  the  trader  Andrea  Debono,  who  was  recently 
detained  in  the  river  for  eleven  months. 

*    It  is  below  the  Sobat  that  the  Nile  takes  currently  the  Arab  name  of  Bahr-el- 
Abiad,  or  "  White  River,"  by  which  it  is  generally  known  to  Europeans  above 


Lves  any 
,  greater 
ined  and 
'hich  the 
)f  Bahr- 
tg  plains 
b  farther 
r-parting 
is  one  of 
erses  the 


■^ 


1  renamed 
ds  down  a 
,  70  miles 
floods  the 
)o  long  on 
r  on  some 
recently 

f  Bahr-el- 
lans  above 


THE  BLUE  NIIiE. 


47 


Khartum,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  other  Nile,  called  the  Bahr-el-Azraq,  or  "  Blue 
River."  The  contrast  is  certainly  striking  between  the  two  currents,  the  former 
being  charged  with  organic  remains,  turbid,  and  muddy,  while  the  latter,  flowing 
from  a  rocky  roy:oi .,  is  generally  much  more  limpid.  But  a  greater  contrast  is 
presented  by  tho  variations  in  their  respective  volumes  according  to  the  seasons. 
The  western  branch,  which  is  by  far  the  longest,  the  distance  from  Khartum  to  its 
still  undetermined  source  being  even  greater  than  from  that  place  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, has  also  the  most  uniform  discharge.  Regulated  by  the  g^eat  equatorial 
lakes,  and  again  by  the  swampy  depressions  about  Lake  No,  its  contents  present 
comparatively  less  discrepancies  from  reason  to  season.  But  the  impetuous  Bahr- 
el-Azraq  partakes  rather  of  the  nature  of  a  torrent.  As  soon  as  the  tropical 
downpours  hefpn  to  fall  on  the  Abyssinian  plateaux,  the  effect  is  felt  in  its  rocky 
channel.  Then  its  discharge  exceeds  that  of  its  rival,  and  it  was  on  this  ground 
that  Bruce  and  many  subsequent  explorers  claimed  the  first  rank  for  the  Abyssinian 
branch.  But  since  the  discoveries  of  Speke,  Grant  and  Baker,  it  can  be  regarded 
only  as  an  important  tributary  of  the  Bahr-el-Abiad.  Its  mean  volimie  is  less 
considerable,  nor  is  it  navigable  at  low  water.  ,  , 


The  Blue  Nile. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  the  White  Nile  that  maintains  the  perennial  stream, 
to  the  Blue  Nile  is  due  its  fertilising  properties.  Without  the  first  there  would  be 
no  Egypt ;  but  for  the  second  the  soil  of  this  region  would  lack  its  inexhaustible 
fertility.  Not  only  do  the  Abyssinians  send  down  their  quickening  waters  to  the 
Nile  delta,  but  they  also  supply  it  with  the  sedimentary  matter  by  which  the  land 
is  incessantly  renewed,  and  the  never-failing  return  of  bountiful  harvests  insured. 
In  the  Ethiopian  highlands  is  solved  the  mystery  of  the  Egyptian  stream,  yearly 
overflowing  its  banks  without  apparent  cause,  and  then  retiring  to  its  bed  after 
accomplishing  its  beneficent  work.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  discharge  of  both 
rivers  has  not  been  accurately  determined,  the  Nilometer  at  Khartum  serving  to 
estimate  that  of  the  Blue  Nile  alone*  .  ' ""'      ■ 

At  the  confluence  we  at  once  enter  regions  known  to  the  ancients.  The  Bahr- 
el-Azraq  is  the  Astapus  of  Ptolemy,  whose  source  was  possibly  known  to  the 
Romans.  At  least  they  make  it  rise  in  a  lake,  the  Coloe  Palus,  although  placing 
this  lake  some  twelve  degrees  south  of  its  actual  position.  Lake  Tana  (Tsana)  is 
regarded  as  the  reservoir  giving  rise  to  the  Abai,  which  is  usually  taken  as  the 
upper  course  of  the  Blue  Nile.  But  if  length  of  course  alone  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration, this  honour  should  rather  be  awarded  to  the  Beshto,  which  has  its  origin 
some  150  miles  farther  east.  The  Tana  emissary,  however,  has  the  advantage  of 
being  much  more  constant  in  its  discharge,  thanks  to  the  controlling  action  of  the 

*  Approximate  estimate  of  the  discharge  of  the  two  Kiles  at  Khartum  per  aeoond : —  ,  ,  _  .^  ^ 

Bahr-el-Abiad.  {  Bahr-el-Aaraq. 


High  water 
Low  water 


176,000  cubic  feet. 
10,000    „ 


High  water 
Low  water 


213,000  cubic  feet. 
6,600      „      „ 


48 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


lake,  which  rises  slowly  during  the  floods,  and  falls  imperceptibly  during  the  dry 
season.  The  yearly  discrepancy  between  the  levels  of  the  lake  scarcely  exceeds 
forty  inches. 

The  Abai,  its  largest  affluent,  rises  at  Gish  Abai,  near  the  north-east  foot  of 
Mount  Denguiya,  some  60  miles  fro;.i  the  lake.  The  Portuguese  colony  settled  in 
this  region  towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  certainly  visited  the  sources 
of  the  Abai ;  but  they  were  first  described  by  the  Jesuit  Paez,  who  tells  us  that 
the  water,  oozing  from  a  marshy  field,  is  collected  in  a  limpid  lake,  supposed  by  the 
natives  to  be  "  unfathomable "  because  they  cannot  reach  the  bottom  with  their 
spears.  Thence  trickles  a  rivulet,  whose  course  can  be  traced  only  by  a  surface 
growth  of  waving  g^sses,  but  which  over  a  mile  lower  down  emerges  in  the  open. 
This  is  the  brook  to  which  both  the  Portuguese  and  Bruce  gave  the  name  of  the 
Nile.  The  fiery  exhalations  often  seen  flitting  about  its  source,  doubtless  will-o'- 
the-wisps,  have  earned  for  the  Abai  the  veneration  of  the  natives,  who  still 
sacrifice  animals  to  the  local  river  genius.  The  stream  has  a  width  of  over  30  feet 
where  it  reaches  the  south-west  inlet  of  the  lake,  and  where  its  turbid  waters  have 
developed  an  alluvial  delta  of  considerable  size.  But  the  outlet,  which  retains  the 
name  of  Abai,  is  a  limpid  blue  current  fully  entitled  to  its  Arabic  designation  of 
Bahr-el-Azraq.  Like  most  other  rivers  which  are  at  once  affluents  and  emissaries  of 
lacustrine  basins,  the  Abai  is  constantly  said  to  traverse  lake  Tsana  without  mingling 
with  its  water.  But  although  such  a  phenomenon  is  well-nigh  impossible,  a 
perceptible  current  certainly  appears  to  set  steadily  from  the  mouth  of  the  affluent 
to  th  t  of  the  outflow. 

Tsana  cannot  be  compared  for  size  to  the  great  equatorial  lakes.  According  to 
Stecker's  survey,  it  has  a  superficial  area  of  scarcely  1,200  square  miles,  or  less  than 
the  twentieth  part  of  Victoria  Nyanza.  But  it  must  have  formerly  been  more 
extensive  than  at  present,  as  is  evident  from  some  alluvial  plains  found  especially 
on  the  north  side.  It  has  the  general  form  of  a  crater,  except  towards  the  south, 
where  it  develops  into  a  gulf  in  the  direction  of  its  outlet.  Hence  the  hypothesis 
advanced  by  several  authors  that  it  may  have  originally  been  a  vast  volcanic  cone, 
and  certainly  some  of  the  rounded  islets  in  the  neighbouring  waters  look  like 
extinct  craters,  while  the  surrounding  shores  are  diversified  with  bold  basaltic 
headlands.  The  central  part  of  the  basin  is  probably  very  deep,  for  even  in  the 
southern  inlet  Stecker  recorded  a  depth  of  240  feet.  The  water  is  extremely  pure, 
and  as  pleasant  to  the  taste  as  that  of  the  Nile.  Towards  the  south-west  the  shore 
is  fringed  with  dense  masses  of  a  long  light  reed  undo  donax),  with  which  the 
natives  construct  their  tankuas,  frail  skiffs  or  rafts  propelled  by  two  or  four  oars, 
and  provided  with  raised,  benches  to  keep  the  cargo  dry.  But  very  little  traffic  is 
carried  on  from  coast  to  coast.  Through  the  foliage  which  encircles  this  lovely 
sheet  of  water,  little  i^  visible  except  the  distant  hills  and  the  conic  islets  rising 
above  the  sparkling  surface.  Herds  of  hippopotami  are  often  seen  on  the  shores, 
but  there  are  no  crocodiles  in  the  lake,  although  the  Abai  below  the  cataract  is 
infested  by  these  reptiles.  Nor  has  any  European  traveller  seen  the  aila,  a  small 
species  of  manatee  said  by  the  natives  to  inhabit  its  waters ;  which,  however,  abound 


THE  BLUE  NII^. 


id 


the  dry 
exceeds 

foot  of 
attled  ia 
I  sources 
,  us  that 
dby  the 
Lth  their 
i  surface 
he  open. 
16  of  the 
s  will-o'- 
vho  still 
ir  30  feet 
ters  have 
stains  the 
Ration  of 
issarics  of 
mingling 
ossible,  a 
16  affluent 

ording  to 
■  less  than 
sn  more 


in  fish,  chiefly  cyprides  of  a  different  species  from  those  of  the  Nile.  A  kind  of 
bivalve  also  occurs,  resembling  the  oyster  in  appearance  and  flavour. 

Issuing  from  the  lake  at  an  altitude  of  6,200  feet,  the  Abai  flows  at  first  towards 
the  south-east,  forming  a  first  fall  near  Woreb,  6  miles  below  the  outlet.  Expanding 
lower  down  to  a  width  of  about  650  feet,  it  winds  along  through  shady  fields  to  the 
Tis-Esat,  or  Alata  Falls,  where  it  is  suddenly  precipitated  from  a  heiglit  of  over  80 
feet  into  a  yawning  chasm  shrouded  in  vapour.  In  the  centre  of  the  cascade  stands 
a  pyramidal  rock  surmoimted  by  a  solitary  tree  constantly  agitated  by  the  breeze. 
Immediately  below  this  spot  the  Abai  plunges  into  a  winding  gorge,  at  one  point 
scarcely  8  or  10  feet  wide,  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  Portuguese  construction.  Some 
30  miles  farther  on  it  is  crossed  by  another  bridge,  the  central  arch  of  which  has 
given  way,  its  broken  fragments  forming  a  reef  amid  the  tumultuous  waters  under- 
neath. The  whole  distance  between  these  two  bridges  is  little  more  than  a  succes- 
sion of  falls  and  rapids,  with  a  total  descent  of  at  least  2,000  feet.  Alpine  masses 
tower  to  the  right  and  left  above  the  gorge,  which  seems  to  have  no  outlet.  But 
after  describing  a  complete  semicircle  round  the  Abyssinian  plateau,  the  Abai 
emerges  on  the  plain  in  a  north-westerly  direction.  The  fall  in  this  vast  circuit  is 
altogether  over  4,000  feet,  while  throughout  its  lower  course,  terminating  at  the 
Khartum  confluence,  the  incline  is  scarcely  perceptible.  Here  it  winds  in  gentle 
meanders  between  its  alluvial  banks,  which  are  constantly  yielding  to  the  erosive 
action  of  the  stream. 

During  the  dry  season  the  Bahr-el-Azraq  diminishes  in  volume  downwards,  and 
in  many  places  may  be  easily  forded.  For  more  than  half  the  year  the  Tabus  and 
Tnmat,  its  chief  tributaries  from  the  south,  are  apparently  merely  dried-up  wadies, 
although  the  water  still  percolates  beneath  the  sands.  The  Rahad,  or  Abu-Ahraz, 
also  one  of  its  large  eastern  affluents,  which  rises  on  the  west  slope  of  the  Abyssinian 
border  range,  is  completely  exhausted  for  a  long  way  above  the  confluence  before 
the  wet  season.  But  from  June  to  the  middle  of  September,  when  the  rain  falls  in 
torrents  on  the  mountain  slopes,  its  vast  bed  overflows  its  banks,  sttpplying  abundant 
water  to  the  cultivated  riverain  tracts.  The  Dender,  however,  another  river  rising 
in  Abyssinia,  appears  to  be  perennial.  Nowhere  else  would  it  be  more  useful  or 
more  easy  to  construct  reservoirs  and  control  the  discharge  than  in  this  hydro- 
graphic  basin,  which  at  the  confluence  of  the  two  great  arteries  at  Khartum 
stands  at  an  altitude  variously  estimated  at  from  1,250  to  1,450  feet  above  sea- 
level. 

The  northern  as  well  as  the  southern  section  of  the  Abyssinian  plateau  is  also 
comprised  in  the  Nile  basin.  But  here  the  affluents  of  the  great  river  rise,  not  on 
the  western  slope,  but  in  the  very  heart  of  the  highlands,  close  to  the  range  forming 
the  water-parting  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Red  Sea.  The  Takkaz^, 
main  headstream  of  the  whole  Atbara  hydrographic  system,  has  its  source  at  an 
elevation  of  nearly  7,000  feet,  and  flows  at  first  westwards,  as  if  to  fall  into  Lake 
Tsana.  But  the  gorge  through  which  it  descends  between  its  crystalline  schist 
walls  rapidly  attains  a  level  far  lower  than  thti '  of  the  Ethiopian  uplands.  At  the 
point  where  the  river  trends  northwards  it  has  already  fallen  to  an  altitude  of  cou- 

4 — AF. 


60 


NORTH-EAST  APRIOA. 


sidcrably  loss  than  4,000  feet,  and  here  its  banks  begin  to  be  fringed  by  a  tropical 
vegetation.  On  descending  from  the  surrounding  mountains,  which  are  swept  by 
cold  winds,  the  sensation  is  like  that  felt  on  entering  a  hothouse. 

The  Atbara. 

After  its  escape  from  the  region  of  the  plateaux,  the  Tukkaz^  resumes  its 
westerly  course,  and  at  last  reaches  the  plain  through  a  series  of  rugged  gorges. 
Here  it  takes  the  name  of  the  Setit,  and  is  joined  by  the  Atbara,  which  is  much 
less  in  volume  and  hardly  half  its  length ;  but  the  mean  direction  of  its  valley, 
beginning  immediately  west  of  Lake  Tsana,  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  united 
streams.  The  Atbara,  like  the  Mississippi  on  joining  the  yellow  and  turbid  waters 
of  the  powerful  Missouri,  gives  its  name  to  the  hydrographic  system  ;  the  Goang, 
one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Takkazd,  rises  in  the  north  in  the  depression  of  Lake 
Tsana,  from  which  it  is  separated  only  by  a  ridge  165  feet  high.  Below  the 
confluence  the  Atbara,  which  retains  the  ancient  name  given  it  by  Ptolemy  under 
the  form  of  Astaboras,  gradually  diminishes  in  volume,  as  does  also  its  former 
affluent,  the  Mareb,  which  in  its  upper  course  describes  one  of  those  large  semi- 
circular curves  so  characteristic  of  the  Abyssinian  rivers.  In  fact,  the  Mareb,  or  the 
"  River  of  the  West,"  as  it  is  called  by  the  Abyssinians  from  the  direction  of  its 
course,  may  be  said  to  have  ceased  to  be  an  affluent  of  the  Atbara.  Called  the 
"  Sona  "  in  its  middle  and  "  Gash  "  in  its  lower  course,  where  it  is  only  an  inter- 
mittent stream,  it  flows  northwards  parallel  with  the  Atbara,  and  runs  out  in  the 
alluvial  lands  before  reaching  its  former  outlet,  called  by  the  Hadendoa  nomads 
"  Gash-da,"  i.e.  "  Mouth  of  the  Gash."  On  visiting  the  country  in  1864,  Mun- 
zinger  found  that  its  bed  had  not  been  once  flooded  for  twenty  years.  This  change 
in  the  local  hydrography  doubtless  arises  from  the  irrigation  works  constructed  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Gash.  Embanked  on  this  side,  the  river  flows  to  the  right, 
eating  away  its  eastern  and  highest  cliffs.  Its  course,  formerly  at  right  angles, 
now  becomes  parallel  to  the  Atbara ;  but  as  it  flows  northwards  it  finally  runs  dry 
in  the  sands.  In  1840.  Ahmed  Pasha,  the  Egyptian  conqueror,  tried  again  to 
divert  the  Gash  westwards  into  the  Atbara,  but  his  embankment  was  undermined 
by  the  riverain  population  of  the  lower  plain.  Till  recently  the  river  Barka,  or 
Baraka,  flowing  into  the  swamps  on  the  Red  Sea  coast  not  far  from  Suakin,  was 
also  supposed  to  belong  to  the  Nile  basin  through  a  branch  of  the  Mareb.  This 
tradition  differs  little  from  that  related  by  Strabo,  according  to  which  a  branch  of 
the  Astaboras  flowed  to  the  Red  Sea.  The  hypothesis  may  perhaps  be  partly  due 
to  a  confusion  of  names,  for  the  plain  stretching  east  of  the  Mareb  towards  the 
Atbara  is  called  Barka,  or  Baraka,  a  term  also  applied  to  the  channel  flowing  east- 
wards. However  this  be,  the  Axumite  Ethiopians,  and  after  them  the  Abyssinians, 
who  long  identified  the  true  Nile  with  their  Takkaz^,  fancied  for  centuries  that  it 
would  be  easy  to  divert  their  river  into  the  sea  and  thus  deprive  Egypt  of  the  water 
required  for  its  crops.  This  illusion,  however,  was  also  entertained  by  foreigners, 
and  is  referred  to  by  Ariosto  in  his  "  Orlando  Furioso."     Repeating  the  threat  of 


'•.»J 


i  tropical 
swept  by 


sumos  its 
i  gorges. 
L  is  much 
ts  valley, 
16  united 
(id  waters 
le  Goang, 
I  of  Lake 
Jelow  the 
my  under 
ts  former 
rge  semi- 
•eb,  or  the 
ion  of  its 
dialled  the 
an  inter- 
3ut  in  the 
la  nomads 
i64,  Mun- 
lis  change 
tructed  on 
the  right, 
ht  angles, 
■f  runs  dry 
i  again  to 
adermined 
Barka,  or 
uakin,  was 
•eb.      This 
;  branch  of 
partly  due 
jwards  the 
iwing  east- 
byssinians, 
ries  that  it 
f  the  water 
foreigners, 
e  threat  of 


lljiilmi.  Iijiifl|.i»iym  I  J«i»i  n  iitiiji^iffHWiirilin  ii  i|i inwli  vyf^imju  miipi  i    m*»,fm  iwihiwt 


THE  ATBAItA. 


61 


Albuquerque,  who  asked  the  King  of  Portugal  to  send  him  workmen  from  Madeira 
to  assist  him  in  making  a  new  bed  for  the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea,  Theodore,  "  king  of 


Kg.  16.— Basin  op  thb  Nilk  Apvlubnts. 
Scale  1  :  18,500,000. 


.800  Miles. 


kings,"  boasted  that  he  would  divert  the  Mareb  into  the  Barka,  in  order  to  create 
a  famine  in  Egypt  and  compel  the  Khedive  to  capitulate. 

During  the  dry  season,  the  Atbara,  unlike  the  Blue  Nile,  fails  to  reach  the  main 
stream.  Its  bed,  440  yards  broad,  is  completely  dry ;  "  a  desert  within  a  desert," 
It  w  merely  a  waste  of  shimmering  sands,  to  which  the  distant  mirage  gives  the 


62 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


appearance  of  Hparkling  water.  But  in  the  lower  bed  of  the  Atbara  a  few  pools 
are  scattered  here  and  there.  They  owe  their  exiHtence  partly  to  the  hollows  that 
the  eddies  have  excavated  many  yards  below  the  normal  bed,  and  partly  to  the  trees 
that  lino  the  bank  preventing  the  water  from  evaporating.  In  these  pools,  some 
more  than  half  a  mile  in  length,  others  reduced  to  an  extent  of  a  few  square  yards, 
are  crowded  together,  in  a  space  much  too  small  for  their  mutual  ease  and  safety, 
all  the  river  fauna — fishes,  turtles,  crocodiles,  and  even  the  hippopotamus  ;  the  wild 
animals  resort  likewise  to  these  pools  teeming  with  life,  and  every  palm  and  every 
thicket  along  the  bank  has  its  colony  of  birds.  In  most  of  the  rivers  on  the  plain 
the  water  brought  back  with  the  rainy  season  returns  gently  into  its  channel. 
Preceded  by  a  current  of  air,  which  ca^.w8  the  foliage  along  its  banks  to  thrill  with 
life,  it  advances  with  a  sound  like  the  rustling  of  silk.  The  first  sheet  of  water  is  a 
mere  mass  of  yellowish  foam  mixed  with  debris  of  all  sorts  ;  following  this  mixture 
of  mud  and  water  comes  a  second  wave,  the  true  fluvial  stream  ;  then  appears  the 
normal  current,  towards  which  the  animals  rush  to  quench  their  thirst.  But  the 
powerful  volume  of  the  Atbara  rushes  on  like  an  avalanche  ;  when  it  again  fills  its 
bed,  it  is  not  by  a  slight  and  gradual  advance,  but  by  a  sudden  rush  of  water 
sweeping  everything  before  it.  The  traveller  sleeping  on  its  sandy  bed  is  suddenly 
awakened  by  the  trembling  of  the  earth,  and  by  an  approaching  roar  like  that  of 
thunder.  "  El  Bahr !  el  Bahr !  "  shout  the  Arabs,  and  there  is  scarcely  time  to 
rush  to  the  bank  to  escape  the  advancing  flood,  driving  before  it  a  mass  of  mud, 
and  bearing  on  its  first  waves  reeds,  bamboos,  and  a  thousand  other  spoils  torn  from 
its  banks.  Presently  the  river  bed  is  completely  flooded,  a  quarter  of  a  mile  broad, 
and  from  18  to  40  feet  deep,  flowing  on  as  calmly  as  if  its  current  had  never  been 
ruffled.  Like  the  Blue  Nile,  the  Atbara,  called  also  by  the  Arabs  the  Bahr-el- 
Oswad,  or  "  Black  River,"  flows  into  the  Nile,  and  running  with  it  from  cataract 
to  cataract,  sends  down  to  the  lower  reaches  that  muddy  sediment  by  which  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  is  ever  renewed. 

The  Nubian  Nile.  '  * 

Below  the  junction  of  the  two  Niles,  north  of  Khartum,  the  river  has  no  more 
visible  affluents  during  the  dry  season,  the  lower  bed  of  the  Atbara  itself  being 
quite  exhausted.  But  it  probably  receives  hidden  streams,  for  through  evaporation, 
lateral  filtrations,  and  the  loss  sustained  in  irrigating  the  riverain  plains,  the  stream 
is  diminished  only  by  a  seventh  according  to  Lombardini,  and  by  a  fifth  according 
to  Gothberg,  in  the  entire  section  of  1,620  miles  between  Khartum  and  Cairo.  In 
the  great  bend  that  it  describes  in  its  course  through  Nubia  it  is  diminished  very 
slowly ;  but  to  the  eyes  of  the  traveller  its  volume  does  not  appear  to  be  modified 
during  this  long  course  over  a  considerable  portion  of  the  earth's  circumference. 
As  the  Nile  discharges  a  quantity  of  water  eqasl  to  four  times  that  of  the  Loire, 
or  seven  times  that  of  the  Seine,  merchant  vessels  might  penetrate  through  this 
highway  to  the  centre  of  the  continent,  were  it  not  obstructed  at  intervals  by 
numerous  rocky  barriers.     The  Nubian  Nile  is  thus  divided  by  six  natural  barriers 


r  pools 
1^8  that 
le  trees 
8,  some 
B  yards, 

safety, 
the  wild 
d  every 
be  plain 
channel, 
rill  with 
ater  is  a 
mixture 
tears  the 
But  the 
a  fills  its 
of  water 
suddenly 
:e  that  of 
J  time  to 

of  mud, 
»m  from 
ile  hroad, 
3ver  been 

Bahr-el- 
i  cataract 
rhich  the 


^rtum 


i  no  more 
lelf  being 
iporation, 
le  stream 
according 
airo.  In 
shed  very 

modified 
mference. 
the  Loire, 
ough  this 
«rvals  by 

,1  barriers 


THE  NUBIAN  NILE. 


68 


into  seven  navigable  reaches  ;  ror  can  vessels  pass  from  one  to  the  other  except 
at  high  water,  or  without  the  aid  of  hundreds  of  bunds  to  haul  them  over  the  rapids 
or  check  their  downward  course.  Were  the  waters  of  the  Nile  not  retained 
by  these  obstructions,  and  were  the  stream  allowed  to  flow  freely  during  the 
dry  season,  the  question  may  be  asked  whether  there  would  be  sufiicient  water 
for  the  whole  year  ;  would  a  delta  have  ever  been  developed  or  an  Egypt  created  ? 
Preceded,  between  Tamaniat  and  the  Jebel  Melekhat,  by  two  steep  rapids  and 

— .  Fig.  16. — CiTARACT  or  Hamnbk. 

Soala  1  :  80,000. 


1,100  Yard*. 


a  gorge  commanded  by  two  basaltic  columns,  the  sixth  and  most  southern  cataract 
between  Ehartiun  and  the  mouth  of  the  Atbara  would  hardly  be  thought  worthy 
of  the  name  on  such  rivers  as  those  of  Canada  and  Scandinavia,  where  the  still- 
undeveloped  valleys  have  preserved  their  abrupt  declivities  notwithstanding  the 
constant  erosive  action  of  the  running  waters.  This  cataract  of  Garri  is  rather  a 
rapid  caused  by  the  presence  of  granite  reefs  at  this  point;  still  it  suffices  to 
interrupt  the  navigation  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year.     When  the  railway. 


■':m 


64 


NORTII-EAHT  AFRICA. 


destined  to  bocomo  the  coniTncrcial  outlet  of  the  whole  Upper  Nile  ba«in,  shall 
connect  the  llefl  Sea  coust  with  the  Atbum  und  Nile  confluence,  this  line  will  have 
to  Im)  extended  up  ntroum  as  fur  uh  the  cataract  of  Garri  to  allow  of  uninterrupted 
traflic.  The  fifth  calaract,  which  is  followed  by  the  rapids  of  (ierasheb,  Mograt, 
and  others  between  Jlerlnir  and  Abu-IIamed,  obstructs  the  navigation  only  at  low 
water ;  but  farther  down  occur  more  serious  natural  impediments.  Most  travellers 
crossing  Nubia  between  tSudan  and  Kgypt  follow  the  land  route  from  Abu-IIamed 
to  Korosko,  not  merely  because  of  the  vast  semicircle  described  westwards  by  the 
Nile  ill  this  part  of  its  course,  but  also  because  its  bed  is  here  obstructed  by  three 


Figf.  17.— Kaibak  Cataract. 
SoiOe  1  :  19,000. 


1,660  TardB. 


series  of  cataracts.  One  of  these  groups  of  rapids,  known  as  the  "  fourth  cataract," 
is  of  considerable  length,  and  is  divided  into  many  stages  like  a  series  of  sluices. 
First  comes  Dulga  Island,  a  high  rock  crowned  by  a  ruined  fortress  ;  then  follow 
other  granite  boulders  visible  above  the  water,  but  without  interrupting  the 
navigation.  This  tirst  barrier  is  succeeded  by  islands  and  sandbanks,  followed  by 
more  rocks,  dividing  the  river  into  steep  channels,  and  the  gorge  ends  near 
Gerendid,  in  a  sort  of  gateway  formed  by  two  rocks  covered  with  the  ruins  of 
fortresses.  Here  are  no  trees  like  those  on  the  fifth  or  the  third  cataract  situated 
below  New  Dongola,  not  a  patch  of  verdure  on  the  bank  to  soften  the  wild  grandeur 


<•»■«»■?»*■ 


THE  NUULVN  NILK. 


M 


of  tho  Hconory.     Nothing  moots  llio  gnzo  except  water,  rm-k,  siiml,  luid  mUv,  until 
it  is  arroHtcd  farthor  down  by  tlio  bold  headland  of  Mount  Jiarkal. 

Tho  "  third  "  cataract,  like  tho  othcTH,  compriMOH  Hoveral  partial  fallw,  below 
an  anctont  ialund-studdiKl  lake,  whoro  tho  river  expands  to  u  width  of  nonio  seven 
niiloM  between  itH  two  bankH.  At  the  firHt  granite  roof,  that  of  Ilannek,  ho  culled 
from  a  Nubian  caHtle  on  itH  left  bank,  the  Rtreum,  divided  into  a  thounund  foaming 
ohannelN,  prenentn  u  more  decided  fall.  Iloro  blackiHh  rockB  of  hornbhrnde  luid 
feldH])ur  project  from  twenty-four  to  twenty-six  feet  above  low  water.  The  river- 
craft  do  not  venture  amid  the  openings  of  thiH  irregular  barrier ;  but  under  tho 
right  bank  runn  a  channel  broad  enough  to  allow  two  boatn  to  pass  abreast.  At 
the  entrance  of  the  cataract  a  few  trees  festooned  with  creeperfl  overhang,  in  dense 
archoH,  reefs  which  are  carefully  avoided  on  account  of  the  venomous  snakes  which 
infest  them.  Lower  down  more  islands  are  scattered  in  raid-stream,  their  verdure 
contrasting  vividly  with  the  black  rocks.  The  Ilannek  rapids  have  a  total  length 
of  4  miles,  and  the  difference  of  level  between  the  two  extreme  points  varies 
from  18  fett  at  low  water  to  10  feet  during  tho  floods.  It  is  thus  evident 
that  the  fall  ia  hero  comparatively  slight,  as  is  the  case  in  most  of  the  other 
cataractH. 

Below  Hannek  tho  Nile  trends  sharply  east  and  north  towards  the  Kaibar  or 
Eajbar  bank,  which  during  the  dry  season  seems  to  completely  obstruct  tho  stream. 
It  has  the  appearance  of  an  artificial  dyke,  which  by  a  peculiar  optical  illuHion,  due 
to  the  contrast  between  the  '  'rk  rock  and  the  greyish  water,  seems  to  rise  to  a 
considerable  height.  The  rock  must  lie  approached  qmte  closely  to  find  the 
tortuous  outlets  through  which  the  foaming  channels  of  the  Nile  escape.  During 
the  floods  the  Eaibar  barrier  is  entirely  concealed,  leaving  free  passage  to  the  stream 
between  its  banks.  Tho  Wadi-Halfa,  or  "  second  cataract,"  is  the  point  where 
most  European  and  American  travellers  making  the  "  tour  of  the  Nile  "  bring  their 
journey  to  a  close.  •  Tho  rock  of  Abu-Sir,  which  commands  its  tumidtuous  waters 
and  affords  a  magnificent  iininterrupted  view  of  the  southern  horizon,  is  scrawled 
all  over  with  the  names  of  adventurous  tourists,  proud  of  having  penetrated  so  far 
up  the  mysterious  river.  Although  this  cataract  stretches  over  a  space  of  more 
than  fifteen  miles,  it  forms  merely  the  lower  portion  of  the  series  of  rapids  known 
as  the  Batn-el-Hagar,  which  have  a  total  length  of  about  eighty  miles.  The  river 
presents  everywhere  the  same  aspect  throughout  the  whole  of  this  section.  Its 
broad  bed  is  strewn  with  boulders,  most  of  them  rounded  off  like  stones  polished 
by  glacial  action ;  whilst  others  are  disposed  vertically  like  basalt  columns,  or  else 
cut  up  into  jagged  crests,  bristling  with  sharp  and  needle-like  spines.  Between 
these  reefs  rusli  the  winding  channels,  each  forming  a  separate  cascade  ;  elsewhere 
occur  landlocked  basins,  in  which  the  whirlicg  waters  seem  completely  arrested. 
To  these  succeed  other  rapids,  falls,  and  eddiefi;  the  cataract  thus  breaking  up  into 
a  thousand  partial  falls.  But  at  low  water  these  minute  thread-like  streams  are 
scarcely  visible,  being  lost  in  the  vast  maze  of  shoals  and  channels.  Excluding 
the  reefs,  the  archipelago  consists  of  three  hundred  and  fifty-three  islands  and 
islets,  each  with  its  Nubian  name,  more  than  fifty  of  them  being  inhabited  and 


I! 


1 1 


I; 


i^ 


B« 


XOUTIl-KAHT  AFUIfA. 


cullivjitPfl.  Farther  north  the  right  hank  is  nkirtcd  hy  a  o?i  '  o'  oxtinofc 
volnanoos  forininp^  u  continuation  to  the  rockii  of  tho  cataract.  neb,  crutivs, 
ruffPfod  cragn,  moundit  of  indurattxl  anhoH,  hillockH  of  lava,  ntand  out  with  ♦'  eir 
thoufwind  varied  forms  againnt  tho  hnri/on  of  tho  Lihyan  doHcrt. 

Tho  "  first  "  outanicf,  that  of  ANuan,  in  neither  ho  hmg  nor  so  uniform  an  thot 
of  Wadi-IIulfa,  nor  dooH  it  prcNont  tho  name  dcHoIato  appearan(re,  but  it  none  the 
loHs  doHorvoH  tho  name  btHjueathed  to  uh  by  the  anciontH.  It  also  consiHts  of  a 
neriefl  of  rapids  ondlosMly  ramifying  amid  tho  granite  rockH  of  divers  fonns  and 
colours,  mostly  destitute  of  vegetation,  but  offering  here  and  there  grand  or  charming 
pictures  with  their  piled  up  rocks  amid  the  foaming  waters,  and  their  picturesque 
groups  of  palms,  tamarinds,  or  thickets  festooned  with  lianas.  The  approaches  of 
tho  cataract  are  guarded  above  by  the  island  of  I'hilce,  at  once  u  temple  and  a 
garden ;  and  below  by  Elephantine,  the  "  Island  of  Flowers,"  whose  beauties  are 
mirrored  in  the  waters  of  the  stream.  Their  historical  memories  and  associations 
also  contribute  to  render  the  sight  of  these  rapids  one  of  those  spectacles  that 
challenge  the  attention  of  the  observer  in  the  highest  degree,  and  that  leave  an 
indelible  impression  on  tlie  memory.  Here  is  the  "  gate  "  of  Egypt ;  here,  since 
tho  commencement  of  recorded  history,  we  trace,  as  it  were,  a  visible  boundary 
between  two  worlds,  fiy  a  remarkable  coincidence  this  boundary  is  almost 
indicated  by  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  for  it  was  close  to  Asuan  that  for  the  first  time 
astronomers  saw,  at  the  summer  solstice,  the  sundials  deprived  of  their  shadow  and 
the  wells  pierced  to  the  bottom  by  the  solar  rays.  Another  world  began  for  thera 
beyond  this  ideal  line ;  it  seemed  to  them  as  if  in  the  torrid  everything  must 
contrast  with  the  phenomena  of  the  temperate  zone.  Even  at  the  present  day  we 
are  easily  led  to  exaggerate  all  the  local  differences  between  the  regions  stretching 
on  either  side  of  the  cataract  and  the  populations  inhabiting  them. 

At  high  water  the  navigation  is  not  arrested  along  this  so-called  cataract. 
Boatmen  pass  with  safety  up  and  down  ;  but  at  low  water  the  passage  either  way 
on  the  thousand  arms  of  "  Neptune's  vast  staircase  "  is  only  to  be  accomplished  by 
the  aid  of  the  "chellala,"  or  "men  of  tho  cataract,"  who  tow  or  check  the  boats 
by  means  of  hawsers.  About  fifty  large  ilhahabiyi,  engaged  by  the  tourists,  yearly 
brave  the  dangers  of  the  falls,  and  thanks  to  the  experienced  pilots  employed, 
accidents  are  rare.  The  skill  of  the  boatmen  in  descending  the  cataracts  displays 
itself  in  keeping  the  boat  on  the  central  crest  formed  by  the  stream,  at  times  rising 
six  or  even  more  feet  above  the  main  body  of  water  skirting  the  rocks ;  from  the 
top  of  this  moving  hill  the  pilot  commands  the  foaming  rapids.  The  moment  the 
boat  swerves  right  or  left  from  the  crest  of  the  wave  the  danger  begins ;  if  the 
sailors  are  unable  to  redirect  it  into  the  current  by  oar  or  rudder,  it  is  inevitably 
dragged  into  the  eddies  at  the  sides  and  exposed  to  the  rocks,  compared  by  the  Arabs 
to  monsters  who  "  bite  "  it  to  pieces  as  it  is  borne  along.  .;  ^ 

At  the  sight  of  these  rapids  it  may  be  asked,  while  allowing  for  the  poetical 
exaggeration  of  the  ancient  descriptions,  whether  the  obstructing  reefs  were  not 
much  higher  two  thousand  years  ago,  and  whether  the  Nile  did  not  at  that  period 
form  a  veritable  fall.     Tn  fact,  it  is  probable  that  the  river  then  fell  in  a  cascade 


-\.  '"v: 


;,*?'? 


tT"^ 


if  f»»tinct 
b,  crutors, 
vith  ♦^  tur 

a  UH  thut 
nono  tho 
Hints  of  a 
nrtiia  and 
charming 
ctureMjue 
oachefl  of 
plo  and  a 
iiuties  are 
isociations 
icles  that 
t  leave  an 
lere,  since 
boundary 
is  almost 
first  time 
ladow  and 
for  them 
ling  must 
it  day  we 
stretching 

'.  cataract, 
(ither  way 
tlished  by 
the  boats 
sts,  yearly 
employed, 
9  displays 
mes  rising 
from  the 
>ment  the 
IS ;  if  the 
inevitably 
the  Arabs 

e  poetical 

were  not 

lat  period 

a  cascade 


— ' '  '*''''''''^**%*P».!*!!*^gg;^tiJiJi''!!i;^'-?.^ 


-** 


■  ^  ,-f 


THE  LOWER  NILE. 


67 


over  a  lofty  granite  ledge.  The  desert  east  of  the  rapids  is  intersected  by  an  old 
branch  of  the  r:'ver  running  at  several  yards  above  the  present  high-water  level. 
Even  the  most  superficial  observer  of  natural  phenomena  cannot  fail  to  perceive 
that  he  is  travelling  in  a  now  abandoned  watercourse.  He  still  perceives  the 
windings  of  the  stream  between  rocks  covered  with  hieroglyphic  inscriptions ; 
he  observes  its  old  cliffs  and  banks,  and  here  and  there  the  alluvia  are  still  revealed 
under  the  billows  of  sand  drifting  before  the  winds  from  the  desert.  The  records 
deciphered  by  archaoologists  describe  the  march  of  armies  along  this  old  river  bed, 
from  the  times  of  Thotmes  and  Rameses  down  to  the  present  day.  According  to 
the  observations  made  by  Lepsius  at  Semne  above  the  second  cataract,  it  is  probable 
that,  from  the  beginning  of  Egyptian  history,  this  dried-up  channel  was  once 
flooded  by  a  branch  of  the  Nile.  During  the  reign  of  Amenemha  III.,  some 
4,700  years  ago,  the  watermarks  engraved  on  the  rocks  at  this  place  show  that  the 
flood  level  exceeded  by  many  yards  that  of  the  present  time :  the  highest  water- 
mark exceeds  by  25  feet,  the  lowest  by  13  feet,  the  corresponding  levels  of 
modem  days.  On  the  right  bank  of  the  Hannek  cataract  also  M.  de  Gottberg 
has  found  alluvial  deposits  10  feet  above  the  level  of  the  highest  modern  floods. 
May  not  the  waters  have  been  thus  arrested  by  the  cataracts,  and  forced  to  flow 
into  the  now  dried-up  valley  which  serves  as  a  highway  between  Egjrpt  and 
Nubia  P  Above  the  Batn-el-Hagar  rapids  are  to  be  seen  many  tracts  formerly 
cultivated  but  now  quite  sterile,  since  the  waters  of  the  floods  no  longer  reach 
them.  Like  all  river  valleys  whose  beds  are  regulated  by  the  action  of  running 
waters,  that  of  the  Nile  establishes  its  equilibrium  by  falling  in  Nubia  and  again 
rising  in  Lower  Egypt.  M.  de  Gottberg  accounts  for  the  lowering  of  the  water- 
level  in  Nubia  through  the  disappearance  of  cataracts  formerly  existing  between 
Wadi-HaKa  and  Asuan,  traces  of  which  are  still  visible.  The  rocks  forming  these 
cataracts  consist  of  schists,  which,  unlike  the  crystalline  reefs,  yielded  to  the 
destructive  force  of  the  stream.  The  granite  rocks  themselves  also  yield  to  the 
same  action,  but  much  more  gradually. 

The  Lower  Nile. 

Below  the  granite  ledge  washed  by  the  waters  of  the  first  cataract,  the  cliffs 
lining  the  river  bank  are  composed  of  layers  of  sandstone,  succeeded  farther  on  by 
limestone  rocks.  Historic  Egypt  begins  at  the  foot  of  this  rocky  barrier,  which  is 
covered  on  either  side  by  tertiary  deposits.  North  of  Asuan  the  banks  of  the  river 
are  at  first  separated  only  by  a  space  of  from  two  to  three  miles.  The  fields  and 
plants  hemmed  in  between  the  escarpments  and  the  stream  present  on  either  side 
nothing  but  a  narrow  strip  of  verdure  winding  along  the  foot  of  the  grey  or  yellow 
rocks,  which  glitter  like  burnished  gold  in  the  sun.  The  cultivated  zone  lies  chiefly 
to  the  west,  along  the  so-called  "  Libyan  "  bank,  which  is  most  exposed  to  the  solar 
rays.  Like  most  other  rivers  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  the  Nile  bears  chiefly 
towards  its  right  bank,  the  current  skirting  the  foot  of  the  rocks,  which  at  some 
points  rise  sheer  above  the  stream.    The  lowna  stand  mostly  on  the  left  bank, 


.-*.; 


?3!e   . 


58 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


although  several  left  high  and  dry  by  the  retreating  waters   have   frequently 
had  to  shift  their  sites  in  order  to  maintain  their  communication  with  the  river. 

At  the  defile  of  Silsile,  or  the  "  Chain,"  where  the  valley,  4,000  feet  across, 
appears  w  have  formerly  been  barred  by  an  iron  chain,  the  landing-stages  adjoin  the 
old  quarries  which  supplied  blocks  of  stone  and  statues  for  the  palaces  of  the  Pharaohs, 
A  sphinx's  head  is  still  to  be  seen  here  not  yet  detached  from  the  rock.  From  this 
point  the  mountains  begin  to  diverge  on  both  sides,  the  river  winding  in  a  plain 
about  9  miles  broad,  the  first  below  the  cataract  that  affords  sufficient  space  for  the 
site  of  a  large  town.  Here  formerly  stood  Thebes  of  the  hundred  gates.  Farther 
on  the  valley  becomes  wider;  the  distance  from  mountain  to  mountain  varying  from 


Fig.  18. — The  Kbnkh  Valley  on  the  Route  to  Koseik. 
Scale  1  :  660.000. 


E  .  of  Greenwich        j3°50 


53°I0 


n  ilUeti. 


12  to  16  miles  ;  but  in  this  part  of  its  course,  as  well  as  above  Thebes,  the  river  bears 
chiefly  towards  its  right  bank,  eroding  the  base  of  the  cliffs  of  the  Arabian  range. 
On  the  left  side  the  hills  are  mere  sardy  dunes  shifting  and  modifying  their  form 
with  every  gust  of  wind.  The  cultivated  tracts  are  here  invaded  by  the  Libyan 
desert,  an  extensive  view  of  whose  dreary  wastes  may  be  obtained  from  the  crests  of 
the  western  range.  ;  ,       ■  , 

Near  Keneh,  36  miles  below  Thebes,  the  Nile  describes  that  great  curve  which 
brings  it  neareiit  to  the  Red  Sea.  At  this  point  it  is  distant  from  the  coast,  in  a 
straight  line,  not  more  than  60  miles.  Preoisely  in  this  direction  the  eastern  range 
is  broken  by  one  of  the  deepest  transverse  ravines  occurring  throughout  its  whole 
course,  and  it  may  be  asked  whether,  in  some  remote  geological  epoch,  the  Nile 


'equently 
river. 
3t  across, 
djoin  the 
Pharaohs, 
From  this 
n  a  phiin 
36  for  the 
Farther 
fing  from 


26' 


26' 


h 


river  bears 
lian  range, 
their  form 
le  Libyan 
le  crests  of 

irve  which 
coast,  in  a 
tern  range 
t  its  whole 
,  the  Nile 


•  *>'mmi} ,mimi M^'mn  «n>nf.y 


THE  LOWER  NILE. 


69 


may  not  ^ave  flowed  through  this  breach  towards  the  Red  Sea.     Beaches  of  rolled 
pebbles,  whxch  could  only  have  been  deposited  by  running  waters,  are  found  in  his 
gorge  both  on  the  slope  of  the  Nile  and  on  that  of  the  sea.     It    s  probably    he 
traces  of  a  former  channel  that  have  suggested  to  the  vivid  imagination  of  th 


Fig.  19.— Head  op  thb  Idkahimieh  Canal. 
Scale  1  :  425,000. 


6  Miles. 


Arabs  the  idea  that  it  would  be  easy  to  divert  the  Nile  into  its  former  bed,  always 
supposing  that  this  ravine  did  once  receive  the  waters  of  the  river  But  if  the 
course  of  the  Nile  cannot  be  deflected  into  this  lateral  gully,  it  would  at  least  be 
easy  to  construct  a  railway  through  it,  which  would  make  the  port  of  KoseVr  the 


'1 


- 


"N 
% 


^v' 


60 


NOR'ifl-EAST  AFRICA. 


chief  commercial  outlet  of  all  Upper  Egypt.  Over  fifty  years  ago  the  English 
already  sank  wells  at  intervals  along  this  gorge,  with  the  view  of  utilising  it  for 
the  overland  route  to  India.  • 

After  flowing  westwards  below  the  great  bend  of  Keneh,  the  Nile  trends  north- 
west and  north ;  but  in  this  part  of  its  course  it  bifurcates,  one  arm  branching 
off  and  flowing  parallel  with  it  on  the  west  side  at  a  mean  distance  of  seven 
miles.  This  is  the  Bahr-Yusef,  or  "  River  of  Joseph,"  so  called  in  memory  of 
Pharaoh's  minister  mentioned  in  the  Jewish  traditions,  or  rather  of  a  certain  Joseph, 
minister  of  the  Fatimites  in  the  twelfth  century.  But  it  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  excavated  by  the  hand  of  man,  although  it  has  been  frequently  embanked, 
deflected,  and  directed  into  lateral  channels,  like  all  the  running  waters  of  the 
valley.  Recently  the  point  of  derivation  has  been  displaced,  and  the  canal  named 
Ibrahimieh  has  been  raised  to  the  level  of  the  high  banks  in  order  more  easily  to 
regulate  the  discharge  of  the  flood  waters.  In  the  part  where  it  has  not  been 
canalised  the  Bahr-Yusef,  skirted  along  its  left  bank  by  the  dunes  drifting  before 
the  desert  wind,  is  a  winding  stream  like  the  Nile,  having,  like  it,  its  islands,  sand- 
banks, eroded  clifiEs,  and  network  of  watercourses  and  false  rivers.  Its  mean  breadth 
is  about  330  feet,  but  through  it  very  little  of  the  Nile  waters  are  distributed. 
Feeders  from  the  main  stream,  in  traversing  the  intermediate  plain,  replenish  the 
River  of  Joseph  at  intervals,  thus  making  good  the  losses  caused  by  evaporation. 
This  phenomenon,  of  two  parallel  streams  in  one  and  the  same  valley,  one  the 
main  stream  discharging  nearly  the  whole  liquid  mass,  the  other  a  small  current 
winding  through  an  ancient  river  Lod,  recurs  in  nearly  all  those  valleys  whose 
hydrographic  system  has  not  yet  been  completely  changed  by  canalisation  and 
drainage  works.  Several  rivers  skirted  by  embankments  have  also  their  Bahr- 
Yusef,  like  the  Nile.  Such  in  France  is  the  ^  "ire,  skirted  by  the  Cisse,  by  the 
waters  derived  from  the  Cher,  the  Indre,  aid  the  Vienne;  lastly  by  the  river 
Authion,  with  its  numerous  ramifications. 


The  Fayum  Depression^  j 

About  300  miles  from  the  point  of  bifurcation,  the  Bahr-Yusef  penetrates  into 
a  lateral  valley,  where  it  ramifies  in  its  turn.  The  eastern  branch,  which  con- 
tinues the  river  properly  so-calhid,  penetrates  north-eastwards  through  a  breach 
in  the  Libyan  range,  beyond  which  it  rejoins  the  Nile  above  its  delta.  But  the 
western  branch  trends  abruptly  north-westwards  to  a  rocky  gorge,  at  the  entrance 
of  which  its  course  is  regulated  by  a  three-arched  bridge  built  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  furnished  with  flood-gates  allowing  the  stream  to  pass,  or  diverting 
it  to  the  surrounding  plains.  Beyond  the  barrage  the  canal  v.aids  through  a 
ravine  about  6  miles  long  In  the  Libyan  range,  at  the  outlet  of  which  it  suddenly 
debouches  in  a  valley  of  amphitheatral  form,  and  nearly  110  miles  in  circum- 
ference. This  is  the  Fayum  depression,  which  is  watered  by  an  intricate  system  of 
canals,  rills,  and  rivulets,  ramifying  like  the  veins  and  art-eries  in  a  living  organism. 
At  its  lowest  point  this  hill-encircled  basin  is  estimated  at  from  86  to  116  feet 


■It.<ll)».ll'w.ll»l#llytll 


THE  FAYUM  DEPRESSION. 


61 


e  English 
ng  it  for 

ids  north- 
branching 
I  of  seven 
nemory  of 
lin  Joseph, 
ir  to  have 
embanked, 
ters  of  the 
tnal  named 
6  easily  to 
s  not  heen 
;ing  hefore 
Emds,  sand- 
3an  hreadth 
iistributed. 
iplenish  the 
ivaporation. 
ey,  one  the 
Lall  current 

eys  whose 
isation  and 
their  Bahr- 

isse,  by  the 
Y  the  river 


.etrates  into 
which  con- 
rh  a  breach 
But  the 
he  entrance 
thirteenth 
►r  diverting 
through  a 
it  suddenly 
in  circum- 
te  system  of 
g  organism, 
to  116  feet 


below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean.  Although  apparently  quite  flat,  it  has  a 
sufficient  incline  for  the  waters  of  the  canal  derived  from  the  Bahr-Yusef  to 
circulate  throughout  the  whole  area,  imparting  to  the  Fayxmi  a  fertility  rivalling 
that  of  the  Nile  delta  itself.  The  superfluous  water  is  collected  towards  the  south 
in  the  small  Lake  Gara'a,  or  the  "  Hollow,"  whence  it  formerly  penetrated  far  into 
the  Wady  Reyan.  Towards  the  west  the  system  of  canalisation  converges  in  a 
large  lake  about  30  miles  long  from  south-west  to  north-east.      This  reservoir, 

_  Fig.  20. — Entrangb  of  thb  Fayum. 

Soale  1  :  1RO,000. 


or   breenwich 


3MUe(. 


known  as  the  Birket-el-Kerun,  is  but  slightly  brackish,  and  quite  drinkable  by 
animals  when  it  floods  the  whole  western  depression  of  the  valley.  But  when 
reduced  by  evaporation  it  becomes  saline,  and  the  margin  is  then  covered  with 
crystalline  efilorescences  resembling  snow  at  a  distance.  In  some  places  the 
muddy  ground,  clothed  like  tho  Algerian  sehkhnn  with  a  slight  incrustation  of 
salt,  forms  treacherous  quagmfros,  dangerous  to  man  and  beast. 

Till  recently  the  superfluouK  v^  aters  were  supposed  to  escape  through  a  rocky 
gorge  in  the  hills  north  of  the  Fayum  Valley,  to  the  depression  known  as  the 


■./^ 


;•:.'! 


•'     * 


^■liP^^i— IBM 


62 


NOETH-EAST  AFRICA. 


Bahr-bel&-m&,  or  "Waterless  Sea."  But  this  'lypothesis  has  not  been  confirmed 
by  the  latest  surveys,  which  have  failed  to  discover  any  alluvial  deposits  indicating 
the  presence  of  the  stream  at  this  point.  The  planks  and  masts  of  Nile  boats 
spoken  of  by  the  Arabs  are  the  stems  of  petrified  trees,  such  as  occur  in  various 
parts  of  the  desert. 

The  Fayum,  the  Arsinoitidis  of  the  ancients,  has  been  the  sceno  of  some  of  the 
most  remarkable  hydraulic  operations  of  the  old  Egyptian  engineers.      Before  the 

Fig.  21.— Faycm. 
Soale  1 :  476,000. 


a0'40- 


il"         L   .  of  Greenwich 


Boina  of  the  dyke  of  T  • : '  Moaib. 
6  Mllee. 

interference  of  man  the  whole  depression,  which  received  all  the  waters  of  the 
Bahr-Yusef,  formed  an  extensive  inland  sea.  On  this  point  tradition  is  unani- 
mous, and  in  any  case  the  continuous  inflow  must  have  flooded  the  cavity  to  a 
level  sufficiently  high  to  establish  an  equilibrium  between  the  discharge  and  the 
loss  by  evaporation.  The  very  name  of  Fayum  (Piom,  Phaiom),  is  said  to  mean 
"  flooded  land  "  in  the  old  Egyptian  language,  although  the  Arabic  word  fayyum 
itself  gives  the  appropriate  sense  of  '*  corn-bearer."     But  after  the  Bahr-Yusef 


II    •»  Mill  II  I 


jonfirmed 
adicating 
ile  boats 
a  various 

ne  of  the 
Jefore  the 


^•^ 


ich 


«r8  of  the 
is  unani- 
avity  to  a 
je  and  the 
d  t,o  mean 
)rd  fay  yum 
iahr-Yusef 


THE  FA  YUM  DEPRESSION. 


68 


was  dammed  at  its  entrance  into  the  gorge,  the  "  sea  "  became  gradually  reduced 
to  a  semicircular  morass,  and  would  dry  up  altogether  but  for  the  sluices  which 
admit   the  water  required  for  irrigation  purposes.     It  was  no  slight  matter  to 
have  thus  reclaimed  an  extensive  district,  where  as  many  as  oiio  hundred  and 
fifty  villages  are  said  to  have  flourished.      But  according  to  the  most  probable 
supposition,  supported  by  a  careful  survey  of  the  whole  region,  the  more  elevated 
portion  of  the  reclaimed  land  was  converted  into  the  famous  Luke  Ma>ris,  which  was 
one  of  the  wonders  of  the  old  world,  and  which,  centuries  after  its  disappearance, 
must  still  bv)  ranked  amongst  the  most  astounding  works  of  man.     The  remains  of 
embankments  in   some  places  200   feet  broad  at  their  base,  and  60  feet  high, 
appear  to  represent  on  the  east  side  the  outer  enclosures  of  the  vast  basin  which 
during  the  floods  received  the  discharge  of  the  Bahr-Yusef ,  estimated  at  about  the 
twenty-sixth  part  of  the  whole  Nile.      At   the  angles  of  the  embankment  arc 
still  visible  the  remains  of  pyramids  recording  the  fame  of  Amencmha  III.,  by 
whom  this  stupendous  reservoir  was  created  some  forty-seven  centuries  before  the 
opening  of  the  Suez  Canal.     Herodotus,  who  may  perhaps  have  seen  though  ho 
did  not  measure  it,  gives  it  an  enormous  circumference,  far  greater  in  fact  than 
that  of  the  whole  Fayum.     According  to  Linant,  it  occupied  an  area  of  120  square 
miles  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Fayum,  and  at  the  end  of  the  floods  its  volume 
must  have  exceeded  100,000,000  cubic  feet.      A  small  portion  of  this  prodigious 
storage  may  have  served  to  inigate  the  western  Fayum;    but  nearly  all  the 
overflow  taken  from  the  Nile  during  high  water  was  distributed  over  the  plains 
during  the  dry  season,  and  sufficed  to  irrigate  460,000  acres  of  land.      None  of 
the  great  modern  reservoirs  can  be  compared  with  this  great  work,  either  for 
size  or  skilful  design.     Most  of  them  are  merely  artificial  lakes,  which  receive  the 
whole  fluvial  discharge,  and  distribute  the  excess  to  the  lower  river  basin.    But 
the  stream  itself  is  continually  sapping  the  foundations,  and  too  often  bursting 
the  banks  of  its  reservoir..    It  woidd,  however,  be  difficult  now  to  restore  Lake 
Moeris,  whose  bed  has  been  so  greatly  raised  by  alluvial  deposits  that  the  retain- 
ing walls  and  embankments  would  have  to  be  carried  several  yards  higher  than 
formerly. 

The  Bahr-Yusef  is  continued  imder  diverse  names  to  the  delta,  but  in  its 
lower  course  the  discharge  is  very  slight.  Nearly  all  its  feeders,  as  well  as  the 
other  channels  and  watercourses,  a/e  gathered  up  by  the  main  stream  at  the  head 
of  the  delta,  whence  they  again  ramify  in  a  thousand  branches  over  the  plains  of 
Lower  Egypt.  Hence  at  this  point  the  Nile  presents  much  the  same  appearance 
as  in  Nubia,  or  still  higher  up  at  the  Khartum  confluence.  It  glides  ir  a  slow 
and  regular  current  between  its  banks,  reflecting  in  its  stream  the  trees,  gray  mud 
villages,  and  here  and  there  a  few  white  buildings.  Nothing  sudden  or  abrupt 
in  this  vast  and  sleeping  landscape,  %?hose  monotony  is  broken  only  by  a  few 
dhahabiy^,  or  Nile  boats,  and  above  which  is  suspended  an  everlasting  azure 
firmament.  On  either  side  the  narrow  plains,  the  cliflPs,  the  ravines,  and  terraces 
succeed  each  other  in  endless  imiformity.  In  this  land  of  simple  outlines,  little 
surprise  is  caused  even  by  the  regular  forms  of  the  pyramids  skirting  the  western 


* 


.-"-i 


\:4 


64 


NORTH-EAST  AFRTOA. 


II 


edge  of  the  plateau,  at  dawn  pink  and  hazy  cones,  liko  flames  of  fire  dimly  seen 
in  the  brighter  sunshine,  at  sunset  gloomy  triangular  masses  standing  out  against 
a  brazen  sky. 

The  NiLK  Delta. 

Below  Cairo  the  two  ranges  of  hills,  confining  the  Nile  as  in  a  ditch,  gradually 
retire  as  they  mei-ge  in  the  plainn,  leaving  the  river  to  ramify  and  flow  through 
divergent  branches  into  the  Mediterranean.  The  triangular  disposition  of  this 
alluvial  plain  has  caused  the  term  delta*  to  be  applied  to  the  whole  region,  and  by 

Pig.  22. — RoBBTTA  Mouth. 
flcale  1  :  SOO.Onn. 


50'85 


L       OT  Greenwich 


Otol6 
Feet 


16  to  83 


82  Feet  and 
apwsid*. 


3  Mile*. 


I  I 


analogy  to  all  districts  of  similar  formation,  however  irregular  their  contours. 
Spite  of  all  the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the  local  geography  since  it 
was  first  described  by  Herodotus  two  thousand  five  himdred  years  ago,  the 
Egyptian  delta  has  remained  a  model  of  elegance  in  the  harmony  of  its  divergent 
branches  and  the  indentations  of  its  contours.  .-i-',;:,      >  .,    < 

At  the  dawn  of  history  the  head  of  the  delta  lay  more  to  the  south,  the 
bifurcation  being  situated  some  four  miles  below  the  present  suburb  of  Bulak  at 
Cairo.     But  the  intermediate  apex  being  unprotected  by  a  system  of  embankmenta 

*  That  is,  the  name  of  the  triangular  Greek  letter  d  =  D. 


'»,i'<jj|iiiui;«:ii.i 


150 


51* 
£5 


contours. 

ly  since  it 

ago,  the 

divergent 


THE  NILE  DELTA.  8S 

it  yielded  from  year  to  year,  from  century  to  century,  to  the  incessant  action  of 
the  stream.  The  whole  delta  thus  becomes  displaced  from  south  to  north, 
according  as  the  river  beds  are  raised  and  the  mouths  extended  seawards  by  the 
accumulation  of  alluvial  deposits.  At  present  the  Batn-el-Bagaru  fork  is  over 
12  miles  from  Cairo,  following  the  windings  of  the  island-studded  stream,  and 
has  consequently  been  displaced  at  the  annual  rate  of  about  24  feet.  Analogous 
changes  have  taken  place  throughout  the  whole  of  the  delta,  where  the  current 
has  eaten  its  banks  now  to  the  right,  now  to  the  left,  where  simple  channels  have 
become  broad  watercourses,  while- copious  streams  have  disappeared  or  shifted  their 
beds. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  mystic  ideas  prevalent  regarding  the  value  of 
numbers,  the  old  writers  unanimously  agreed  to  reckon  seven  chief  branches  in 
the  delta,  all  the  others  being  regarded  as  "  false  mouths."  At  the  same  time  the 
normal  direction  of  the  streams  required  for  imgation  purposes  was  carefully 
maintained  during  peaceful  epochs  by  incessant  dredging,  embankments,  and  works 
of  canalisation.  It  is  now,  however,  no  longer  possible  ^o  trace  the  course  of  the 
seven  ancient  branches,  which,  left  to  themselves,  resumed  their  erratic  tendencies, 
shifting  their  beds  with  every  fresh  inundation.  But  there  is  a  general  agree- 
ment regarding  their  main  direction,  and  many  doubtful  points  of  the  hydrology 
of  the  Nile  as  described  by  Herodotus  and  Strabo  have  been  cleared  up  by  the 
naturalists  of  the  French  expedition  to  Egypt  at  the  close  of  the  last  century. 

At  present  two  main  branches  only  are  enumerated,  and  these  are  indicated  on 
the  convex  curve  of  the  seaboard  by  two  points  formed  by  the  tongues  of  alluvial 
land  advancing  continually  seawards.  They  are  the  Rashid  or  B^setta  branch, 
identified  with  the  Bolbitinis  of  the  ancients,  and  that  of  Damietta,  which 
formerly  bore  the  names  of  Phatnetica  and  Bucolica.  The  Rosetta  branch,  some  14 
miles  the  shorter  of  the  two,  but  flowing  in  a  bed  from  30  to  50  inches  lower, 
carries  oS  the  largest  quantity  of  water,  leaving  not  more  than  four-ninths  to 
that  of  Damietta  and  the  intermediate  Menufieh  channel.*  Nevertheless  the 
Damietta  River,  thanks  to  its  greater  elevation,  is  much  more  available  for 
irrigpation  purposes.  The  two  branches,  diverging  like  the  radii  of  a  circle,  flow 
respectively  north-west  and  north-east,  advancing  at  their  mouths  some  5  miles 
beyond  the  normal  coast-line.  But,  like  all  rivers  falling  into  the  Mediterranean, 
both  are  half  closed  by  mud  and  sandbanks,  barring  the  passage  to  large  vessels. 
The  western  or  Rosetta  River  has  two  channels  from  7  to  8  feet  deep,  while  that 
of  Damietta,  being  less  open,  has  a  depth  of  scarcely  65  inches  at  its  entrance.  At 
high  water,  when  there  is  a  discharge  of  470,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  the  bar 
is  reduced  not  more  than  4  or  5  inches,  its  elevation  depending  more  on  the  action 

*  Discharge  of  the  Nile  at  low  water  in  1876,  according  to  Ali  Pasha  Mubarck : — 

CuUofeet 

Bosetta  branch 6,370 

Damietta    , 8,660 

Menufieh  channel 670 

Total   ....   :    ♦        .-      ....      16,600 

Mean 166,000  r  i 

6 — AF. 


■1 

-'■S 


■'■■'." 


m 

i 


86 


NORTTI-EAST  AFEICA. 


o£  the  marine  currents  than  on  the  inland  flomlH.  Hut  if  its  height  is  little 
modified,  itH  position  is  oftou  shifted  several  miles.  During  the  inundations  the 
current  of  the  Nile  is  felt  3  miles  seawards,  and  at  times  is  strong  enough  to 
perceptibly  reduce  the  violence  of  the  waves,  thus  offering  a  temporary  refuge  to 
storm-tossed  vessels. 

The  face  of  the  delta  is  gradually  encroaching  on  the  sea,  but  at  >  much  slower 
rate  than  might  bo  expected  from  the  quantity  of  sedimeutary  matter  brought 


Fig.  2S. — Damiktta  Mo^th. 
Soolo  1 :  S00,000. 


52*  5' 


L  .  of  Greenwicn 


58 'IS' 


Otol6 
Feet. 


Fiet. 


SS  Feet  nnd 
upwards. 


SUilei. 


down  by  the  Nile.  Even  the  estimate  of  13  or  14  feet  annually,  as  calculated  by 
Elie  de  Beaumont  on  a  study  of  the  old  and  medisoval  documents  bearing  on  this 
point,  seems  to  be  excessive,  slight  though  it  be  when  compared  with  the  growth 
of  even  smaller  deltas,  such  as  those  of  the  Rhine  and  Po.  The  charts  prepared 
by  the  French  expedition  at  the  end  of  the  last  century,  and  by  M.  Larousse  in 
1860,  after  the  completion  of  the  preliminary  w  -rks  for  the  Suez  Canal,  give  a 
yearly  increase  of  130  feet  for  the  Bosetta  and  40  for  the  Damietta  mouth.  But 
these  are  merely  local  clanges,  and  with  the  displacement  of  the  channels  the 


fflB^yiWl'P 


**«P»^^ 


THE  NILE  DEI-TA. 


07 


is  little 
ious  the 
ough  to 
efuge  to 

h  slower 
brought 


«i 


!i?5 


Iculatedby 

ig  on  this 

growth 

prepared 

jarousse  in 

Inal,  give  a 

luth.     But 

Einnels  the 


accumulatml  alluvia  are  soon  swept  away  and  diBtributod  along  the  coant  by  the 
miirinu  currents.  In  many  placcH  tlioso  cncroiiohmentH  of  the  sou  havo  boon  clearly 
determined.  A  distinctly  perceptible  coast  streora  sets  steadily  from  Alexandria 
eastwards  to  Port  Said,  here  and  there  developing  slight  local  counter  currents, 
such  as  the  ebb  and  flow  between  the  Rosetta  mouth  and  Abukir  I'oint.  The 
effect  of  this  stream  is  to  ennlo  the  headlandn  and  fill  in  the  intervening  inlets, 
thus  restoring  the  original  paralwlic  curve  of  the  coast.  Wherever  an  obstacle  is 
met,  it  becomes  attached  to  the  mainland  by  a  semicircular  strip  of  sand.  Shoals 
have  thus  been  accumulated  at  the  western  pier  of  Port  Said,  although  not  in 
BuiBcient  quantity  to  endanger  the  basins  of  the  new  port,  especially  as  they  may 
be  easily  reduced  or  removed  by  dredging.  Altogether  the  annual  growth  of  the 
delta  cannot  be  estimated  at  more  than  H  or  9  feet,  so  that  since  the  time  of 
Herodotus  the  mainland  has  encroached  o  he  sea  probably  not  much  more  than 
3^  miles. 

There  may  even  be  a  complete  equilibrium  between  the  fluvial  deposits  and 
the  erosions  of  the  marine  currents.  At  least  the  geological  aspect  of  the  coast  is 
that  of  an  ancient  seaboard  forming  a  continuation  of  the  small  limestone  ridge 
at  Alexandria,  which  at  present  terminates  at  Abukir  Point.  In  the  shallow 
waters  the  waves  take  advantage  of  every  rocky  projection,  islet,  or  headland  to 
deposit  sandbanks,  and  thus  gradually  transform  the  irregidar  marine  inlets  into 
landlocked  lagoons.  Before  advancing  beyond  the  mainland  the  Nile  had  to  fill 
up  these  lagoons,  separated  by  strips  of  sand  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  this 
work  is  not  yet  accomplished.  It  would  appear  to  have  even  been  delayed  by  a 
general  subsidence  of  the  laud,  such  as  has  been  recorded  in  Holland,  on  the  coast 
of  North  Germany,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Po,  in  the  Amazon  estuary,  and  in  so 
many  other  alluvial  districts.  Thus  the  artificial  caves  formerly  excavated  near 
Alexandria  at  a  certain  elevation  above  sea- level  are  now  submerged.  These  are 
the  tombs  known  by  the  name  of  "  Cleopatra's  Baths."*  To  the  same  phenomenon 
should  perhaps  be  attributed  the  restoration  of  certain  depressions,  which  after 
having  long  remained  dry  have  again  been  partly  flooded. 

But  however  this  be,  the  lacustrine  basins  of  the  delta  are  now  so  shallow  that 
they  might  easily  be  filled  up.  The  eastern  extremity  of  Lake  Menzaleh,  which  is 
separated  from  the  Nile  basin  by  the  embankments  of  the  Suez  Canal,  has  already 
become  dry  land,  while  the  old  bed  of  the  Pelusium  branch  has  disappeared. 
Since  Andreossy's  survey  at  the  end  of  the  last  century,  Menzaleh  itself  has  been 
much  reduced,  and  has  now  a  mean  depth  of  scarcely  40  inches,  although  covering 
a  superficial  area  of  about  500  square  miles  during  the  floods,  when  it  communicates 
by  temporary  channels  both  with  the  Nile  and  the  sea.  At  low  water  it  is  so 
beset  with  shoals  and  islets  that  most  of  the  navigation  is  suspended. 

Lake  Buries,  which  lies  east  of  the  Rosetta  branch  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
delta,  is  scarcely  less  extensive  than  Menzaleh,  and  like  it  rises  and  falls  with  the 
periodical  floods.  A  sweet- water  basin  when  fed  by  the  Nile,  it  becomes  brackish 
at  other  times,  and  communicates  through  a  single  periuanent  opening  with  the 

•  Sir  Ch.  I  yell,  "  Antiquity  of  Man." 


i 


3 


68 


NOUTll-lUHT  AFRICA. 


fioa.  Luko  Mariut,  oloso  to  Alvxundriii,  Iiiih  u  (iircutnforonoo  of  nt  loaat  00  miloii, 
unil  tho  HttM^p  cIjITh  towunln  the  nuuth  and  wohI  givo  it  tho  uapuct  of  ti  truct  luko. 
Yet  it  was  cotnplutoly  dry  in  179U,  whoii  tho  Kn^^liHh  out  tho  ombankinont 
Noparating  it  from  tho  nou.  Since  then  it  is  onoo  more  <liininiHhinj(,  the  broach 
having  aj^ain  l)oon  ropuinxl.  Whothor  tho  ancient  Kfi^yptianH  hud  alno  drained  it 
by  outtin;;^  otf  ita  Hoawurd  connnunicationH,  or  whether  tho  mainland  wan  thon 


Fig.  24.— Branch  or  thb  Vltiu  rtowiMo  to  LAun  Minralih. 

8l»U  I  :  8*0,000. 


.9  HUM. 


more  elevated  than  at  present,  Mareotis  was  certainly  either  altogether  or  partly 
dry  at  some  remote  epoch,  for  in  its  bed  remains  are  found  of  old  temples  and 
statues.  .,      >    ' .    .., 

If  it  is  di£Scult  to  estimate  the  encroachments  of  the  Nile  delta  on  the  sea  and 
the  surrounding  lakes,  an  equally  intricate  problem  is  presented  by  the  gradual 
upheaval  of  tho  whole  region  subject  to  the  annual  inundations,  for  here  account 
must  also  be  taken  of  the  sands  brought  by  the  wind,  as  well  as  of  the  sediment 
deposited  by  the  stream.  From  the  comparative  observations  made  during  the 
French  expedition,  Girard  calculated  that  by  the  Nile  alluvia  f  >e  soil  was  raised 
on  an  average  about  5  inches  in  a  century.  Hence,  notwithstanding  its  slight 
encroachments  seawards,  the  level  of  the  delta  would  have  been  raised  about  20 
feet  during  the  last  five  thousand  years,  that  is,  since  the  Egyptians  had  already 


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IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WtST  MAIN  STMiT 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14SS0 

(716)  872-4503 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/ICIVIH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  MIcroreproductlons  /  Instltut  Canadian  da  microraproductions  historlquas 


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VOLUME  AND  PERIODICAL  EI8ING  OF  THE  NILE.  69 

begun  their  great  works  of  canalisation.  Doubtless  most  of  the  monuments 
erected  near  the  river,  such  as  the  slabs  of  stone  paving  the  great  avenue  of 
sphinxes  at  Kamak,  che  colossal  statues  of  Memnon,  and  even  a  block  bearing  a 
comparatively  recent  Greek  inscription,  are  now  found  buried  to  some  depth  below 
the  surface.  But  this  is  due  not  so  much  to  change  of  level  as  to  subsidence,  such 
huge  masses  naturally  sinking  gradually  in  the  alluvial  soil  of  the  riverain  plains. 
In  the  same  ay  the  erratic  boulders  in  Switzerland  and  the  colonnades  of  the 
Roman  temples  have  sunk  more  and  more  below  the  surrounding  surface.  The 
Nilometer  discovered  by  Girard  in  Elephantine  Island  is  perhaps  one  of  those 
monuments  whose  foundations  have  thus  given  way.  Hence  although  the  present 
high-water  mark  may  exceed  the  old  measurement  by  8  or  9  feet,  it  does  not 
follow  that  the  bed  of  the  river  and  its  banks  have  been  raised  to  that  extent. 
Such  a  phenomenon  could  not  be  reconciled  with  the  drying  up  of  the  old  bed  east 
of  Asuan,  which  has  now  been  abandoned  by  the  stream. 


.  !i 


'  I 


Volume  and  Periodical  Risino  of  the  Nile. 

The  yearly  overflow  of  the  Nile,  which  renews  all  nature,  and  which  was 
celebrated  by  the  Egyptians  as  the  resurrection  of  a  god,  is  of  such  regular 
occurrence  that  it  was  formerly  compared  with  the  revolutions  of  the  heavenly 
orbs.  How  could  the  riverain  populations  refrain  from  worshipping  this  stream, 
"  Creator  of  wheat  and  giver  of  barley,"  a  stream  but  for  which  "  the  gods  would 
fall  prostrate  and  all  men  perish  "  P  "  Hail,  0  Nile !  "  sang  the  priests  of  old, 
"  Hail,  thou  that  comest  to  give  life  to  Egypt ! "  According  to  its  periodical 
return  all  things  were  and  still  are  regulated — field  operations,  town  work,  civil 
and  religious  feasts.  But. at  present  it  is  easier  to  prepare  for  the  rising  waters, 
which  are  annouroed  from  Khartum  thirty  or  forty  days  beforehand.  They  begin 
to  appear  nearly  always  on  June  10th,  at  first  "  green "  with  vegetable  refuse 
from  the  great  lagoons  of  the  upper  basin.  But  the  rise  is  very  slight  till  about 
the  middle  of  July,  when  the  stream  becomes  suddenly  swollen  by  the  "red" 
waters  from  the  Abyssinian  highlands.  Towards  the  end  of  August  the  Nile  is 
nearly  full,  but  continues  to  increase  slightly  till  October  7th,  when  it  usually 
reaches  its  culminating  point.  After  this  date  the  subsidence  sets  in  and  continues 
very  gradually  till  the  return  of  the  floods  the  following  June. 

During  the  three  months  of  high  water  the  Nile  sends  seawards  a  liquid  mass 
equal  to  about  three-fourths  of  the  whole  annual  discharge,  or  3,150  billions  cubic 
feet  out  of  a  total  of  4,200  billions.  High-water  mark  naturally  diminishes  down 
stream,  falling  from  about  56  feet  at  Asuan  to  24  or  25  at  Cairo.  Relying  on 
some  of  the  old  texts,  especially  a  much-disputed  passage  in  Herodotus,  some 
writers  suppose  that  the  level  of  the  floods  has  been  considerably  modified  since 
the  first  centuries  of  Egyptian  history,  although  sufficient  data  are  lacking  to 
determine  the  point  with  certainty.  In  any  case  the  mean  elevation  has  under- 
gone no  change  since  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  of  the  new  era.  The 
careful  measurements  taken  at  that  time  have  since  been  maintained,  and  they  are 


70 


NORTH-EAST  AFEICA. 


found  to  coincide  with  those  published  by  the  naturalists  of  the  French  expedition, 
and  with  the  uninterrupted  series  of  modern  observations.  At  the  same  time  the 
fioods  oscillate  within  certain  extreme  limits.  Sometimes  there  is  insufficient 
water  to  supply  all  the  canals,  while  in  other  years  the  overflow  is  excessive,  and 
on  these  occasions  the  land  does  not  dry  soon  enough  to  insure  good  harvests. 

The  rate  of  the  land-tax  generally  varies  according  to  the  height  and  volume 
of  the  river.     Hence  the  public  crier  appointed  to  proclaim  the  state  of  the 


Fig.  26. — Ybarly  OsciLLATioiia  or  ihb  Nim. 


Jan.       Feb     March  Apnl      May    June  July      Auq      Sept.     Oct.'     Nov.      Deo.    • 


inundations  has  often  been  compelled  by  the  Government  to  make  false  reports  on 
this  point.  The  day  when  the  Nile  reaches  the  proper  level  for  cutting  the  dykes 
separating  it  from  the  irrigation  canals  Is  a  day  of  rejoicing  for  all  the  riverain 
populations.  Formerly  a  young  maiden  was  on  this  occasion  borne  with  great 
pomp  to  the  river  and  cast  into  the  seething  waters,  in  order  to  obtain  abundant 
crops  from  the  local  divinity.  Now  her  place  is  taken  by  a  dressed-up  doll,  which 
is  still  offered  by  the  public  executioner,  a  curious  reminiscence  of  former  human 
sacrifices. 


*.at-t.uh'.wfti|irtiH  -•■ 


-—..-.,  ■iiiWiiii    I 


xpedition, 

0  time  the 

Dsufficient 

tssive,  and 

eats. 

ad  volume 

te  of  the 


M 


^>- 


Hii. 


reports  on 
the  dykes 
le  riverain 
with  great 
1  abundant 
doll,  which 
ner  human 


VOLUME  AND  PEBIODICAL  BISINO  OF  THE  NILE. 


71 


The  two  zones  of  alluvial  land  skirting  the  Nile  are  intersected  by  numerous 
irrigation  canals,  which  distribute  the  fecundating  waters  far  and  wide.  Like 
those  of  *her  streams  flowing  through  alluvial  plains,  the  banks  of  the  river  are 
higher  than  the  surrounding  country.  A  cutting  running  transversely  to  the 
direction  of  the  valley  would  show  that  from  cliff  to  clii!  the  plain  presents  the 
form  of  a  convex  curve,  so  that  at  high  water  the  stream  occupies  the  most 
elevated  level  between  the  ranges  of  hills  bordering  both  sides  of  its  valley.  From 
this  central  elevation  the  surface  of  the  current  inclines  right  and  left,  and  the 
slope  is  continued  in  both  directions  across  the  riverain  plains.  This  disposition  of 
the  ground  is  due  to  the  greater  quantity  of  sedimentary  matter  deposited  along 
the  bonks  of  the  stream.  The  waters  have  thus  a  double  incline,  that  is,  according 
to  the  general  direction  of  the  river  valley,  and  according  to  the  lateral  slope  of  its 
banks.  If  they  met  with  no  obstacle  in  the  irrigating  canals,  they  would  flow  at 
once  to  the  lowest  level  on  either  side,  and  convert  the  whole  depression  into  a 
vast  lake.  Hence  they  have  to  be  retained  at  the  higher  elevation- by  means  of  a 
transverse  dyke,  which  is  opened  only  when  the  upper  levels  have  been  sufficiently 
submerged.  The  overflow  is  then  arrested  in  a  second  section  also  confined  by 
embankment  works,  and  in  this  way  the  water  is  distributed  to  every  part  of  the 
surrounding  plains  by  a  system  of  canals  disposed  at  successive  levels. 

Nevertheless  the  normal  incline  of  the  land  has  in  many  places  been  modified 
by  the  local  alluvial  deposits,  and  by  the  action  of  opposing  currents  in  the  lateral 
channels.  The  shifting  sands  brought  by  the  winds  from  the  neighbouring 
escarpments  have  also  here  and  there  raised  the  low-lying,  plains  to  a  level  with, 
and  even  higher  than,  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  thus  obliging  the  cultivators  to  changpe 
the  whole  plan  of  their  irrigation  works.  Formerly,  when  the  Nile  was  inhabited 
by  five  different  species  of  the  crocodile,  the  rising  flood  was  preceded  and  heralded 
by  the  suk,  a  small  and  harmless  variety,  which  was  accordingly  welcomed  with 
much  ceremony  by  the  villagers,  and  even  honoured  with  divine  worship  in  many 
towns  far  removed  from  the  Nile.  Temples  were  dedicated  to  them,  where  they 
were  kept  alive,  decked  with  armlets  and  pendants,  and  fed  on  the  flesh  of  victims. 
But  none  of  these  saurians  are  now  seen  in  the  Egyptian  Nile,  even  as  high  up  as 
Thebes,  although  the  canals  intersecting  Cairo  were  still  infested  by  them  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century.  None  appear  to  be  met  below  Ombos,  south  of 
Asuan,  and  this  region  of  the  cataracts  is  also  inhabited  by  electric  fish.  But  the 
hippopotamus  has  retreated  still  higher  up  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Atbara 
confluence. 

When  the  flood  begins  to  subside,  the  water  in  the  higher  canals  would  at  once 
flow  back  to  the  main  stream  were  it  not  retained  by  sluices,  and  thus  stored  to 
meet  the  reqiiirements  of  the  following  spring  and  summer.  During  the  sub- 
sidence the  level  of  the  overflow  is  still  maintained  in  the  plains  some  18  or  20 
feet  above  the  bed  of  the  main  stream.  The  peasantry  also  utilise  the  waters 
which  filtrate  laterally  into  the  ground  to  a  distance  of  some  miles,  but  so  slowly 
that  the  effect  of  the  inundations  is  not  felt  for  weeks  and  even  months  after  the 
normal  period  of  the  rising.     Even  within  300  or  400  feet  of  the  Nile  the  water  in 


r 


<immfm 


*^V  -"■,"'-^"'J.."y'.'^'^'  ■- 


71 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


tho  wellB  docs  not  begin  to  rise  for  eight  or  ten  days,  while  at  the  distanoe  of  hall 
a  mile  it  is  delayed  till  the  floods  are  actually  subsiding.  Hence  the  curious 
phenomenon  that,  when  the  Nile  is  at  its  lowest  ebb,  the  water  in  wells  at  a 
distance  from  the  stream  rises  some  10  or  12  feet  higher  than  the  river  itself. 
The  cultivators  are  thus  enabled  to  continue  the  work  of  irrigation,  which  would 
otherwise  be  impossible. 

Tho  canals  and  transverse  ditches  utilised  as  a  means  of  communication  between 
the  villages  cut  up  all  the  cultivated  lands  into  a  vast  "chessboard,"  whose  parting 
lines  are,  so  to  say,  alternately  raised  and  sunk  below  the  surface.  The  vivifying 
fluid  circulates  everywhere,  like  blood  in  the  animal  arterial  system.  But  the 
maintenance  of  this  intricate  organism  involves  enormous  care,  the  least  disorder 
in  these  almost  level  plains  often  sufficing  to  cause  crevasses  and  obstructions,  and 
converting  the  flowing  streams  into  stagnant  waters.    Worn  out  by  ceaseless  toil, 


Fig.  26. 


-Skction  of  thr  Nilb  Vallby  at  8i6t. 
SMla  1 :  100,000. 


'  ■*  -  ^-  ^- ' ^  ■  '  i^f...^..  * 


ill 


]  i  ]  I     \\   \ 

I  w  imm   (I    1 


I    M 


.  8,800  Tnda. 


harassed  and  disheartened  by  official  rapacity,  the  fellahin  sometimes  lack  the  energy 
required  to  keep  in  good  order  the  canals  that  are  indispensable  to  feed  the  primitiye 
appliances  for  irrigating  their  fields.  On  the  large  estates  the  water  is  raised  by 
means  of  the  aakit/eh,  a  system  of  revolving  buckets  like  those  of  Syria,  worked  in 
Egypt  by  oxen  and  asses,  in  Nubia  by  camels.  But  most  of  the  peasantry  make 
use  of  the  so-called  afiad&fs,  vessels  or  baskets  attached  to  both  ends  of  a  balanced 
lever,  and  by  two  men  lowered  and  raised  alternately,  and  discharging  their 
contents  into  a  distributing  rill.  A  shad&f  will  thus  raise  the  water  to  a  height  of 
8  or  10  feet,  a  second  and  even  a  third  contrivance  of  the  same  kind  successively 
carrying  it  to  the  highest  required  level.  But  very  little  of  the  water  that  might 
be  obtained  for  irrigation  purposes  is  secured  by  this  rudimentary  apparatus.  Of 
the  4,200  billions  of  cubic  feet  yearly  discharged  by  the  Nile,  not  more  than  175 
billions  are  thus  utilised  by  the  riverain  populations,  so  that  not  more  than  half,  or 
perhaps  a  third,  of  the  arable  land  is  brought  under  cultivation.     Scarcely  forty 


tico  of  half 
;he  curious 
wells  at  a 
iver  itself, 
lioh  would 

Dn  between 
ose  parting 
e  vivifying 
But  the 
st  disorder 
ctions,  and 
aseless  toil, 


the  energy 
eprimitiYe 
a  raised  by 
worked  in 
intry  make 
a  balanced 
giag  their 
a,  height  of 
uccessively 
that  might 
iratoB.  Of 
e  than  175 
an  half,  or 
rcely  forty 


V  ■  •■• 


VOLUME  AND  PERIODICAL  BISINO  OF  TIIK  NILE. 


78 


millions  of  people  dwell  in  the  Nile  basin,  which  might  jrield  com  sufficient  for  a 
vastly  larger  population. 

The  brown  or  black..>h  mud  of  the  Nile  is  the  only  manure  required  for  the 
crops.  In  the  sun  it  becomes  solid  and  may  be  cut  into  bricks  or  vessels ;  under  the 
foot  it  is  hard  as  stone,  and  in  shrinking  develops  deep  lissuroH  in  the  ground. 
The  old  sandy  or  calcareous  deposits,  mingled  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  with  the  rolled 
shingle  wushiKl  down  by  floods  anterior  to  the  present  geological  (^]H)ch,  are  covered 
with  a  layer  from  35  to  40  feet  thick,  forming  an  extremely  rich  arable  soil  which, 
if  removed  elsewhere,  might  suffice  to  fertilise  a  region  u  hundred  times  more 
extensive. 

In  its  chemical  composition  this  Nile  mud,  from  which  Egypt  has  been  created, 
differs  from  that  of  all  European  rivers.  Its  analysis  yields  the  most  varied  results 
according  to  its  age,  locality,  and  distance  from  the  river.  But  it  always  contains 
a  considerable  proportion  of  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  of  oxide  of  iron  and 
carbon,  derived  from  decomposed  organic  substances.  Palatable  as  it  is,  the  Nile 
water  nevertheless  contains  the  refuse  of  all  the  provinces  in  its  vast  basin — the 
slime  of  the  Atbara,  animal  remains  from  the  Bahr-<'!-Azraq  lagoona,  sedg^  and 
other  vegetable  debris  from  the  Kir  and  Gazelle  rivers.  Between  the  sands,  argil* 
laceous  clays,  and  nigged  crags  of  both  deserts  there  thus  intervenes  a  narrow  belt 
of  verdure  created  by  the  miscellaneous  sedimentary  matter  in  the  course  of  ages 
washed  down  from  half  the  continent.* 


*  Analyais  of  the  Nile  mud  in  Egypt,  by  Regnault,  "  Deacrlption  of  Egypt,"  vol.  zz. 


Water    .        i  '      •        •        .  11  percent. 

Carbon 9    „    „ 

Oxides 6    I,     ,1 

Silica *    1.    I. 


Carlionate  of  Magneaia 
Carbonate  of  Lime  . 
Alumina . 


4  per  cent. 

18   II      11 
48   .,      ,, 


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ill 


■  ^«iHi^»^aM*«^«Vaf|a 


CHAPTER  in. 

REGION  OP  THE  GREAT  LAKES. 

TIE  basin  of  the  Victoria  Xyanza,  including  that  of  the  Upper  Nile 
as  far  as  its  passage  across  the  Albert  Nyauza  (MVutan  Nzigoh), 
comprises  a  superficial  area  which  may  be  estimated  at  some  170,000 
square  miles,  although  this  estimate  cannot  claim  to  be  more  than 
a  very  rough  approximation  to  the  reality.  Pending  a  more  exact 
knowledge  of  the  parting  lines  between  the  great  river  basins,  we  must  be  satisfied 
with  rude  calculations  according  to  the  spaces  enclosed  in  the  meshes  of  the 
intersecting  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude.  This  vast  region,  which  has  a  mean 
altitude  of  over  4,000  feet,  forms  part  of  the  great  continental  divide.  The  waters 
it  sends  down  to  the  Egyptian  river  bring  it  within  the  Mediterranean  basin ;  but 
it  approaches  far  nearer  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  while  its  southern  extremity  lies 
within  240  miles  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  As  regards  its  facilities  of  communication 
with  the  outer  world,  the  Victoria  Nyanza  naturally  gravitates  towards  the  social 
and  commercial  system  of  which  Zanzibar  is  the  centre.  Even  after  the  water 
highway  of  the  Nile  is  again  opened,  and  intestine  warfare  has  ceased  to  harass 
the  riverain  communities,  European  explorers  will  find  it  most  convenient  still  to  take 
the  route,  ascending  from  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  plateaux,  which  has  ever  been 
followed  by  the  Arab  traders. 

Although  forming  the  water-parting  betweeti  the  Mediterranean,  Indian,  and 
Atlantic  basins,  the  Nyanza  region  is  far  less  elevated  than  some  other  parts  of  the 
continent.  E^xcept  towards  the  sources  of  the  Tangure,  where  Mfumbiro  rises  to 
a  height  of  probably  10,000  feet,  and  farther  north,  where  the  still  loftier  Gam- 
baragara  stretches  parallel  with  the  meridian,  the  plateau  nowhere  develops  elevated 
highlands.  The  plains  are  broken  only  by  hills  and  ridges  rising  a  few  hundred 
yards  above  the  normal  level,  and  presenting  no  insurmountable  obstacles  to  the 
exploration  of  the  interior.  Amongst  these  Upper  Nilotic  lands  those  especially 
bordering  the  northern  and  western  shores  of  Nyanza  are  almost  unrivalled  in 
Africa,  and  scarcely  elsewhere  surpassed,  for  the  charm  and  variety  of  their  scenery, 
their  abundant  waters,  exuberant  vegetation,  and  fertile  soil.  The  inhabitants  of 
U-Nyamezi,  south  of  the  lake,  are  less  favoured  in  these  respects.     Here  hill  and 


CM M ATK— FliORA-   FAUNA. 


7S 


duio  ultorniito  with  tho  platouux ;  but  during  thr  riiiny  m«u«ori  tlio  land  In  ni<mtly 
H(km1im1  ur  uhuiigtHl  to  u  HWiunp.  All  tho  villufjfim  und  cultivutod  tractN  huvtt  lii.d  to 
1)0  dintributwl  ovor  tho  upliindH,  the  intorvoning  vitUoyH  boin:;^  utilised  oiiiy  uh 
grazing  lundH  during  tho  dry  fw^uMon.  Tho  hilln  couxiHt  of  griiiiittm  clotlicd  hero 
und  there  with  a  thin  luyor  of  vegetublo  humuH,  Huflficient  to  Hup{M)rt  u  little  bruHh- 
wood. 

Kuflt  of  the  inland  sea  the  noil,  being  lesfl  oopiounly  wntorod,  in  Htrown  with 
brackiHh  or  saline  depremionH,  while  farther  north  a  largo  npuue  botwiwn  tho  Victoria 
and  Albert  lakett  ia  ououpie<l  by  frosli  water  nioru'isoH,  thickets  of  the  uuuuphur 
plant,  aluggiah  streams  flowing  in  brood  winding  beds. 


Jpper  Nile 

a  Nzigch), 

ne  170,000 

more  than 

more  exact 

be  satisfied 

hes  of  tho 

has  a  mean 

The  waters 

basin ;  but 

;remity  lies 

munication 

the  Hocial 

the  water 

to  harass 

itill  to  take 

ever  been 

ndian,  and 
arts  of  the 
iro  rises  to 
tier  Gam- 
)s  elevated 
hundred 
les  to  the 
especially 
•ivalled  in 
ir  scenery, 
ibitants  of 
■e  hill  and 


Climate — Flora — Fauna. 

Although  the  Victoria  Nyanza  is  intersected  by  the  equator,  tho  normal  heats 
are  tempered  by  tho  elevation  of  the  land,  by  tho  free  pusHugo  it  offers  to  every 
atmospheric  current,  and  by  the  arborescent  vegetation  fostered  by  tho  tropical  rains. 
Henco  the  high  temperatures  prevalent  in  Nubia,  twenty  degrees  north  of  tho  equator, 
are  unknown  in  this  favoured  region.  Hystomatio  observations  made  at  Rubaga, 
capital  of  U-Oanda,  just  north  of  tho  line,  show  that  the  epithet  of  "  torrid  "  is 
inapplicable  to  the  climate  of  these  countries.  Tho  glass  never  rose  above  95°  F. 
or  fell  below  61°,  the  mean  between  these  extremes  being  about  79°  for  the  whole 
year.  This  is  the  temperature  of  Canton,  Tunis,  and  New  Orlaans,  and  is  much 
lower  than  that  of  Cairo,  Bagdad,  Havana,  llio  do  Janeiro,  not  to  speak  of  such 
siUtry  places  as  Bushir,  Mascat,  Karachi,  Bistra,  or  Murzuk,  &c. 

The  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  south  und  south-east,  attracted  by  the  rarefied 
air  of  the  Sahara.  Storms,  which  nearly  always  take  place  about  the  sumo  hour  in 
the  afternoon,  are  generally  the  result  of  a  collision  between  these  southern  currents 
and  others  from  the  north  and  north-west.  In  this  region,  which  corresponds  with 
that  of  the  "Black  Cauldron"  in  the  Atlantic,  heavy  rains  prevail  throughout 
the  year,  except  perhaps  in  July,  which  is  a  comparatively  dry  month.  The  greatest 
downpours  are  in  September,  October,  and  November,  and  uguin  in  April,  although 
according  to  Wilson  the  mean  annual  rainfall  does  not  exceed  50  inches  in  U-Ganda, 
where  there  are  no  lofty  ranges  to  intercept  the  moist  are-charged  clouds.  The 
months  are  here  marked  by  no  transitions  of  heat  and  cold,  and  as  the  rainy  seasons 
of  autumn  and  spring  are  the  most  conspicuous  phenomena  of  the  solar  year,  the 
people  of  U-Ganda  have  taken  as  the  naturol  divisions  of  time  these  epochs,  which 
also  coincide  with  their  agricultural  divisions.  Hence  their  years  are  only  half  the 
length  of  ours,  each  consisting  of  six  months,  the  first  of  which  is  called  the  "  sowing 
month,"  the  five  others  the  "eating  months." 

Favoured  by  an  abundant  rainfall,  the  flora  is  very  rich  in  the  fertile  regions 
encircling  Lake  Victoria,  where  the  soil  consists  of  vegetable  humus  resting  on  a 
red  clay  mixed  with  sund  some  35  feet  thick.  In  U-Gunda  about  the  equator  there 
is  no  break  in  the  verdure  which  everywhere  clothes  the  land.  The  bununu  and 
other  plantations,  forming  extensive  gardens  in  which  the  villages  are  embowered 


,J^ 


70 


N0BTH-EA8T  AFRICA. 


in  foliage,  are  succeeded  by  forest  trees  laden  with  parasitic  plants  and  interlaced 
by  festoons  of  huge  creepers  with  the  dense  undergrowth.  The  brooks  winding 
along  the  lowlands  seem  to  flow  in  underground  channels  impenetrable  to  the  solar 
rays.      '  ' '  '  ■■':-  -■•■•*■■■"  iV-;-:^  ■;;,t^;4'|;/.i4v;,j;i?»  ■':>is:;^^,'i^^^ 

But  however  beautiful  the  flora  of  the  upland  plateaux,  it  does  not  appear  to 
be  distinguished  by  great  variety.  Of  the  seven  hundred  and  iif  ty  species  collected 
by  Grant  between  Zanzibar  and  the  lower  Nile,  eighty,  or  at  most  a  hundred,  were 
new  to  botanists.  The  floras  of  the  Cape,  of  Abyssinia  and  the  Nile  are  intermingled 
on  these  uplands,  where  even  some  Indian  species  occur,  and  to  these  have  recently 
been  added  a  number  of  European  plants  which  here  find  a  congenial  home.  Grant 
thinks  that  Earagw^  especially  would  be  admirably  suited  for  the  cidtivation  of 
the  tea  plant.  The  giant  of  these  forests  is  the  mpaffu,  which  distils  an  aromatic 
gum  from  its  enormous  trunk  24  to  26  feet  in  g^rth. 

Like  the  flora,  the  fauna  of  the  plateaux  is  distinguished  from  that  of  the  sur- 
rounding regions  by  but  few  indigenous  species.  The  lake  is  inhabited,  like  the 
Nile  and  the  Niger,  by  hippopotami  and  crocodiles,  while  multitudes  of  aquatic 
fowl  swarm  in  the  sedge  or  perch  on  the  branches  of  the  trees  fringing  its  shores. 
From  the  cultivated  tracts  most  wild  beasts  have  been  scared,  although  the  neigh- 
bouring thickets  are  still  infested  by  the  much-dreaded  panther.  Hytenas  also 
prowl  about  the  villages ;  the  wayfarer  is  often  startled  by  the  ill-omened  yelp 
of  the  fox ;  small  game  is  hunted  by  the  wild  cat  and  other  allied  species ;  squirrels 
spring  from  branch  to  branch  of  the  forest  trees,  above  which  hover  g^yish  parrots 
noted  for  their  large  size  and  shrill  voice ;  lower  down  the  flowery  mead  is  alive 
with  all  the  brilliant  world  of  smaller  birds  and  butterflies. 

The  wilder  districts  of  U-Sui  on  the  Earagw^  frontier  and  of  North  U-Ganda, 
where  forest  trees  and  cereals  are  replaced  by  the  wild  palm  and  ferns,  are  inhabited 
by  numerous  species  of  tb,9  antelope,  by  the  rhinoceros,  elephant,  and  zebra.  Here 
also  the  swampy  lands  are  peopled  by  the  buffalo,  while  the  wild  boar  finds  a  lair 
in  the  dense  brushwood.  Several  varieties  of  monkeys  enliven  the  forests  of  the 
tableland,  amongst  them  the  colubus  guereza,  noted  for  its  rich  white  and  black  hair, 
and  possibly  also  the  chimpanzee.*  The  lion  is  very  rare  on  the  equatorial  uplands, 
although  his  tremendous  roar  is  occasionally  heard,  striking  terror  into  the  other 
denizens  of  the  iorest.  Ostriches  sweep  over  the  open  plains;  guinea-fowl  in 
countless  numbers  find  a  shelter  in  the  bush,  and  the  victims  of  the  battlefield  or 
the  executioner  are  removed  by  a  small  species  of  vulture,  the  scavenger  of  so  many 
tropical  lands. 


Inhabitants. — The  Bantus. 

Certain  parts  of  the  Upper  Nile  region  are  amongst  the  most  densely  peopled  lands 

in  Africa.     The  descriptions  of  Speke  and  Grant,  of  Stanley,  Long,  De  Linant,  and 

Gessi,  as  well  as  the  partial  estimates  of  the  missionaries,  are  all  unanimous  on  this 

point.     According  to  these  witnesses,  some  ten  or  twelve  millions  of  souls  are 

•  Emin-Bey,  Petermann'a  "  Mittheilungen,"  1881. 


[  interlaced 
tks  winding 
to  the  solar 

t  appear  to 
es  collected 
idred,  were 
itermingled 
ive  recently 
[ue.  Grant 
dtivation  of 
m  aromatic 

of  the  sur- 
ged, like  the 

of  aquatic 
I  its  shores. 

the  neigh- 
[ysenas  also 
tnened  yelp 
i;  squirrels 
|rish  parrots 
ead  is  alive 

1  U-Ganda, 
re  inhabited 
ibra.    Here 

finds  a  lair 
rests  of  the 

black  hair, 
ial  uplands, 
the  other 
lea-fowl  in 
ittlefield  or 

of  so  many 


iopled  lands 
Linant,  and 
lous  on  this 
f  souls  are 


THE  WA-8UKUMA  AND  WA-ZINZA. 


77 


concentrated  in  the  districts  bordering  on  the  great  lakes,  which  are  drained  by 
the  headstreams  of  the  Nile. 

In  speech,  and  probably  also  in  origin,  the  tribes  and  nations  of  the  plateau  are 
allied  to  the  peoples  of  South  Africa,  whose  ethnological  domain  encroaches  at 
this  point  some  600  miles  on  the  northern  basin.  All  the  lacustrine  communities 
belong  to  this  Bantu  stock,  which  is  so  remarkable  for  its  harmonious  and  pliant 
speech.  East  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  however,  there  appear  to  dwell  certain 
tribes  speaking  idioms  akin  to  that  of  the  Kordof an  Nubas ;  at  least,  it  is  certain 
that  the  Masai  and  the  Wa-Kwafi,  whose  language  is  not  of  Bantu  origin,  have 
some  settlements  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  lake.  Amongst  these  lacustrine 
tribes  there  are  some  that  have  not  yet  been  visited  by  European  explorers. 
Pending  more  positive  information,  which  cannot  be  much  longer  delayed,  all 
these  tribes  have  been  provisionally  classed  with  the  Bantu  family. 

The  Wa  Stjkuma  and  Wa-Zinza. 

A  section  of  the  Wa-Nyamezi  group  of  tribes  has  occupied  the  hilly  district 
stretching  south  of  the  Speke  Gulf,  the  largest  inlet  of  Lake  Nyanza.  But  uo  large 
state  has  been  developed  in  this  region,  which  is  watered  by  the  Simeyu  and  other 
streams  flowing  to  the  g^ulf .  The  inhabitants,  collectively  known  as  Wa-Sukuma, 
are  divided  into  a  large  number  of  small  communities  of  Bantu  origin,  but  greatly 
modified  by  mixture  with  slaves  from  all  quarters,  and  frequently  displaced  to 
escape  the  attacks  of  the  rnga-ruga,  or  marauders.  Most  of  these  Wa-Sukuma 
tribes,  although  banded  together  in  a  sort  of  confederation,  are  distinguished  from 
each  other  by  their  systems  of  tattooing  and  by  the  way  the  front  teeth  are  filed 
down.  Their  chief  ornament  consists  of  iron  wire  wound  round  the  arms,  legs,  and 
neck,  rendering  quick  action  very  difficult.  Both  sexes  also  attach  little  bells  to 
their  legs,  the  tinkling  of  which  acts  as  an  accompaniment  to  their  conversation. 
The  t:\hal  chiefs  enjoy  theoretically  very  little  power,  and  are  required  on  all  im- 
portant occasions  to  consult  the  elders,  the  real  depositaries  of  the  national  usages 
and  traditions.  Nevertheless  the  personal .  wealth  acquired .  by  these  kinglets, 
constituting  them  the  great  proprietors  of  the  country,  often  enables  them  to  pipy 
the  part  of  irresponsible  despots.  When  the  villagers  brew  their  pombd  or  native 
beer,  the  king  drinks  and  gets  drunk  at  pleasure ;  when  the  hunters  slay  an  ele- 
phant he  claims  the  best  "  joints,"  and  appropriates  the  tusks ;  all  the  skins  of 
lions,  leopards,  and  zebras  in  the  same  way  fall  to  his  share.  The  itinerant  dealer 
must  show  his  wares  to  the  king,  who  imposes  a  road-tax,  fixed  according  to  his 
caprice.  Lastly,  the  tribal  chief  inherits  the  property  of  all  his  subjects  who 
suffer  capital  punishment  on  the  charge  of  sorcery. 

Although  the  women  generally  speaking  enjoy  very  little  respect,  the  populous 
village  of  Wama  is  governed  by  a  queen.  The  magicians  command  great  influence, 
and  whenever  any  of  their  prophecies  happen  to  come  true,  or  their  miracles  prove 
successful,  they  dispose  of  the  unlimited  authority  usually  accorded  to  infallibility. 
Their  "  divining  wand  "  is  a  cow's  or  antelope's  horn,  which  when  filled  with  a 


I 


s? 


IJilUi 


ni*?-SE5*Sf«»'flr- 


78 


NORTH-EAST  APMOA. 


magic  powder  and  planted  in  the  ground  before  a  village,  suffices  to  ward  off  the 
enemy.  However,  resort  must  often  be  had  to  charms  of  greater  potency.  When 
a  battle  is  pending  the  wizard  flays  a  child,  placing  the  bleeding  victim  on  the 
"war  path,"  to  be  trampled  by  the  warriors  marching  to  victory.  But  a  great 
blow  was  jiven  to  the  power  of  the  magicians  by  the  arrival  of  the  European 
missionaries,  for  they  also  are  regarded  as  "  medicine-men,"  and  their  potions  are 
held  to  be  more  efficacious  than  those  of  the  natives.  A  rain-gauge  placed  by 
them  near  a  station  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Victoria  had  to  be  removed,  in  order  not 
to  destroy  the  spells  concocted  by  the  wizards  to  bring  down  rain. 

The  Sukuma  country  enjoys  a  certain  commercial  advantage,  due  to  its  position 


Pig.  27.— U-Kbbbwi  and  U-Suxvma. 
Soale  1 : 1,600,000. 


^V"  »aut,f 


SOUilM. 


on  the  route  of  the  slave-dealers  between  F-Nyamezi  and  IJ-Ganda.  Since  the 
days  of  Speke  and  Stanley  it  has  been  visited  by  several  Europeans.  The  most 
populous  district  is  U-Rima,  near  the  "  Jordans'  Mullah  "  of  Speke,  and  the  most 
frequented  port  is  the  village  of  Kagheyi  (Eagei)  on  the  left  side  of  the  lake,  where 
was  launched  Stanley's  Ladif  Alice,  followed  soon  after  by  the  Daisy  and  the  Eleanor. 
The  view  towards  the  lake  is  interrupted  by  the  hills  of  U-Kerewe,  a  large  island 
whose  name  has  often  been  applied  to  the  great  inland  sea  itself.  F-Kerewe,  which 
is  almost  entirely  covered  with  forests,  forms  a  separate  state,  whose  capital,  Bakindo, 
lies  near  the  east  sid?  on  a  creek  well  sheltered  by  islets  from  the  winds.  A 
palisade  of  the  tnmks  of  trees  in  the  centre  of  the  town  encloses  the  royal 
hut,  those  of  the  king's  wives,  the  granaries,  and  the  shed  where  are  deposited  the 


^ 


rd  off  the 
.  When 
m  on  the 
it  a  g^eat 
European 
otions  are 
placed  by 
order  not 

A  position 


401 


Since  the 
The  most 
the  most 
ike,  where 
e  Eleanor. 
rge  island 
we,  which 
,  Bakindo, 
rinds.  A 
the  royal 
losited  the 


THE  WA-nUMA. 


79 


war  drums.  Beyond  the  first  enclosure  is  the  court  of  justice,  where  the  king, 
seated  on  a  throne  decorated  with  teeth,  talons,  and  horns,  settles  the  disputes  of  his 
subjects.  A  second  palisade,  less  substantial  than  that  of  the  royal  palace,  encircles 
the  whole  village,  with  its  huts,  winding  lanes,  and  cultivated  fields,  where  are 
cultivated  tobacco,  cereals,  and  various  vegetables  introduced  by  the  Arabs. 

The  south-east  side  of  Lake  Victoria  is  bordered  by  the  IJ-Zinza  (U-Zinja)  country 
lying  west  of  the  Isanga  River,  which  flows  to  a  narrow  fiord  penetrating  over  30 
miles  inland.  This  little-known  region  has  been  visited  by  Europeans  only  on  its 
southern  slope,  which  drains  to  Lake  Tanganyka.  Like  the  Wa-Sukuma,  the  Wa> 
Zinza  are  divided  into  several  communities  governed  by  chiefs  and  their  wizards. 
They  live  in  constant  dread  of  the  marauding  Wa-Tuta  tribe,  who  are  said  to  be 
southern  Bantus,  perhaps  Zulus  penetrating  from  Lake  Nyassa  through  the 
Tanganyka  basin  northwards,  plundering  and  massacring  along  the  route,  like  a 
horde  of  wild  beasts.  The  Wa-Zinza  of  the  hilly  sandstone  districts  in  the  north, 
who  have  less  to  fear  from  hostile  inroads,  are  a  finer  and  more  vigorous  race  than 
those  of  the  lowlands.  They  wear  a  skirt  of  tanned  ox-hide,  deck  themselves  with 
necklaces  and  amulets,  and  lard  their  bodies  with  rancid  butter.  Of  all  the  Wa- 
Zinza  tribes,  the  Wa-Sui  branch  is  the  most  powerful.  '  ] 


The  Wa-Huma. 

In  these  regions  the  chief  power  belongs  to  families  of  the  Wa-Huma,  a  race 
of  pastors  which  is  represented  by  one  or  more  communities  on  all  the  upland 
plateaux  round  about  Lake  Victoria.  According  to  Speke  and  Grant,  these  Wa- 
Huma  are  conquerors  of  Galla  stock,  originally  from  the  Ethiopian  highlands.  In 
U-Nyamezi,  and  as  far  as  the  seventh  degree  of  south  latitude,  kindred  tribes  are 
found,  here  known  as  Wa-Tusi,  who  closely  resemble  the  Wa-Huma  in  speech  and 
usapes  They  are  distinguished  from  their  agricultural  neighbours  by  a  loftier 
figure  and  more  regular  features,  oval  face,  straight  and  well-chiselled  nose,  and 
small  mouth,  without  the  pouting  lips  characteristic  of  the  true. Negro.  The  Wa- 
Huma  women  best  represent  this  fine  Ethiopian  type ;  hence  they  are  readily  pur- 
chased by  the  chiefs  of  other  races  for  their  harems.  But  while  all  the  surrounding 
peoples  become  gradually  modified  by  these  crossings,  the  Wa-Huma  preserve  their 
original  purity,  keeping  aloof  from  all  contact  with  the  aborigines.  They  are 
nearly  all  stock-breeders,  and  as  they  mostly  live  in  the  jungle,  far  from  villages, 
they  are  seldom  met  by  travellers.  Although  they  have  given  kings  to  most  of  the 
upland  tribes,  they  are  nevertheless  regarded  as  barbarians  by  the  Negro  cultivators, 
just  as  in  the  "  Middle  Kingdom"  the  Manchu  conquerors  are  despised  by  their 
Chinese  subjects.  But  in  the  midst  of  all  th^se  enslaved  communities,  who  vaimt 
their  industrial  arts  and  agricultural  pursuits,  the  Wa-Huma  have  at  least  the 
superiority  acquired  from  a  free  and  independent  life.  They  tolerate  no  masters, 
and  those  amongst  them  who  have  failed  to  defend  their  liberties  are  no  longer  re- 
g^arded  as  belonging  to  their  nation.     Speke  even  tells  us  that  captured  and  enslaved 


I 


80 


NOETH-EAST  APEIOA. 


Wa-Huma  women  are  burnt  alive  whenever  they  again  fall  into  the  hands  of  their 
fellow-countrymen.  The  language  of  the  "Wa-Huma  is  unknown,  and  it  is  still 
uncertain  whether  they  speak  a  Galla  dialect  mixed  with  Bantu  words  or  a  Bantu 
idiom  affected  by  Galla  elements.  ,        > 


The  Kingdom  of  Earagw^. 

The  kingdom  of  Karagw^  occupies  west  of  Lake  Victoria  an  area  of  about  6,000 
square  miles,  being  limited  southwards  by  TJ-Zinza,  west  and  north  by  the  Tangur^ 

.  :  --  Pig.  28.— Karaow*. 

8«aa  1 :  MOOOOO. 


. » 


.8oua«. 


river,  which  seems  to  have  the  best  claim  to  be  regarded  as  the  Upper  Nile.  From 
TJ-Sui  this  state  is  separated  by  a  desert  borderland  watered  by  the  Lohugati, 
which  flows  north-east  to  Lake  Nyanza. 

Earagw^  is  one  of  the  finest  countries  in  Central  Africa.  With  its  evergreen 
hills,  fertile  valleys,  and  purling  brooks,  the  whole  region  presents  a  park-like 
appearance,  and  might  easily  be  transformed  to  a  vast  garden.  The  western 
district  is  tolerably  elevated,  the  crests  of  the  plateau  here  attaining  a  height  of 
6,000  and  even  6,000  feet,  and  in  clear  weather  commanding  a  view  of  the  blue 


>  mAfmimMmmmm 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  KARAGWE. 


81 


Mfumbiro  peaks,  and  of  other  distant  summits,  named  by  Speke  the  "  Mountains  of 
liio  Moon."  On  the  Earagwd  uplands  the  air  is  so  cool  that  the  natives  of  Zanzi- 
bar fancy  that  they  must  be  in  the  neighbourhood  of  England,  the  only  cold  country 
known  to  them  by  repute.  In  some  of  the  depressions  lakes  have  been  formed, 
amongst  others  the  lovely  Raveru  (4,300  feet),  which  to  Speke  and  Grant  seemed 
beautiful  enough  to  merit  the  title  of  i  -e  African  "  "Windermere."  But  although 
encircled  by  grassy  slopes  rising  1,500  or  1,600  feet  above  its  waters,  it  is  not  an 
Alpine  lake,  its  depth  nowhere  exceeding  45  or  46  feet.  The  Urigi,  another  basin 
near  the  southern  frontier,  is  merely  a  large  pond,  discharging  its  overflow  north- 
wards to  the  Tangur^.  According  to  the  natives  the  whole  valley  was,  even  in 
recent  times,  still  under  water.  Boats  were  able  to  ascend  from  Nyanza  to  Urigi, 
and  the  little  dome- shaped  hillocks  dotted  over  the  plain  were  then  rocky  islets. 
These  hills  consist  of  argillaceous  sandstones  of  a  bright  red  colour,  interspersed  with 
large  masses  of  white  quartz.  The  decomposition  of  the  sandstones,  the  prevailing 
formation  throughout  the  whole  region,  supplies  the  fertile  red  soil  on  which  such 
bountiful  crops  are  raised.  At  the  head  of  a  shady  valley  in  the  north-west  spring 
the  six  thermal  streams  of  M'tagata,  which  have  a  temperature  of  130°  Fahr.  They 
are  resorted  to  by  all  the  surrounding  populations,  who  have  much  faith  in  their 
curative  properties. 

Except  in  some  districts,  such  as  that  of  the  capital,  near  Windermere,  Earagw^ 
is  rather  thinly  peopled.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  belong  to  the  Wa- 
Nyambo  stock,  and  speak  the  Zongora,  a  Bantu  dialect.  But  here  also  the  chief 
power  has  been  usurped  by  the  Wa-Huma,  whose  daughters  are  not  permitted  to 
contract  alliances  with  Negroes  of  lower  castes.  The  lives  of  the  Wa-Huma  are 
held  to  be  sacred ;  hence  they  are  absolutely  exempt  from  capital  punishment,  all 
crimes,  murder  not  excepted,  being  punished  by  fines  alone.  We  know  that  in 
many  parts  of  Africa  the  women  are  systematically  fattened,  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  be  no  longer  able  to  stand  up.  This  ^cessive  obesity  is  regarded  as  a  supreme 
virtue,  doubtless  because  it  proves  the  wealth  of  people  who  can  thus  afford  to 
nourish  their  wives  and  exempt  them  from  manual  labour.  For  an  analogous 
reason  many  Karagw4  chiefs  allow  their  nails  to  g^w,  like  the  Annamese  mandarins, 
to  show  that  they  have  no  need  of  their  hands,  slaves  working  and  toiling  for  them. 
On  certain  occasions  human  sacrifices  are  also  still  practised.  At  the  death  of  the 
sovereign  a  "  mortuary  chapel "  is  built  over  the  body,  into  which  are  thrown  five 
girls  and  fifty  cows,  destined  to  accompany  their  master  on  his  long  journey  to 
iq>irit-land. 

Warahatyi,  capital  of  Karagw^,  is  pleasantly  situated,  over  4,300  feet  above  the 
sea,  on  a  grassy  terrace  overlooking  Lake  Windermere,  and  commanding  a  view  of  a 
steep  hill,  on  which  stands  the  royal  necropolis.  Farther  on  winds  the  valley  of 
the  Alexandra  Nile,  a  vast  forest  of  papyrus  bounded  on  the  distant  horizon  by  the 
triple-crested  Mfumbiro.  At  the  eastern  foot  of  an  intervening  cone  the  Arab 
traders  have  established  the  station  of  Kufro  (Eafuro),  where  woven  goods,  salt, 
and  European  wares  are  bartered  for  ivory,  coffee,  and  other  native  produce.  In 
this  district  elephants  have  already  beg^  to  disappear,  although  a  huge  species  of 

6 — AF. 


N0ETH-EA8T  AFEICA. 


white  or  greyish  rhinoceros  still  abounds.  "West  and  north  of  Karagw4  the  large 
mammals  have  not  yet  been  disturbed  either  by  Europeans  or  Arabs,  th^ae  some- 
what inaccessible  regions  having  hitherto  remained  unvisited  by  explorers. 


M 


The  Ruanda  Country. 


Ruanda,  lying  directly  west  of  the  Tangur^  river,  and  stretching  away  as  far  as 
the  northern  slope  of  Lake  Tanganyka,  is  probably  the  most  powerful  state  in  this 
still  unexplored  region.  According  to  the  statements  of  the  Aribs,  who  have 
vainly  endeavoured  to  penetrate  into  the  country,  whence  they  would  be  promptly 
expelled,  because  "  famine  and  drought  follow  in  their  train,"  here  are  some  very 
large  villages,  and  the  land  is  said  to  abound  in  minerals  and  hot  springs.  South 
of  Moimt  Mfumbiro  all  the  slopes  seem  to  be  covered  by  an  immense  forest  of  use- 
ful timbers.  Northwards  M'poro  and  U-Sagara,  also  called  Ankori  or  Mkol^,  are 
also  said  to  be  rich  in  valuable  products.  Most  extraordinary  things  are  related  of 
this  mysterious  country,  wicked  dwarfs,  far  more  formidable  than  giants,  taking  a 
prominent  part  in  all  these  reports.  It  is  probable  that  a  race  of  piggies,  like  the 
Akka  of  the  forests  of  the  river  Welle,  and  the  Obongo  of  the  Ogoway  basin,  occupy 
the  upland  valleys  of  Mount  M'fumbiro  and  the  ranges  running  northwards  towards 
Mounts  Kibanga  and  Gambaragara.  Stanley  states  that  the  king  of  U-Gauda  sent 
an  expedition  against  these  dwarfs,  but  the  cold  seems  to  have  prevented  his  soldiers 
from  penetrating  into  the  upland  valleys.  Here  also  the  chief  power  appears  to  be 
in  the  hands  of  the  Wa-Huma,  these  conquerors  from  the  east  having  thus  appa- 
rently reached  the  water-parting  between  the  Nile  and  Congo  basins.  This  still 
unexplored  country  will  doubtless  sooner  or  later  occupy  a  position  in  the  history 
of  the  continent  analogous  to  that  which  it  already  holds  in  its  geographical  aspect. 
Thanks  to  its  climate  and  productions,  it  may  become  a  new  Europe  in  the  very 
heart  of  Africa,  and  here  will  be  the  principal  health-resort  of  the  Nile  and  Congo 
lowland  rugions. 

The  Empire  op  F-Ganda. 

The  kingdom  of  U-Ganda,*  the  best  known  of  all  the  states  on  the  plateau  of 
the  Nile  basin,  seems  to  be  also  the  most  populous,  as  it  certainly  is  the  most  power- 
ful. Its  form  is  that  of  a  crescent,  stretching  west  and  north  of  the  Nyanza,  and 
comprising  Koki,  IJ-Du  (Uddu),  and  other  states,  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the 
Alexandra  Nile.  Eastwards  it  extends  even  beyond  the  Somerset  Nile,  having 
gradually  absorbed  the  TJ-Soga  country.  It  also  possesses  the  large  Sesse  Archi- 
pelago, besides  several  other  islands.  In  the  interior  its  still  undefined  limits  are 
lost  in  dense  uninhabited  jungles,  and  quite  recently  it  has  claimed  sovereignty 
over  Karagwe  and  U-Sui.  Its  total  area  may  be  estimated  at  20,000  square  miles, 
and,  including  the  dependencies,  at  about  70,000  square  miles.  Stanley's  calcula- 
tions, based  on  the  number  of  armed  men,  make  the  population  about  2,775,000. 

*  U-Ganda  ineans  country  of  Oiinda ;  M-Oanda,  man  ot  Oanda  ;  Wa-Ganda,  people  of  Gkmda ;  Ki- 
Ganda,  language  of  Qanda.  '' 


■'■ -"-WiMflwfmfli 


l|»UW)WIIWWI*0HMlHI>MB9»e..  ttlnmsi'-nrrmiKrlpr 


HAIUTS  AND  CUSTOMS  OF  THE  WA-GANDA. 


he  large 
te  some* 


as  far  as 
te  in  this 
rho  have 
promptly 
lome  very 
9.    South 
ist  of  uae- 
Ikol^,  are 
related  of 
,  taking  a 
9,  like  the 
in,  occupy 
is  towards 
}anda  sent 
lis  soldiers 
pears  to  be 
hus  appa- 
This  still 
;he  history 
Lcal  aspect. 
In  the  very 
and  Congo 


>  plateau  of 
lost  power- 
yanza,  and 
luth  of  the 
ile,  having 
esse  Arohi- 
i  limits  are 
sovereignty 
^uare  miles, 
)y's  calcula- 
;  2,776,000. 

o{  Qanda;  Ki- 


But  according  to  the  English  missionaries  it  really  amounts  to  5,000,000,  that  is  to 
say,  nearly  200  persons  por  mile,  a  density  almost  one-fourth  more  than  that  of 
France.  However,  a  still  more  remarkable  statement  of  Messrs.  Felkin  and  Wilson 
throws  some  doubt  upon  the  value  of  these  provisional  estimates.  According  to 
them,  the  women  are  three  and  a-half  times  more  numerous  than  the  men,  a  social 
phenomenon  elsewhere  without  parallel.  Hitherto  all  the  regular  statistics  have 
shown  that  the  sexes  are  nearly  equal,  either  with  a  slight  overplus  for  the  women, 
as  in  all  the  countries  of  Europe  and  the  New  World,  or  with  a  small  excess  for  the 
men,  as  in  Japan.  English  travellers  seem  to  think  that  this  extraordinary  dispro- 
portion may  be  due  at  once  to  natural  and  political  causes.  The  births  of  girls  far 
exceeds  those  of  boys,  as  is  evident  from  the  groups  of  children  playing  before  the 
huts,  the  dangers  of  the  battlefield  and  the  massacres  of  the  captives  accounting  for 
the  rest.  On  their  successful  expeditions  the  Wa-Ganda  warriors,  h'ke  their  neigh- 
bours, kill  the  men  and  carry  o£E  the  women,  who  are  afterwards  divided  amongst 
the  conquerors. 

In  U-Ganda,  as  in  most  of  the  other  states  of  the  plateau,  the  power  belongs 
to  the  Wa-Huma  nation,  although  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  the  Wa-Ganda, 
who  have  given  their  name  to  the  state.  They  are  true  Negroes,  with  almost  black 
complexion  and  short  woolly  hair,  above  the  average  height,  and  endowed  with 
uncommon  muscular  strength.  The  women  are  distinguished  by  their  small  hands 
and  feet.  The  Wa-Nyambo,  who  come  from  Earagw^  and  the  adjacent  provinces, 
and  who  are  for  the  most  part  pastors,  are  more  slender  in  appearance  than  the 
natives.  But  the  Wa-Soga,  immigrants  from  the  countries  situated  to  the  east  of  the 
Somerset  Nile,  equal  the  Wa-Ganda  in  stature  and  in  strength,  while  they  are  even 
of  a  darker  complexion.  Amongst  these  various  peoples  albinos  are  very  numerous  ; 
nevertheless  they  are  exhibited  as  curiosities  in  the  huts  of  the  chiefs.  The 
practices  of  tattooing  the  face,  distending  the  lobe  of  the  ear,  or  filing  the  teeth  to 
a  point,  common  amongst  other  African  tribes,  are  here  unknown,  all  voluntary 
mutilation  being  forbidden  under  pain  of  death.  Nor  do  the  Wa-Ganda  grease 
the  body  with  fat,  and  they  are  in  other  respects  of  cleanly  habits  and  given  to 
frequent  ablutions.  The  most  dreaded  disease  is  small-pox,  probably  imported 
from  the  eastern  coast.  It  spares  few  persons  when  it  presents  itself  in  an  epidemic 
form.  A  few  scattered  cases  of  leprosy  are  to  be  found  here  and  there,  persons 
frequently  being  seen  with  their  black  skins  covered  with  white  blotches,  like  those 
of  the  Mexican  Pintados. 

Habits  and  Customs  of  the  Wa-Ganda. 

The  chief  food  of  the  Wa-Gandu  is  the  banana,  of  which  they  possess  several 
varieties,  amongst  others  the  Ethiopian  mmae  etiaete.  It  is  prepared  by  them  in 
various  woys,  being  even  mode  into  flour  and  a  fermented  liquor  which  they  brew 
from  it.  Sweet  potatoes,  haricots,  various  kinds  of  gourds  and  tomatoes,  maize, 
millet,  papaw  fruit,  rice,  and  vegetables  introduced  by  the  Arabs,  are  amongst  their 
alimentary  plants.     The  coffee-shrub  is  also  cultivated,  but  yields  a  very  small 


M 


N0ETH-EA8T  AFRICA. 


berry,  of  which  the  Wa-Ganda  make  no  infusions,  using  them  merely  for  chewing 
purposes.  They  rarely  eat  meat,  as  all  the  live  stock,  consisting  of  thin  and  bad 
milch  cows,  goats,  and  fat-tailed  sheep,  belong  to  the  Huraa,  who  do  not  sell  them. 
On  the  shores  of  the  lake,  and  on  the  islands,  the  inhabitants,  mostly  ichthyophagous, 
find  abundant  nutriment  in  the  multitude  of  fish  abounding  in  the  N'yanza.  Nor 
do  the  Wa-Ganda  despise  smaller  creatures,  readily  eating  termites  and  locusts, 
and  even  chasing  swarms  of  flies,  which  they  capture  by  means  of  nets  drawn  quickly 
through  the  air. 

Owing  to  the  cool  atmosphere  of  these  central  plateaux  the  Wa-Ganda  build 
their  dwellings  more  carefully  than  most  other  tribes  of  the  continent,  and  these  huts 
are  large  enough  to  permit  all  domestic  work  being  done  within.  They  are  nearly 
always  of  the  beehive  type,  consisting  of  a  double  hemisphere  or  dome  of  branches 
supported  by  posts,  and  thickly  thatched  with  straw  of  the  so-called  "  tiger  grass," 
some  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  long.  Between  the  two  roofs  the  air  circulates  freely, 
keeping  the  interior  of  the  cabin  fresh  and  sweet.  A  sloping  ledge  of  beaten  earth 
round  the  outside  carries  off  the  rainwater  during  the  wet  season.  Many  of  the 
houses  have  a  low  porch,  under  which  they  enter  on  all-fours.  This,  combined 
with  the  custom  of  prostrating  themselves  before  superiors,  is  the  cause  of  the  pouch- 
like wrinkles  that  most  of  the  natives  have  on  their  knees.  Inside,  the  ground  is 
strewn  with  bundles  of  grass  disposed  in  geometrical  figures,  which  produce  a 
pleasing  effect  until  the  walls  become  blackened  through  the  want  of  outlets  for 
the  smoke.  Recently  the  Arabs  and  the  Europeans  have  constructed  other  and 
larger  houses,  with  gables  and  windows ;  but  the  king  has  not  permitted  them  to 
erect  stone  buildings,  none  having  a  right  to  inhabit  a  gander  house  than  the 
king's  palace.  The  national  costume  is  also  changing  under  the  influence  of 
foreigners  introducing  new  fashions. 

Amongst  the  Central  African  tribes  the  Wa-Nyoro  and  Wa-Ganda  alone  clothe 
themselves  from  head  to  foot,  pain  of  death  even  being  the  penalty  for  men  or 
women  leaving  their  houses  too  scantily  attired.  Till  recently  the  national  costume 
was  the  mbugu,  a  garment  of  bark  stripped  from  a  species  of  fig-tree  (ficua  ludia), 
and  beaten  to  render  it  supple.  Over  the  mbugu  the  chiefs  wore  a  robe,  either  an 
ox-hide  or  made  up  of  twenty  or  thirty  skins  of  the  little  ntalaganya  antelope, 
which  is  no  larger  than  a  hare,  and  whose  brown  fur  is  remarkably  beautiful.  But 
the  Arab  dress  is  gradually  prevailing,  even  the  poorer  classes  buying  the  hdik,  the 
shirt,  the  girdle,  and  the  caftan,  while  the  chiefs  deck  themselves  with  rich  turbans 
or  with  the  Egyptian  fez.  Stockings  and  Turkish  slippers  are  also  replacing  the 
coarse  bu£Ealo-skin  sandals.  Their  arms  are  also  supplied  from  Zanzibar,  and  the 
Wa-Ganda  warriors  have  already  substituted  modern  rifles  for  the  old-fashioned 
spears  and  bows.  The  Egyptian  Government  has  in  vain  forbidden  the  exportation 
of  small-arms  to  the  Nyanza  region,  for  these  weapons  continue  to  be  imported  from 
other  sources. 

The  practice  of  polygamy  is  far  more  general  amongst  the  Wa-Ganda  than 
amongst  the  Europeans  and  Asiatic  Mohammedans,  the  chiefs  having  no  limit  to 
the  number  of  their  wives,  who  are  also  their  servants.    The  late  King  M'tesa  is 


HABITS  AND  CUSTOMS  OF  THE  WA-GANDA. 


86 


jhowing 
ind  bad 
ill  them. 
phagouB, 
:a.  Nor 
locuBta, 
I  quickly 

da  build 
heBe  huts 
re  nearly 
branches 
jr  grass," 
bes  freely, 
iten  earth 
ny  of  the 
combined 
;he  pouch- 
ground  is 
produce  a 
outlets  for 
other  and 
d  them  to 
than  the 
fluence  of 

one  clothe 
or  men  or 
al  costume 
lcu9  ludia), 
,  either  an 
k  antelope, 
tiful.    But 
le  hdik,  the 
ch  turbans 
lacing  the 
ir,  and  the 

-fashioned 
:portatioh 

lortedfrom 

anda  than 
no  limit  to 
M'tesa  is 


said  to  have  had  no  less  than  seven  thousand,  obtained  in  exchange  for  trifles  such 
as  some  domestic  animal,  a  few  needles,  or  a  box  of  pills.  The  chiefs  follow  their 
sovereign's  example  in  suiTounding  themselves  with  a  host  of  wives,  and  the  smallest 
vassal  has  bis  harem.  The  grundees  thus  absorb  such  a  large  portion  of  the  female 
population  that,  in  spite  of  the  preponderance  of  girls,  there  are  not  enough  left  for 
all  the  Wa-Ganda.  Feasants  are  often  seen  whose  scanty  crops  have  never  suiHced 
fb  purchase  a  single  wife.  No  law  forbids  the  marrying  of  near  relations.  On  the 
death  of  a  father  the  eldest  son  even  inherits  all  his  wives,  with  the  exception  of  his 
own  mother,  occasionally  sharing  them  with  the  other  members  of  the  family. 
During  the  period  of  lactation,  lasting  two  years,  the  women  live  apart  from  their 
husbands,  the  king  and  the  chiefs  having  for  these  nurses  separate  houses  scattered 
throughout  the  kingdom. 

Nearly  all  domestic  work  falls  on  the  women  and  slaves,  the  free  man  being 
above  any  toil  except  that  of  building  his  own  house.  He  is  bom  a  soldier,  and 
must  keep  his  strength  for  the  wielding  of  arms.  The  Wa-Ganda  naturally  have 
all  the  vices  produced  by  such  a  state  of  things.  They  are  liars,  idlers,  and  thieves, 
those  who  have  wives  and  slaves  to  do  their  work  passing  their  time  in  gambling 
and  drinking.  The  traveller  is  most  struck  by  the  disregard  the  Wa-Ganda  have 
for  human  life.  Eillir.g  u  man  is  a  mere  trifle  that  no  one  troubles  himself  about. 
A  court-page  wanting  to  try  a  rifle  shoots  the  first  passer-by,  and  returns  delighted 
with  his  weapon  and  his  skill.  Another  complains  to  the  king  of  always  serving,  say- 
ing that  he  should  like  to  be  a  chief.  "  Well  then,  kill  your  father ;  "  and  the  eon 
hastens  to  put  this  idea  into  execution,  so  as  to  inherit  the  women  and  slaves,  which 
will  enable  him  to  fold  his  arms  and  do  nothing  in  his  turn.  And  yet  the  Wa-Ganda 
cannot  be  called  a  cruel  people.  They  are  rather  inclined  to  benevolence,  generally 
treating  their  slaves  with  g^reat  gentleness,  and  welcoming  the  traveller  with 
kindness.  U-Ganda  is  said  to  be  the  only  African  country  where  the  life  of  the 
guost  has  always  been  scrupulously  respected.  When  a  war  breaks  out  all  the 
strangers  are  enclosed  in  a  village  and  placed  under  the  charge  of  a  chief  respon- 
sible for  their  safety  and  bound  to  furnish  them  with  food  and  shelter.  But  if  they 
withdraw  from  the  place  assigned  to  them,  the  chief  is  no  longer  answerable  for 
the  consequences. 

Endowed  with  g^reat  intelligence,  and  speaking  an  extremely  sonorous,  pliant, 
and  logical  language,  the  Wa-Ganda  are  probably  the  only  African  people  who 
have  made  any  real  progress  since  1862  when  Speke,  the  first  European  visitor, 
penetrated  into  their  country.  Wa-Ganda  envoys  were  already  despatched  to 
England  in  1880.  New  plants  have  been  introduced,  together  with  new  methods 
of  culture,  and  agricultural  labour  is  increasing.  Very  skilful  in  forging  iron,  the 
Wa-Ganda  imitate  perfectly  European  objects,  and  can  even  change  flint-lock 
guns  into  modem  rifles.  They  readily  acquire  foreign  languages,  and  Swaheli, 
the  idiom  of  the  coast,  and  the  most  useful  in  Eastern  Africa,  is  already  spoken 
fluently  in  the  capital  and  the  market- towns.  A  certain  number  of  chiefs  also 
speak  and  write  Arabic.  In  a  few  days  school-children  master  the  difliculties  of 
the  Latin  alphabet,  made  much  easier  by  the  English  missionaries  than  that  of  the 


86 


NOUTH  KAHT  AFRICA. 


Arabic  language,  in  which  the  sound  so  rurely  corresponds  to  the  symbol.    The 
Gandu  alphabet  is  composed  of  Latin  letters,  x  and  q,  however,  being  replaced  by 

other  characters. 

.1 
Religion  — Tradk — Administkation. 

Hitherto  foreign  religions  have  soorcely  hod  access  to  this  country.  Islam, 
which  is  making  so  much  prog^ss  north  and  south  of  the  plateau,  seemed  destined 
to  prevail  in  U-Oanda  ;  but  the  proctice  of  circumcision,  which  nearly  all  Mussul- 
mans have  to  undergo,  except  perhaps  in  Senoar  and  the  Blue  Nile,  infringes  the 
laws  of  the  country,  which,  though  permitting  murdei-,  forbids  uU  mutilations.  A 
hundred  young  men  who  hod  been  circumcised  were  burnt  by  order  of  the  king. 
Still,  foreign  Mohammedans  have  been  allowed  to  build  a  mosque.     The  Catholic 

I    ,■''-'     ■■  ■'.:■-''.  ,:,'  **'  ■  '■'■■[  y. ,,/  '■' 

Fig.  29.— South  U-Oanda.  ./ '^  .        ;; 

SmO*  1  :  8,400,000. 


.10  Miles. 


and  Protestant  missionaries  have  made  but  few  converts,  although  they  both  hoped 
to  be  able  to  strike  a  great  blow  by  converting  the  king,  baptised  in  anticipation  as 
"  Constantine  the  Black."  For  the  rest,  the  Wa-Ganda  have  neither  idols  nor  fetish 
gods,  properly  so-called ;  they  believe  in  a  universal  creator,  Katonda,  whom,  how- 
ever, they  do  not  worship,  believing  him  too  far  above  them  to  condescend  to  listen 
to  their  prayers.  Hence  they  confine  themselves  to  invoking  the  lubari,  either  well- 
disposed  genii  or  dreaded  demons,  dwelling  in  the  lakes,  rivers,  trees,  and  the  rocks 
of  the  mountains.  Mukusa,  the  god  of  the  Nyanza,  becomes  occasionally  incarnate 
in  a  wizard  or  a  witch,  announcing  through  this  medium  rain  or  drought,  peace  or 
war,  triumphs  ur  disasters.  Another  dreaded  god,  he  who  lets  loose  the  scourge  of 
small-pox,  seems  to  be  the  spirit  of  an  ancient  king,  dwelling  on  the  west  of  Mount 
Gambaragara  above  the  region  of  the  clouds.  All  the  kings  have  their  apotheosis, 
and  after  becoming  demi-gods  continue  to  govern  the  people,  massacring  or  par- 


■'  ■^'iJ!''- 


BELIOION— TRADE— ADMINISTRATION. 


ml.     The 
}luced  by 


Islam, 
1  destined 
[I  Mussul- 
■ingos  the 
ktions.  A 
the  king. 
B  Catholic 


1 


,0' 

syso] 


0* 


both  hoped 
ticipation  as 
)l8  nor  fetish 
whom,  how- 
end  to  listen 
either  well- 
nd  the  rocks 
lly  incarnate 
;ht,  peace  or 
le  scourge  of 
est  of  Mount 
ir  apotheosis, 
ring  or  par- 


doning as  they  did  before  their  death.  Amongst  the  most  venerated  is  the  god  of 
thunder,  und  the  place  whore  lightning  is  scon  to  strike  is  held  as  sucrod.  Here 
an  archway  is  built,  under  whiuh  no  stranger  has  the  right  to  pass ;  or  else  u  hut 
is  raised  on  the  spot  as  a  sort  of  temple,  which,  however,  must  not  be  repaired  when 
it  falls  in  ruins.  Against  all  the  dangers  which  surround  him,  proceeding  from  the 
evil  genii  and  powers  of  the  air,  the  Ounda  man  protects  himself  by  amulets  of 
wood,  stone,  or  horn,  and  by  shreds  of  cloth  made  for  him  by  the  maiuiica,  or 
"  medicine-men."  These  magicians  appear  also  to  have  a  sort  of  recognised 
influence,  due  to  their  skilful  treatment  of  diseases  with  roots  and  nostrums. 
According  to  Speke,  an  ecclesiastical  fief,  over  which  the  king  of  U-Qanda  has  only 
an  indirect  power,  occupies  a  largo  tract  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile. 

In  U-Qanda  all  the  trade  of  any  importance  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Arabs  and 
the  Zanzibar  half-castes.  Their  trading  stations  are  limited  on  the  north  by  the 
Somerset  Nile,  and  the  series  of  cataracts  from  Karuma  to  the  Murchison  Falls, 
and  if  they  penetrate  westwards  towards  the  Albert  Nyanza  they  still  keep  their 
depots  in  U-Ganda.  They  barter  guns,  powder  and  shot,  woven  goods,  glassware, 
and  a  few  European  articles,  for  ivory  and  slaves,  the  latter  the  g^at  staple  of  trade 
in  Central  Africa.  At  least  one  thousand  blacks  are  thus  sold  annually  to  the  Arabs. 
As  the  elephants  retire  before  the  hunter  deeper  and  deeper  into  jungles  remote 
from  all  human  dwellings,  the  Wa-Ganda  have  no  other  means  of  paying  their 
debts  than  by  annually  handing  over  an  ever-increasing  number  of  slaves  to  the 
dealers  in  human  flesh.  It  has  already  been  ascertained  that  the  slave  element  is 
actually  diminishing  in  the  country.  Ivory  comes  chiefly  from  U-Soga,  and  salt  is 
imported  from  the  banks  of  the  Albert  Nyanza  across  U-Nyoro.  Till  recently  a 
little  trade  was  also  carried  on  with  the  Egyptian  possessions  in  Sudan,  to  which 
TJ-Ganda  supplied  coffee,  tobacco,  and  cattle,  in  exchange  for  cotton-stuffs,  iron,  and 
Turkish  slippers.  Money  is  still  rarely  employed  in  these  transactions,  the  recog- 
nised commercial  currency  being  the  doti,  or  "  eight  cubits  "  of  calico  of  ^yhe  value 
of  one  thousand  cowries.  Thanks  to  the  numerous  caravans  journeying  between 
the  sea  and  the  lake,  by  the  easy  routes  of  the  Masai  country,  the  facilities  for 
exchange  are  increasing.  Hence  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  civilised  system  of 
trade  will  soon  replace  that  of  barter.  The  navigation  of  the  Nyanza  has  become 
less  dangerous  since  the  Arabs'  dhows  have  made  their  appearance  on  its  waters, 
and  in  U-Ganda  itself  the  former  miry  paths  are  being  replaced  by  good  routes. 
The  road  connecting  the  capital  with  its  port  on  the  Nyanza  woidd  do  honour  to 
Europeans.  It  is  carried  over  a  swamp  on  a  solid  foundation  of  wild-palm  trunks 
placed  side  by  side. 

The  Egyptian  conquests  at  the  time  of  their  greatest  extension  never  reached 
the  frontiers  of  U-Ganda.  The  officers  of  the  Khedive  penetrated  into  the  country 
only  under  the  title  of  ambassadors.  The  old  feudal  system  has  undergone  no 
change  since  the  kingdom  has  entered  into  commercial  relations  with  Arabs  and 
Europeans.  In  thtrary  the  king  is  absolute  master  of  land  and  people,  and  is  free 
to  act  as  he  pleases  in  matters  of  smtill  moment,  such  as  the  lives  of  his  women  or 
of  the  wakopi,  members  of  the  agricultural  class.     M'tesa  well  deserved  his  name, 


( 


ai  Nonrn-RAOT  apbica. 

wliich  uccoriling  to  ono  intorprotiition  incan«  "  ho  who  mnkm  ull  tn'mblc."  A  small 
army  of  oxocutionom,  their  houdH  Im>uii(1  with  conU,  ulwuyn  uwuittnl  hin  ordi'm, 
ac(;otnpunyin^  him  in  ull  hin  oxiKKlitions.  Hut  ho  wan  not  ubHolutomantor  in  Ntuto 
ailuirH,  hiH  power  l)«ing  controlled  by  three  »rrtXM«|/«,  or  hereditary  vanauU.  The 
katekiro,  or  chief  functionary,  a  nort  of  "mayor  of  the  pulaco  "  ond  governor  of 
U-Du,  is  nominated  by  the  king,  and  may  be  chosen  oven  amongst  the  peasantry. 
][e  takos  his  place  with  the  sovereign  and  tho  three  wakungu  in  the  privy  council, 
and  in  tho  king's  absence  presides  over  tho  luchiko  or  governing  body,  com])osod  of 
all  the  grandees  of  the  country,  vassals  and  feudatories,  wakungu  and  wakongoli. 
The  head  cook  and  other  palace  dignitaries  have  also  a  voice  in  tho  council.  At 
tho  death  of  tho  king  tho  right  of  nomination  belongs  to  the  three  wakungu,  who 
select  one  of  his  children,  imprison  his  brothers  during  their  minority,  and  then 
bum  them,  reserving  two  or  three  to  continue  the  race,  should  the  new  king  die 
without  issue.  If  the  three  great  chiefs  disagree  as  to  the  choice  of  the  sovereign, 
tho  question  is  decided  by  war,  the  conqueror  enthroning  his  choice.  For  their 
battles  the  wakungu  have  no  lack  of  men,  all  able-bodied  persons,  from  five 
hundred  thousand  to  six  hundred  thousand  altogothor,  being  trained  in  the  use  of 
arms  and  obliged  to  obey  the  first  summons  of  their  chiefs.  The  royal  guard  is 
partly  composed  of  peoples  of  Eastern  Sudan  and  Dongola,  deserters  from  the 
Egyptian  army.     The  fleet  consists  of  several  hundred  canoes. 

Topography  of  U-Ganda. 

Tho  capital  changes  according  to  the  king's  caprice.  In  1862,  at  the  time  of 
Spcko  and  Grant's  visit,  the  royal  residence  was  at  lianda,  which,  for  a  country  of 
large  trade,  would  appear  to  be  most  favourably  situated  on  the  crest  ot  the  portage 
between  the  great  gulf  A  Mwaru-Luajerri,  the  Murchison  Bay  of  the  English,  and 
the  river  Eatawana-Luajerri,  which  joins  the  Nile  at  Lake  Ibrahim.  A  few 
scattered  hamlets  in  the  midst  of  ruins,  which  must  soon  disappear,  are  now  all  that 
remains  of  Bonda.  Rubaga  is  the  most  important  present  capital,  lying  about  seven 
miles  towards  the  north-west,  on  a  hill  encircled  by  rivulets  which  form  the  head- 
stream  of  the  M'werango  river,  flowing  through  the  Kafu  to  the  Nile.  On  the 
summit  of  the  hill,  visible  from  afar,  with  its  lofty  gables  and  flagstaff,  stands  the 
king's  palace,  surrounded  with  gardens,  above  which  appear  the  conic  roofs  of  the 
huts  inhabited  by  his  wives  and  officers.  Northwards  another  hill  bears  a  second 
royal  residence,  surrounded  by  the  village  of  Nabulagala,  Stanley's  Ullagala.  This 
is  the  main  dep6t  of  the  Arab  merchants,  and  here  begins  the  caravan  route  towards 
M'ruli,  the  principal  market-town  of  the  Somerset  Nile.  The  two  most  frequented 
ports  of  U-Ganda  on  the  shores  of  the  great  lake  are  U-Savara,  on  the  banks  of 
Murchison  Bay,  and  M'tebbi,  on  the  gulf  limited  south  by  the  Sesse  Archipelago. 

The  Kavirondo  and  Nanda  Countries. 

East  of  Nyanza  the  most  powerful  state  is  that  of  Kavirondo,  which  is  said  to 
exercise  a  sort  of  suzerainty  over  all  ilic  riverain  peoples  between  the  islands  of 


BS9iJBft">w  v^^^tMwarf.v 


A  imnU 
in  onlorn, 
r  in  Htuto 
uln.  Tho 
vomor  of 
H'UHantry. 
y  council, 
mpoaod  of 
mkongoli. 
incil.  At 
mgu,  who 
and  then 

king  die 

aovoreign, 

For  their 

from  five 

the  use  of 

1  guard  is 

from  the 


)he  time  of 
country  of 
;he  portage 
nglish,  and 
n.     A  few 
ow  all  that 
ibout  seven 
a  the  head- 
e.    On  the 
,  stands  the 
■oofs  of  the 
irs  a  second 
gala.    This 
•ute  towards 
frequented 
le  banks  of 
chipelago. 


ih  is  said  to 
le  islands  of 


THE  KAVIIIONDO  AND  NANDA  COtNTilUW.  W 

TT-Korpw6  M)Uth-pn«t,  and  tho  country  of  U-Onna  north-raHt,  of  tho  gront  lako. 
ThuH  tho  two  kingtlomM  of  (Innda  and  Kavirondo  would  appear  to  Imi  m-arcoly 
■o]mrutcd  by  tho  region  inhabitinl  by  tho  Wu-Hogu.  Situahnl  n«'arly  tiiwanU  the 
middle  of  tho  ountom  '■oust  according  to  RuvonHtoin'H  map,  but  to  thu  uorth-oaHt  of 
tho  lako  following  tho  n'  .^tomont  of  ThotnpNon,  tho  most  rocont  explorer,  Kavirondo, 
projMirly  no  cullod,  i«  a  grassy  pluin  in  tho  centre  of  which  ri«3  sovoral  littlo  iw)latfd 
IuHm,  whilst  in  the  north  staudu  fho  lofty  Mount  Manda.  Although  the  country 
bus  an  abundant  rainfuU,  it  it  divernitied  i>nly  by  a  few  clumpn  of  troos.  Numerous 
rivers  wind  tbrouj,'U  ho  plain,  aud  one  of  thorn,  tho  Mori,  appears  to  flow  from  tho 
lako,  evai)orttting  in  u  iapr«'8«ion  bolow  tlic  level  of  tho  Nyanza.  But  this  romark- 
able  statement  doponds  oxclusivoly  on  the  report  of  an  Arab  dealer,  and  made  on 
his  return  from  a  journey  to  the  interior.  Tho  Mori  is  said  to  bo  crosstMl  by  u 
suHiKJUsion  bridge  facing  tho  town  of  Kumret^.  I'ho  island  of  U-Kava,  not  far  from 
tho  fluvial  basin,  is  said  by  Folkin  and  Wilson  to  be  occupied  by  u  race  of  dwarfs 
with  a  mean  stature  of  less  than  four  feet  and  a-half. 

The  Wa-Kavirondo  are  of  the  Negro  type ;  they  are  tall  and  robust,  with  olmost 
black  ooraplexion,  flat  nose,  and  thick  lips.  Judging  from  their  language,  as  well 
as  their  features,  they  appear  to  belong  to  the  same  stock  as  the  8hilluks  of  the 
Middle  Nile.  In  appearance  and  speech  thoy  are  quite  distinct  from  the  other 
riverain  populations,  who  are  of  Bantu  origin.  The  women  tattoo  their  backs  and 
breasts,  the  men  rarely  decorating  themselves  in  this  fashion.  But  like  so  many 
other  African  peoples  they  do  not  leave  the  teeth  in  their  natural  state,  but  extract 
the  two  middle  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw.  They  go  naked,  or  else  only  wear  a 
waist-cloth,  to  which  the  women  add  a  tail  of  bark.  This  portion  of  their  costume, 
like  the  plaited  tails  of  other  native  communities,  explains  the  fables,  so  long 
believed  by  the  Arabs,  of  African  tribes  foiming  the  connecting  link  between  man 
and  the  monkey.  Apart  from  this  tail  the  Kavirondo  women  have  no  ornaments, 
but  they  daub  their  bodies  with  grease.  Unlike  the  Wa-Ganda,  the  Wa-Eavirondo 
do  not  consider  themselves  dishonoured  by  work,  but  take  their  share  with  the 
women  in  all  agricidtural  operations.  They  also  employ  themselves  in  the  chase, 
in  fishing,  in  breeding  domestic  birds,  in  which  they  are  very  skilful,  and  in 
navigating  the  Nyanza  with  sailing  boats  much  more  substantial  than  the  canoes 
of  the  Wa-Ganda.  They  are  as  peaceful  as  they  are  industrious ;  nevertheless  they 
defend  themselves  courageously  against  attacks,  and  the  palisades  surrounding 
their  dwellings  are  carefiilly  avoided  by  the  wandering  tribes  of  the  interior.  The 
Wa-Eavirondo  have  a  king,  who  is  not  master  over  the  lives  of  his  subjects ;  the 
country  is  more  of  a  confederation  of  republican  villages  than  a  feudal  realm  like 
U-Ganda.  The  Wa-Euri  and  Wa-Eara,  living  more  to  the  south  on  the  coastlands 
bounded  by  Speko  Gulf,  resemble  the  Wa-Eavirondo  in  language  and  customs, 
except  that  the  Wa-Eara  clothe  themselves  in  bark,  tattoo  the  breast,  and  paint  the 
body  red  and  white  by  means  of  clay  mixed  with  oil.  But  amongst  the  numerous 
tribes  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Nyanza,  several  constitute  by  their  customs,  and 
possibly  their  origin,  isolated  ethnical  enclaves  distinct  from  the  surrounding 
groups.     Such  are  the  Wa-Nanda,  inhabiting  the  upland  valleys  of  the  same  name 


A 


11 


I 


■  ^'wsi*:is 


90 


NOETH-BAST  AFEIOA. 


north  of  Kavirondo.     They  appear  to  be  an  extremely  ferocious  tribe,  carefully 

avoided  by  all  traders  passing  in  the  vicinity  of  their  haunts.     They  are  described 

as  "  clothed  with  knives,"  which  they  wear  on  their  arms,  thighs,  body,  and  waist. 

The  centres  of  population  in  U-Kavirondo  are  sufficiently  large  to  merit  the 

""■■  Fig.  80. — U-Ganda:  Rvhaoa,  PniKaPAL  Rbbidsnce  op  M'Tesa. 


name  of  towns.  The  largest  is  Kahondo,  situated  on  the  eastern  frontier,  near  the 
Masai  country.  At  ITyawa,  about  four  hours'  march  to  the  north-west,  stands  the 
residence  of  the  king,  followed  in  the  same  direction  and  about  the  same  distance 
by  Sandegi,  the  depot  of  the  Mussulman  merchants  of  Zanzibar,  commanding  a 


iWiifeiw] 


THE  U-NYOEO  TEEBITORY. 


91 


,  carefully 
described 

and  waist, 
merit  the 


view  of  the  Nanda  range.  The  caravuna,  which  travel  slowly,  scarcely  making 
more  than  eight  or  nine  miles  a  day,  take  two  whole  months  to  perform  the  journey. 
The  missionaries  of  Islam,  more  fortunate  than  those  labouring  in  U-Ganda,  claim 
Eavirondo  as  their  conquest ;  at  least  the  greater  part  of  the  people  have  submitted 
to  the  rite  of  circumoisiou. 


er,  near  the 
;,  stands  the 
ime  distance 
imandiug  a 


The  U-Nyoro  Territomv. 

North  of  U-Ganda  most  of  the  peninsular  district  lying  between  the  Albert 
Nyanza  and  the  Somerset  Nile  belongs  to  the  Wa-Nyoro  people.  Formerly  all  the 
country  stretching  between  the  two  Nilotic  lakes  constituted  the  vast  kingdom  of 
Kitwara,  governed  by  a  dynasty  of  Wa-Huma  conquerors.  This  empire  has  been 
divided  into  many  states,  of  which  U-Ganda  is  the  most  powerful ;  but  the  sovereign 
of  U-Nyoro  would  appear  still  to  enjoy  a  sort  of  virtual  sovereignty  over  his 
neighbours,  and  always  bears  officially  the  title  of  King  of  Kitwara.  Nevertheless 
U-Nyoro  cannot  be  compared  to  U-Ganda,  either  in  the  extent  of  its  cultivated 
territory,  in  the  number  of  its  people,  or  in  political  unity.  In  spite  of  the  natural 
frontier,  indicated  by  the  banks  of  the  Nile  and  the  lake,  its  limits  are  rendered 
imcertain  by  the  incursions  of  hostile  tribes.  Uninhabited  borderlands  separate 
U-Nyoro  from  U-Ganda ;  but  here  lies  a  region  of  great  conmiercial  importance, 
belonging  at  once  to  two  kingdoms  as  a  place  of  transition,  which  caravans  can 
traverse  only  imder  escort,  usually  choosing  the  night  for  their  march.  This 
debatable  region  is  the  zone  of  land  comprised  between  the  marshes  of  Ergugu  and 
the  abrupt  bend  of  the  Nile  at  M'ruli.  The  Wa-Ganda  are  compelled  to  force  their 
way  through  it  when  proceeding  from  Kubaga  to  Sudan,  and  the  Wa-Nyoro  of  the 
west  have  no  other  way  by  which  to  visit  their  villages  situated  to  the  west  of  the 
Nile.  U-Nyoi'o  is  in  a  continual  state  of  warfare,  dividing  it  into  petty  states, 
which  increase  or  diminish  in  extent  according  to  the  vicissitudes  of  the  battlefield. 
It  is  the  custom  on  the  death  of  the  sovereign  for  his  nearest  relations  to  dispute 
the  succession ;  the  corpse  is  not  buried  till  after  the  victory  of  one  of  the  competitors. 
The  latter,  however,  often  hastens  to  celebrate  his  triumph  prematurely,  in  which 
case  the  war  continues  for  generations  between  brothers  and  cousins.  At  present 
U-Nyoro  is  divided  between  hostile  kingdoms ;  besides  which  Egyptian  garrisons, 
cut  off  from  the  centre  of  administration  at  Khartum,  still  occupy  the  line  of 
the  Nile  between  the  bend  of  Foweira  and  Lake  Albert  Nyanza.  Numerous  tribes 
have  also  retained  their  independence,  especially  in  the  high  south-^westem  district 
between  the  two  great  lakes. 

U-Nyoro  presents  on  the  whole  the  aspect  of  a  plateau  with  a  north-easterly 
slope  parallel  to  Lake  Albert  Nyanza.  It  enjoys  a  copious  rainfall,  and  many 
depressions  in  the  surface  are  occupied  with  swamps  rendered  dangerous  to  the 
wayfarer  by  the  holes  caused  by  the  heavy  tramp  of  elephants.  The  lacustrine 
basins  are  also  strewn  with  gneiss  and  granite  boulders,  whose  presence  in  these 
alluvial  tracts  seems  inexplicable.  Except  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Nile,  vegetation 
appears  to  be  on  the  whole  less  exuberant  than  in  U-Ganda.     Leguminous  plants, 


^Bi 


92 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


however,  are  more  numerously  represented,  and  the  delicate  foliage  of  the  acacia 
forests  looks  in  some  places  like  a  light  haze  enveloping  the  stems  and  branches  of 
the  trees.  Antelopes  still  abound  in  these  regions  even  on  the  route  hitherto 
followed  by  most  explorers  along  the  Ehor-Ergugu  between  Rubaga  and  M'ridi. 

The  Wa-Nyoro  are  a  smaller  people  than  their  Wa-Ganda  neighbours,  to 
whom  they  also  appear  to  be  inferior  in  physical  strength  and  intelligence,  but  not 
in  the  art  of  forging  and  pottery.  They  belong  to  the  same  race,  and  speak  an 
allied  Bantu  dialect,  but  are  of  a  lighter  complexion,  usually  a  dull  red,  and  the 
hair  is  crisp  rather  than  woolly.  Although  of  cleanly  habits,  never  failing  to  wash 
their  hands  before  and  after  meals,  their  huts  are  badly  kept,  and  constructed 
mostly  of  branches  planted  round  a  stake,  and  converging  upwards  so  as  to  form  a 
regular  cone.  Their  only  domestic  animals  are  cows,  goats,  and  a  poor  breed  of 
poiiltry.     In  case  of  distemper  these  animals  are  treated  by  bleeding,  and  the  blood 


W 


ii 


! 


I 


Kg.  81.— U-Ntobo. 
8«tfel  iSfioOfiOO. 


«>1BI» 


saved  for  human  consumption.  Like  the  Wa-Ghmda,  the  Wa-Nyoro  wear  clothes, 
and  consequently  hold  themselves  superior  to  the  naked  Negro  people  dwelling 
beyond  the  Nile.  The  young  men,  however,  do  not  assume  their  bark  or  skin 
garments  before  the  age  of  puberty,  when  they  are  accepted  as  members  of  the 
tribe,  and  their  new  dignity  celebrated  by  the  extraction  of  the  four  lower  incisors. 
Two  lines  tattooed  on  both  sides  of  the  forehead  further  distinguish  them  from  the 
surrounding  populations. 

Polygamy  is  universal,  even  amongst  the  poor,  who  have  always  two  or  three 
wives,  although  of  "  inferior  quality,"  for  a  handsome  spouse  would  cost  at  least 
four  cows.  As  in  U-Ganda,  brothers  may  marry  their  sisters,  fathers  their  daughters, 
while  the  son  inherits  the  whole  paternal  harem  except  his  own  mother.  The 
king  has  a  general  monopoly  of  all  the  unmarried  women,  for  whom  he  selects 
husbands  amongst  his  courtiers.     The  sons  of  these  unions  becraue  royal  pages. 


■^«33^aE*aqK;3»p--  — ;.:.-, 


-i'M 


^'jSiSSJ^K"**^' 


T 


-IT- 


THE  U-NYOBO  TERRITOEY. 


98 


F 


the  daughters  following  their  mother's  profession.  The  wives  of  the  king  and 
chiefs  would  regard  themselves  as  degraded  by  manual  labour,  their  whole  ambition 
being  to  grow  corpulent  and  acquire  double  the  weight  of  their  humbler  sisters. 
Few  of  the  Wa-Nyoro  women  give  birth  to  more  than  two  or  three  children. 

Islam  hbs  already  penetrated  into  U-Nyoro.  But  although  many  of  the  chiefs 
have  become  converts,  the  bulk  of  the  people  have  accepted  of  the  new  religion 
little  beyond  its  prescriptions  regarding  prohibited  food.  The  "  ihedicine-men  " 
still  imiversally  practise  magic,  seeking  to  secure  the  favour  of  "the  great  wizard" 
and  of  the  spirit-world  by  means  of  charms,  incantations,  and  dances.  The  fortune- 
tellers, belonging  to  a  wandering  caste  compared  by  Emin-Bey  to  the  European 
gypsies,  are  also  frequently  consulted.  The  "  evil  eye  "  is  much  dreaded,  especially 
that  of  old  women,  whose  glance  suffices  to  poison  food  and  drink.  All  disorders 
are  attributed  to  sorcery,  and  in  order  to  recover  the  patient  spits  three  times  in 
the  face  of  every  woman  he  meets,  the  cure  being  effected  when  he  reaches  the 
actual  delinquent.  Every  event,  from  the  meeting  of  a  wild  beast  to  the  motion 
of  a  leaf,  has  its  auspicious  or  unfavourable  meaning,  so  that  the  people  spend  their 
lives  in  studying  the  aspect  of  vegetation,  the  flight  of  birds,  the  state  of  the 
firmament,  and  all  other  outward  phenomena.  No  one  ever  retraces  his  steps,  and 
if  he  has  to  return  he  chooses  a  path  parallel  to  the  first,  or  else  opens  a  new  way 
through  the  bush.  The  blacksmith  accompanies  his  work  with  a  song,  the  words  of 
which  enter  into  the  metal  and  endow  it  with  its  peculiar  properties.  Two  men  swear 
friendship  by  mingling  their  blood  and  dipping  a  coffee'berry  in  the  mixture 
in  order  to  assimilate  their  respective  qualities.  Between  two  uterine  brothers 
mutual  trust  is  unbounded  and  never  betmyed.  Hence  the  king  selects  his 
most  intimate  ministers  amongst  those  united  to  him  by  the  brotherhood  of  con- 
sanguinity. The  nocturnal  dances,  celebrated  by  the  flickering  light  of  torches 
or  the  luiid  flame  of  the  stake,  are  said  to  produce  an  ineffaceable  impression.  The 
wizards,  daubed  with  ochre,  decked  with  fantastic  finery,  conjuring  the  demons  by 
their  wild  gesticulations,  leaps,  and  shouts,  flitting  about  in  the  glare  and  suddenly 
plunging  into  the  surrounding  gloom,  appear  themselves  like  spectres  of  the 
night,  or  fantastic  beings  from  another  world.  The  Wa-Nyoro  have  also  a 
warlike  dance  like  that  of  their  kindred,  the  southern  Zulus,  and,  like  them  also, 
make  war  with  assegai,  spear,  and  shield. 

U-Nyoro  is  also  occupied  by  peoples  of  other  stocks,  the  most  powerful  of  which 
are  the  Lango  or  Longo,  who  hold  both  sides  of  the  Nile  between  Foweira  and 
Magungo.  These  are  probably  of  the  same  origin  as  the  Wa-Huma,  and  even  still 
speak  a  Galla  dialect.  They  enjoy  full  freedom,  forming  independent  communities 
in  the  midst  of  the  Wa-Nyoro,  and  recognising  the  authority  of  the  chiefs  only 
during  their  warlike  expeditions.  They  are  otherwise  specially  devoted  to  the 
offices  of  the  toilet,  spending  long  hours  in  arranging  their  elegant  or  imposing 
head-dresses.  The  prevailing  fashion  is  a  kind  of  helmet,  in  which  every  lock  of 
hair  is  interlaced  with  many-coloured  wools,  and  terminating  in  a  superstructure 
of  plumes,  wreaths  of  shells  or  glass  beads,  or  curved  projections  in.  imitation  of 
buffalo  horns.     Whole  years  are  required  to  bring  some  of  these  sumptuous  head- 


■^  wf I'W.Jnaw  'tyt.'^ii 


..UiJ^W,iiir«i  —w 


84 


NOBTH-FAST  AFRICA. 


dressea  to  perfection.  The  Lango  women  are  the  finest  and  most  B3nnmetrical  in 
the  whole  region  of  the  equatorial  lakes.  They  wear  little  clothing  beyond  waist- 
bands, ueckhice8,  armlets,  and  rings. 

South  of  the  Nile  is  found  another  ethnological  gpx)up,  formed  by  the  Wa-Tchopi 
or  Shefalu,  in  speech  and  appearance  resembling  the  Shilluks,  whose  proper  domain 
lies  some  six  hundred  miles  farther  north.  According  to  the  national  traditions, 
the  Shefalu  are  descended  from  a  conquering  people,  who  came  originally  from  that 
direction. 

Maaindi,  on  a  river  flowing  to  Lake  Albert,  was  the  residence  of  the  king  of 
U-Nyoro  when  the  country  was  first  visited  by  Speke,  Grant,  and  Baker.  But  in 
^877  it  was  replaced  by  Nyamoga,  which  is  also  conveniently  situated  in  the  centre 
of  the  region  enclosed  between  the  lake  and  the  great  bend  described  by  the  Nile 
below  M'ruli.  The  latter  place,  which  occupies  an  important  strategic  and  com- 
mercial position  on  the  Nile  at  the  converging  point  of  the  caravan  route  from 
U-Ganda,  has  ceased  to  be  the  advanced  southern  outpost  of  the  Egyptians.  Even 
before  the  Mussulman  revolt  in  Dar-For  the  troops  had  been  withdrawn  from  M'ruli 
and  from  Kirota,  which  lies  in  a  forest  clearing  farther  north-west.  The  western 
bulwark  of  the  Khedive's  possessions  is,  or  was  till  recently,  Foweira  (^Fawera, 
Fauvera,  Faveira),  whose  site  has  been  shifted  to  a  cliif  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Nile  near  the  Kubuli  confluence,  and  not  far  from  the  point  where  the  river  trends 
westward  to  Lake  Albert.  North  of  the  river  stands  another  fortified  station  near 
the  Earuma  rapids,  and  north  of  Fanyatoli,  residence  of  one  of  the  most  powerful 
"Wa-Nyoro  chiefs.  A  third  Egyptian  fortress  in  U-Nyoro  is  Magungo,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Nile,  where  its  sluggish  current  joins  Lake  Albert.  Being 
enclosed  by  a  ditch  ten  feet  broad,  this  place  is  impregnable  to  the  badly  armed 
and  undisciplined  troops  of  the  Lango  or  Wa-Nyoro  chiefs.  East  of  Magungo 
steamers  ascend  the  river  as  far  as  the  wooded  gorges  of  the  Murchison  Falls. 

Mahaghi  (^Mahahi),  another  fortified  station,  has  been  formed  by  the  Egyptians 
on  the  west  side  of  Lake  Albert,  where  it  is  sheltered  by  a  headland  from  the 
northern  winds.  The  whole  of  this  coast  region,  which  takes  the  name  of  Lur,  is 
inhabited  by  Negro  tribes  akin  to  those  of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  and  speaking  a 
language  which  differs  little  from  that  of  the  Shuli  east  of  the  Nile.  In  habits 
they  resemble  the  "Wa-Nyoro,  with  whom  they  formerly  maintained  constant 
commercial  relations,  and  whose  suzerainty  they  recognise ;  without,  however, 
paying  any  tribute  to  the  king.  South-west  of  the  Egyptian  station  are  some  hot 
springs,  sulphurous,  like  all  hitherto  discovered  in  the  Upper  Nile  regions.  A 
considerable  traffic  is  carried  on  by  water  between  both  sides  of  the  lake,  especially 
with  the  ports  of  Afbakovia  (  Vacovia)  and  Kibero,  where  salt  is  yielded  in  abundance 
by  the  surrounding  argillaceous  clays. 


'  -atp^^smjtejaiiiwfeigaiii^^ 


Btrical  in 
md  waist- 

''a-Tchopi 
iv  domain 
;raditions, 
from  that 

le  king  of 

But  in 

;he  centre 

the  Nile 
and  com- 
•ute  from 
IS.  Even 
om  M'ruli 
e  western 

(^Fawera, 
ik  of  the 
ver  trends 
ation  near 

powerfid 
\o,  on  the 
t.  Being 
kdly  armed 

Magungo 
f'alls. 
Egyptians 

from  the 
of  Lur,  is 
speaking  a 

In  habits 
i  constant 
,  however, 
e  some  hot 
ig^ons.  A 
,  especially 
abundance 


■■-iss*»^ 


^^\ 


.A 


'^:%' 


r 


aP 


;'(-;■'. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


■■•«3^5S3*^ 


REGION  OP  THE  UPPER  NILE  TRIBUTARIES. 


HE  sectioa  of  ^he  Nilotic  basin  comprised  between  Lake  Albert  uiid 
the  Bahr-el-Ghazal. confluence  presents  a  marked  contrast  to  the 
surrounding  land  in  its  abundant  waters,  its  converging  streams, 
extensive  marshy  tracts,  and  the  general  imiformity  of  its  slope. 
The  natural  limits  of  this  distinct  geog^phical  domain  are  formed 
liy  the  course  of  the  Nile  and  Asua  on  the  east  and  south-east,  and  of  the  Bahr- 
el-Ghazal  on  the  north.  In  the  historic  life  of  the  continent  the  inhabitants  of 
this  watery  region  have  also  played  a  separatiB  part.  Here  lies  the  chief  connecting 
route  between  the  Nile  and  Congo  basins.  The  water-parting  being  marked  by  no 
perceptible  "  divide,"  no  barrier  is  presented  to  the  migration  of  peoples  between 
the  two  great  arteries.  Thus  the  hydrographio  parting-line  forms  no  natural  limit 
between  ethnical  groups,  some  of  which,  such  as  the  Niam-Niam,  occupy  both 
sides  of  the  slope,  while  continually  encroaching  northwards.  Through  this  region 
of  transition  must  pass  the  future  continental  highway  from  east  to  west  between 
the  Red  Sea  and  the  Bight  of  Benin.  It  has  already  been  partly  opened  by 
Feney,  Lejean,  Petherick,  Piaggia,  Schweinfurth,  Junker,  Bohndorff,  and  other 
explorers  are  eagerly  following  in  their  footsteps. 

Northwards  this  region  has  a  natural  limit ;  indicated,  however,  not  by  any 
water-parting,  but  by  the  climate,  which  produces  a  marked  Cimtrast  in  the  aspect  of 
the  land,  its  vegetation,  fauna  and  inhabitants.  The  latitudinal  depression  flooded 
by  the  waters  of  the  Bahr-el-Arab  coincides  in  a  general  way  with  this  climatic 
frontier.  South  of  it  the  rainfall  is  sufficiently  copious  to  feed  perennial  streams, 
or  at  all  events  rivers  flowing  for  six  months  in  the  year.  But  on  the  north  side 
we  have  nothing  but  wadies  flushed  only  during  the  heavy  rains.  Hence  the  g^reat 
difference  presented  by  the  forest  vegetation  along  the  right  and  left  banks  of  the 
Bahr-el-Arab.  On  one  side  we  find  the  baobab,  with  its  huge  inflated  trimk,  on 
the  other  the  lulu,  or  butter-tree,  in  some  places  covering  hundnnis  of  square  miles. 
The  large  apes  never  cross  the  frontier  into  Kordofan ;  nor  d  >es  the  elephant 
venture  north  of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  where  the  flocks  and  herds  are  also  free  from 
the  ravages  of  the  tsetse-fly.  The  southern  region  belongs  to  the  Negro  and  his 
homed  cattle,  the  northern  to  the  horse  and  camel-breeding  Arab. 


if 


NORTU-EAST  AFIIICA. 


Fi-oBA  AND  Fauna. 


The  extensive  tract  comprised  between  the  Ruhr-el- Jebel  and  the  Hahr  el- Arab, 
although  clearly  characterised  by  its  ramifying  waters,  has  no  general  geographical 
designation,  and  is  known  only  by  the  names  of  the  tribes  occupying  its  various 
sections.  Politically  the  western  portion  is  known  as  the  province  of  the  Bahr-el- 
Ohazttl,  a  name  which  should  properly  be  restricted  to  the  basin  of  this  affluent  of 
the  Nile.  The  whole  territory  might  bo  collectively  called  the  "  fluvial  region," 
for  here  are  concentrated  all  the  western  affluents  of  the  Nile  north  of  Lake 
Albert.  Its  total  area  may  be  estimated  at  about  140,000  square  miles,  and  its 
mean  altitude  at  2,500  feet  above  the  sea.  The  soil  being  composed  of  disin- 
tegrated granite  mingled  with  fluvial  alluvia  and  humus,  is  extremely  fertile. 
Vast  tracts  are  covered  with  a  red  earth  overlying  soft  iron  ores,  which  combining 
with  the  sediment  and  decayed  vegetation  washed  down  by  the  streams,  is  also 
very  productive.     But  where  the  ferruginous  deposit  lies  too  near  the  surface, 

Fig.  32. — Watir-pabtino  bbtwbbn  thb  Nils  and  Congo. 
Seal*  t  :  7,000,000. 


p* 


b- 


i//>r/    ^N-  wr     /If     A^     4 


....    /V/A  M-  Af/A 


8u* 


E   ,  of  Green*vioh 


IM 


large  plants  are  unable  to  strike  deep  root,  and  even  after  the  rains  little  is  seen 
except  a  scant  herbage.  Elsewhere  the  soil  yields  heavy  crops,  while  ita  sponta- 
neous growths  comprise  many  species  of  great  economic  value.  Such  are  the  ruhm 
{criodendron  an/ractttoaum),  a  large  cotton-plant,  and  the  Mu  {butyrospermum 
ParkiiX  whose  fruit  contains  much  oil  and  butter.  Other  plants  supply  several 
varieties  of  caoutchouc;  and  here  and  there  is  mot  the  higlik,  or  "elephant-tree," 
{balanites  ^gyptiaca),  under  which  pits  are  often  dug  to  capture  the  huge 
pachyderms,  who  greedily  devour  the  foliage  of  this  plant. 

The  elephant  still  abounds  in  this  region,  although  from  five  thousand  to  six 
thousand  are  said  to  be  taken  every  year.  The  species  of  antelopes  have  been 
estimated  at  a  hundred  (P),  and  some  large  apes,  supposed  by  Felkin  to  be  chim- 
panzees, are  much  dreaded  by  the  natives.  Some  hundreds  of  these  bimanes 
attacked  the  station  of  Gaba  Shamb4  on  the  Nile,  and  destroyed  several  houses,  a 
fire  completing  the  ruin  of  the  depdts.  On  the  other  hand,  neither  the  horses, 
asses,  mules,  camels,  nor  the  pack-oxen  of  the  Baggara  Ai^bs  survive  more  than  a 


iiiiiBiiiiiii^ 


r  el- Arab, 
tgraphical 
ts  various 
)  Btthr-ol- 
uffluent  of 
[  region," 

of  Lake 
«,  and  its 

of  disin- 
(ly  fertile, 
combining 
08,  is  also 
;e  surface, 


V" 

.^. 

Jm 

rf 

£_  5* 

5£". 

ttle  is  seen 
its  sponta- 
e  tbe  ruhm 
roapermum 
ply  several 
lant-tree," 
the  huge 

sand  to  six 
have  been 

0  be  chim- 
e  bimanes 

1  houses,  a 
the  horses, 
lore  than  a 


'INHABITANTS. 


97 


twelvemonth  in  the  wooded  districts  skirting  Dnr-For  u  .  Kon  -Inn  on  the  south. 
The  destruction  of  these  unacclimatised  animals  is  tittril  '>^  I  y  I^n'  iii>y  U>  the 
spontaneous  development  of  multitudes  of  entozoa,  wbil  ho  nutivo.  <iff«>r  uiucb 
from  the  "  Medina  worm  "  as  far  as  the  third  parallel  nut w  uf  the  e<^.    uu-. 


Inhabitants.     -  ' 

Fifty  million  people  might  easily  live  in  this  fertile  region,  in  some  pan  of 
which  the  villages  follow  in  close  succession,  and  the  jungle  has  been  repluctnl  by 
gardens.  But  almost  everywhere  are  visible  the  traces  of  murderous  and  maraud- 
ing inroads,  and  many  districts  recently  under  cultivation  are  now  completely 
depopulated.  Nowhere  else  in  East  Africa  has  so  much  ruin  been  caused  by  the 
slave-dealers,  including  many  Egyptian  officials,  who  for  many  years  openly  carried 
on  the  traffic  in  human  flesh.  Protected  by  their  very  position,  these  functionaries 
were  able  quietly  to  promote  their  "  civilising  mission,"  as  it  was  pompously 
described  in  the  official  reports.  Even  still  the  routes  followed  by  the  convoys  of 
wretched  captives  regularly  forwarded  from  the  Arab  stations  to  the  Lower  Nile 
may  be  recognised  by  the  bleached  bones  of  the  victims  of  this  nefarious  commerce. 
And  when  it  was  at  last  officially  interdicted,  the  ostentatious  Government  procla- 
mations were  easily  evaded  by  the  Mohammedan  and  Christian  dealers  alike. 
They  no  longer  engaged  personally  in  the  razzias,  but  they  fomented  the  tribal 
feuds,  encouraging  the  slaughter  of  the  men,  the  capture  of  the  women  and 
children.  Then  humanity  itself  seemed  to  require  their  intervention,  to  rescue  the 
captives  and  reserve  them  for  a  less  cruel  bondage  in  the  northern  cities.  Such 
was  the  regime  introduced  by  the  "  era  of  progress,"  under  which  not  only  was  the 
country  wasted,  but  its  surviving  inhabitants  debuaed  by  the  hitherto  unknown 
vices  of  a  "  higher  culture." 

When  at  last  the  European  governor,  Gordon  Pasha,  attempted  in  1878  to  put 
an  end  to  these  horrors,  the  revolt  broke  out,  and  while  the  functionaries  were 
officially  encouraged  to  act  vigorously,  the  rebels  were  secretly  supplied  with 
munitions  of  war.  The  slave-dealers  were  openly  or  covertly  abetted  by  nearly  all 
the  Eg3rptian  officials.  The  hope,  however,  of  establishing  a  separate  state  under 
the  notorious  slaver,  Suleiman,  was  thwarted  by  Gordon's  energetic  action,  aided 
by  the  skill  and  zeal  of  his  lieutenant,  Gessi.  And  although  both  of  these  brave 
men  were  soon  recalled  and  sacrificed  to  court  intrigue,  the  old  regime  of  terrorism 
seems  never  to  have  been  restored.  The  Khedive's  authority  still  survives,  at  least 
in  name,  and  the  Eordofan  rebels  seem  again  circumvented  in  their  attempts  to 
cross  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  by  Gordon's  return  to  Ehartimi  in  1884. 

Meantime  the  communications  with  the  north  have  been  interrupted.  By  the 
very  force  of  circumstances  this  province  has,  at  least  for  a  time,  become  autono- 
mous ;  but  the  time  seems  still  remote  when  the  Sudan  will  be  able  to  dispense 
altogether  with  foreign  intervention  in  its  internal  affairs.  A  bright  prospect  is 
nevertheless  in  store  for  it,  as  soon  as  the  slave- trade  has  yielded  to  legitimate 
commerce,  dealing  in  com,  fruits,  vegpetables,  buttar,  cotton,  hides,  metals,  gums, 

7— AF. 


'! 


'  II 


,vJm. 


^■::S.,K?*«;*?:j.ffi*(*' 


""^SS3iiP" 


H  NORTH- BAHT  AFHirA.  - 

wax,  caoutchouc,  and  many  othor  local  produotn  initoad  of  tho  proMont  Mtapliw-— 
ivory  and  human  flonh.  Tho  climuto  is  auitublo  to  Kuropeann  willing  to  load  M)ber 
and  active  Hvor.  hut  tho  oxtonaivo  Hwampn  in  tho  luw-lyin);  dlHtricta  munt  always 
render  it  dangerous  to  immigrants,  until  health  resorts,  like  those  of  India,  have 
been  ostablishcnl  in  tho  southern  uplands. 

The  native  populations  have  in  many  places  become  intermingled  through  the 
constant  local  wars  and  razzias  of  the  sluve-hunters ;  the  old  tribal  limits  can  no 
longer  be  determined ;  the  territories  have  shifted  their  inhabitants.  During  the 
last  generation  stable  communities  have  been  maintained  only  on  the  banks  of  the 
Nile  between  Magungo  and  Dufil^,  where  tho  slave-dealers  have  scarcely  succeeded 
in  penetrating  or  establishing  their  footing  for  any  length  of  time.  Hence  the 
population  is  still  dense  in  this  district,  in  which  we  may  wander  for  days  without 
meeting  any  waste  or  unreclaimed  lands.  In  this  peaceful  region,  for  generationa 
undisturbed  by  foreign  wan,  the  manners  of  the  people  have  become  softened, 
crime  is  almost  unknown,  and  the  traveller  may  move  about  freely  unarmed.  IIow 
great  the  contrast  with  those  communities  that  have  been  harassed  by  the  slave* 
hunter  I  Yet  nearly  all  are  of  one  origin,  and  had  formerly  the  same  habits,  the 
same  social  and  political  organisation.  Mostly  of  Negro  stock,  they  speak 
languages  entirely  different  from  those  current  amongst  the  Bantu  peoples  of  the 
equatnrial  lakes.  But.  of  these  diverse  tongues,  two  or  three  only  have  been 
reduced  to  writing  by  the  missionaries.  The  Bari,  Denka  and  Shilli.  k  have  thus 
been  partially  fixed  by  g^tnmatical  works  and  religious  translations.  Of  all  the 
African  ling^stic  groups,  this  is  on  the  whole  the  least  known,  although  the 
country  has  been  more  frequented  by  Europeans  than  many  other  regions  of  the 
interior. 


'  The  Shuli  and  Madi. 

Southernmost  of  these  Nilotic  tribes  are  the  Shuli  on  the  east,  and  the  kindred 
Lur,  or  Luri,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river,  where  it  emerges  from  Lake  Albert. 
Their  joint  domain  comprises  the  left  side  of  the  lake,  and  an  extensive  tract 
stretching  along  the  Nile  northwards  beyond  the  Asua  affluent.  The  Shuli  would 
be  of  pleasant  outward  appearance  but  for  the  habit  of  piercing  the  lower  lip,  and 
inserting  a  piece  of  crystal,  a  stick,  or  any  other  ornament,  three  or  four  inches  long. 
They  also  extract  the  four  upper  incisors,  causing  their  utterance  to  be  very  indis- 
tinct, and  with  an  oxide  of  iron  daub  their  bodies  red  in  all  sorts  of  fantastic  forms. 
Like  the  Madi  on  their  northern  and  the  Lango  on  their  southern  frontier,  the 
Shuli  pass  a  great  part  of  their  lives  in  thus  painting  and  decking  themselves. 
The  elaborate  headdresses  vary  according  to  the  taste  of  each  individual,  but  on  all 
alike  the  g^reatest  care  is  lavished.  Some  are  raised  several  stories  high,  and 
embellished  with  ornaments  of  all  kinds — flocks  of  wool,  wreaths  of  foliage,  ring6, 
strings  of  pearls — ^the  whole  forming  an  architectural  edifice  sufficiently  incom- 
modious to  the  bearer.  The  rich  throw  an  antelope  skin  over  their  shoulders,  the 
poor  a  goatskin,  loading  wrists,  legs,  and  neck  with  iron  rings.     Under  this  weight 


BlULl  AN]>  MADI. 


itaplc 
3ud  M>ber 
Rt  always 
(litt,  have 

nugh  the 
tfl  cuu  no 
uring  thu 
ks  of  the 
Buoceodod 
[enoe  Uie 
'S  without 
sneratioiu 

softened, 
ed.  How 
the  slave- 
labits,  the 
ley  speak 
lies  of  the 
liave  been 

have  thus 
Of  all  the 
Qough  the 
pns  of  the 


he  kindred 
ike  Albert, 
nsive  tract 
Ihuli  would 
TOT  lip,  and 
nches  long, 
very  indis- 
istic  forms, 
rontier,  the 
themselves. 
I,  but  on  all 

high,  and 
iage,  ring6, 
ntly  incom- 
oulders,  the 

this  weight 


of  mntnl  lut'omotion  buoomoa  difHoult,  whilo  to  liMik  to  the  right  or  loft  llio  fiiHtiiotw 
ttblo  Shuli  htw  to  whucl  hiM  whulu  btMly  half  round.  Tho  uoHtunio  in  conipli'tetl  with 
red  and  whitu  boa(U,  and  divcrm)  amuluta  of  ailk,  rootn,  Uvth,  Itom,  un<l  tho  liko. 
The  woniun,  howuvor,  wear  nothing  hut  a  loin-oloth,  a  fuw  glass  trinkota,  Honio 
deoorutivx  imintings,  and  u  quouo,  liku  that  of  thu  Niani-Niuni. 

The  Mhuli,  Lur,  and  Madi  aro  dintinguishiHl  from  the  neighbouring  tribos  by  the 
oonsid(*rution  thoy  pay  to  tho  womtui  in  all  social  matters.  Young  girU,  living 
apart  in  huts  reserved  for  tho  purpose,  have  the  privilege  of  choosing  their  own 
buslmndM.  They  are  never  beaten,  and  the  husband  seldom  tukos  any  im{K)rtant  step 
without  consulting  his  wife,  or  receives  ony  present  without  sharing  it  with  her. 
The  women  are  also  exempt  from  field  operations,  and  occupy  themselves  exclu- 
sively with  household  duties. 

The  national  name,  Shuli,  recalling  that  of  the  Shilluks  on  the  White  Nile, 
points  to  a  oommon  origin  of  these  tribes,  a  conclusion  confirmed  by  f'  obvious 
attiiiity  of  their  respective  idiomq.  The  Shuli,  liowevcr,  unlike  their  northern 
kindred,  are  a  peaceful  people,  engaged  chiefly  in  agricultural  pursuits.  They 
grow  excellent  tobacco,  various  kinds  of  vegetables,  and  large  quantities  of  cereals 
and  sesame.  In  the  midst  of  their  orchards  they  plant  here  and  there  certain 
fetish  trees,  loading  the  branches  with  the  h«.»ms,  teeth,  and  heads  of  animals  cap- 
tured in  the  chase.  Like  the  Nyanza  tribes,  they  also  dedicate  small  shrines  to  the 
local  genii,  and  never  start  on  any  enterprise  without  consulting  the  wizards.  All 
travellers  meet  with  a  friendly  welcome,  and  on  their  departure  a  goat  is  sacrificed 
by  the  wayside  to  avert  all  dangers  on  their  homeward  journey.  Three  days  of  the 
week  are  considered  propitious,  three  ill-omened,  and  the  seventh  indifferent.  But 
through  their  ignorance  of  these  iooal  superstitions  strangers  o  ten  become  involved 
in  serious  troubles. 

In  the  Shuli  territory  the  Egyptians  have  established  a  few  military  posts 
placed  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  days'  march  from  each  other,  so  as  to  overawe  the 
whole  land  by  a  system  of  strategic  routes.  Wudelai,  one  of  these  stations,  lies  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  at  the  confluence  of  a  small  tributary.  But  the  most 
impotkAnt  place  is  Fatiko,  founded  by  Baker,  some  60  miles  east  of  the  river,  between 
two  affluents  of  the  Asua,  in  a  fertile  district  commanded  by  granite  heights.  One 
of  these  crags  rises  north  of  the  fort  about  300  feet  above  the  plains,  affording  an 
extensive  view  of  the  whole  region  beyoiid  the  Nile.  Fatiko,  standing  at  an  altitude 
of  4,000  feet  above  the  sea,  occupies  the  culminating  point  of  the  Shuli  territory, 
whence  the  land  falls  in  abrupt  terraces  north,  west,  and  south.  Lying  midway 
between  Foweira,  on  the  Somerset  Nile,  and  Dufil^,  on  the  Bahr-el-Jebel,  it  is 
favourably  placed  for  trading  purposes,  and  exports  much  com  and  wex.  Other 
large  villages  in  the  Shuli  country  are  Fqjello  (Fcyult),  Fa<^ibek,  Fdrqfdk  and  Obbo, 
lying  east  and  north  of  the  Asua  river. 

The  Madi,  who  occupy  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile  north  of  the  Shuli,  resemble 
them  in  appearance,  in  their  style  of  headdress  and  other  usages,  notably  the 
respect  paid  to  their  women,  who  take  part  in  their  tribal  deliberations.  Although 
apparently  of  kindred  stock,  their  language  is  quite  distinct  from  that  of  the  Lur, 


100 


NORTH-EAST  AFEIOA. 


Shuli,  and  Shilluks,  showing  affinities  rather  with  that  of  the  Niam-Niam.  This 
difference  in  speech  and  resemblance  in  customs  is  doubtless  due  to  the  presence  of 
two  ethnical  elements  now  fused  in  one  nation.  The  foreign  intruders  probably  came 
from  the  south-west,  where  the  Madi  occupy  the  water-parting  between  the  Nile  and 
Congo  basins,  and  where  they  are  conterminous  with  the  Ealika,  allied  to  them  in 
speech  and  origin. 

In  the  Madi  territory  the  chief  Egjrptiau  station  is  DufiU  (Z)m/?i),  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Nile,  near  the  great  bend  it  describes  before  its  confluence  with  the  Asua. 
It  occupies  the  apex  of  the  triangle  formed  by  the  two  streams  and  by  the 
-  -    .-      ■  •-     -  .     ■  •■•,  <^ 

Fig.  33.— Shum  Musicians. 


H 


Somerset  Nile  between  Poweira  and  Magungo,  oVer  against  another  rivernavigable 
for  some  12  miles.  Thanks  to  tlus  important  strategical  position,  Dufil^  cannot 
fail  to  become  a  large  centre  of  trade.  Here  is  the  station  of  the  steamers  on  the 
Upper  Nile,  which  is  obstructed  farther  down  by  the  Fola  Rapids.  Beyond  its 
palm- groves  are  visible  the  peaks  of  the  Euku  range,  rising  at  some  points  600  or 
700  feet  above  the  river.  Between  these  hills  and  the  Bahr-el- Jebel  are  the  fortified 
posts  of  Labori  and  Mugi,  near  the  Yerbora  Rapids,  while  southwards  Dufil^  is  con- 
nected with  Fatiko  by  the  populous  village  of  Fahro,  one  of  the  granaries  of 
Egyptian  Sudan.  The  fields  of  the  Madi  in  this  district  are  cultivated  with  great 
care  by  the  women  and  children,  who  sow  each  grain  of  com  separately. 


•  a 


THE  BAEI. 


101 


M!. 


The  Bari. 


of 


The  Bari,  who  follow  the  Madi  alcDg  both  banks  of  the  river,  form  one  of  those 
groups  of  Negro  tribes  most  remarkable  for  their  physical  beauty  and  haughty 
carriage.  The  traveller  can  easily  study  their  fine  proportions,  as  they  go  perfectly 
naked,  considering  it  effeminate  to  cover  the  body.      Peney  even  tells  us  that  they 

'  are  "  afraid  of  clothes,"  and  that  to  assure  himself  of  a  favourable  reception  he  had 
to  take  off  his  own  garments.  Although  the  women  are  allowed  to  dress,  most  of 
them  merely  wear  the  rahad,  or  loin-cloth,  made  either  of  little  iron  chains  or  strips 
of  leather,  and  a  hide  round  the  hips.  Their  hair  is  always  shaved  off,  while  the 
men  leave  a  littl(>  tuft  on  the  top  of  the  head,  which  the  chiefs  deck  with  ostrich 

'  feathers.  Unlike  the  Shuli,  the  Bari  do  not  cover  themselves  with  amulets  and 
bracelets,  although  some  also  paint  the  body,  especially  for  the  war  dances,  and 
tattoo  themselves  with  arabesques  or  many-coloured  geometrical  designs.  These 
operations,  undergone  at  puberty,  are  verj'  dangerous  and  often  end  in  death. 
According  to  Felkin,  the  Bari,  recently  decimated  by  small-pox,  have  invented  and 
applied  the  praotice  of  innooulation,  apparently  with  perfect  success.  The  Bari 
warriors  are  considered  the  bravest  of  all  the  Nilotic  tribes.  Amongst  them  men 
are  often  met  wearing  on  the  wrist  an  ivory  bracelet ;  these  are  the  hunters  who 
managed  to  kill  an  elephant  in  single  combat.  The  slave-dealers  generally 
recruited  their  bands  of  slave-hunters  amongst  the  Bari,  and  the  name  of  these 
banditti  was  dreaded  as  far  as  the  vicinity  of  the  great  lakes.  But  the  Bari  have 
themselves  suffered  much  from  the  razzias  of  the  slave-traders,  certain  parts  of  their 
territory  having  been  completely  depopulated.  Knowing  that  the  principal  wealth 
of  the  Bari  consists  of  cattle,  and  that  they  are  very  proud  of  these  beautifiil  animals, 
decorating  them  with  bells,  like  the  Swiss  cows,  the  slavers  first  captured  their  herds, 
the  Bari  bringing  their  own  wives  and  children  to  ransom  them,  unless  a  fortunate 
expedition  enabled  them  to  substitute  the  families  of  some  neighbouring  tribe. 
The  cow  is  held  as  sacred  amongst  these  Nile  populations.  Instead  of  squatting, 
like  most  other  Negroes,  or  sitting  cross-legg^,  like  the  Arabs,  the  Bari  are 
accustomed  to  sit  on  stools  painted  red. 

Catholic  missionaries  have  been  for  some  time  at  work  amongst  the  Bari,  but 
with  small  success,  the  conduct  of  the  Christian  slave-dealers  being  scarcely  of  the 
kind  to  assist  the  teachings  of  the  priests.  The  Bari  still  adhere  to  their  magical 
rites,  their  ancient  animistic  religion,  their  worship  of  the  serpent,  called  by  them 
"  g^randmother,"  and  their  veneration  for  the  dead,  whom  they  carefully  bury  in  a 
sitting  posture.  "  Formerly,"  said  they,  "  we  could  climb  to  heaven  by  a  cord  con- 
nected with  the  stars,  but  this  cord  has  been  broken."  The  ruins  of  the  church,  the 
head-quarters  of  the  Upper  Nile  missions,  are  no  longer  to  be  seen,  a  fine  avenue  of 
lemons  alone  marking  the  site  of  what  was  the  city  of  Oondokoro;  the  bricks  of 
the  Austrian  missionaries'  ho\ises  have  also  been  ground  down  by  the  natives,  and 
mixed  with  grease,  with  which  to  paint  their  bodies.  Baker  Pasha  had  made 
Gondokoro  the  centre  of  his  administration  under  the  name  of  Ismailia ;  but  on 
account  of  the  «hifting  of  the  river,  and  the  development  of  marshes  and  sandbanks, 


IM 


NOETH-EAST  AFEICA. 


Gordon  removed  his  residence  to  Lado,  or  Lardo,  some  twelve  miles  farther  down 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  This  town,  whose  brick  buildings  and  sheet-iron  roofs 
are  visible  above  the  palisades,  presents  a  fine  appearance  in  comparison  with  the  , 
neighbouring  villages.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  promenade;  a  eucalyptus,  planted  by 
Emin-Bey,  towers  above  the  house-tops ;  while  till  recently  the  quay  was  crowded 
with  river  craft.  The  other  stations  in  the  Bari  country  above  Gondokoro  are 
Kirri  and  Bcdden,  where  the  river  is  crossed  by  a  ferry.  South-east  of  Gondokoro 
stand  the  villages  of  Billigong  or  Belenian,  noted  for  their  iron  mines  and  javelin 
and  lance  manufacturers.     In  the  neighbouring  Lokoya  Mountains  dwell  the  bravest 

Fig.  34.— Babi  Smiths. 


ii*^**^**'"'^  .^.tM^ 


il 


of  the  Bari,  against  whom  the  whites  settled  at  Gondokoro  had  often  to  protect 
themselves.  Farther  north  the  Berri,  Bar,  or  BeLr,  ocoupying  the  prairies  north- 
east of  Gondokoro,  form  a  group  of  tribes  distinct  from  the  Bari,  speaking  an  idiom 
nearly  identical  with  that  of  the  Shuli,  whom  they  also  resemble  in  customs  and 
appearance.  Another  kindred  people  are  the  Shir,  whose  villages  line  both  banks 
of  the  Nile  below  Lado.  Possessing  no  iron,  these  blacks,  fashion  their  arrow-heads 
from  ebony-vrood. 

The  Latuka  Country. 

East  of  the  Bari,  a  territory  well  watered  by  wadie.)  flowing  towards  the  Nile 
from  the  south-east  is  occupied  by  the  Latuka,  who  ai'e  entirely  difEerent  froin 


THE  LATUKA  COUNTBY. 


108 


her  down 
iron  roofs 
with  the 
)lanted  by 
s  crowded 
okoro  are 
i^ondokoro 
id  javelin 
he  bravest 


1  to  protect 
dries  north- 
Dg  an  idiom 
customs  and 
both  banks 
arrow-heads 


irds  the  Nile 
Serent  item 


^^.M-. 


Fig.  36. 


-KovTBs  OF  ExPLouRus  £a8t  or 
TUB  Bahr-bl-Jbhbl.     fit)?  ',.; 
Soale  1  : 0,000,000. 


their  Negro  neighbours.  Nearly  all  travellers  regard  them  as  of  Galla  stock,  and 
their  language  appears  to  belong  to  the  same  family  as  that  of  the  Ilm-Orma. 
Their  high  foreheads,  rge  eyes,  straight  and  sbapely  nose,  thick  but  not  pouting 
lips,  leave  little  doubt  as  to  their  origin. 
Other  populations  living  more  to  the 
east,  towards  the  Sobat,  especially  the 
Arboreh,  belong  to  the  same  family ; 
but  the  Akkara  and  Irenga  speak  dif- 
ferent languages.  The  character  of  the 
Latuka  differs  g^atly  from  that  of  the 
neighbouring  Negroes ;  they  are  mer- 
rier, franker,  and  so  brave  that  slave- 
dealers  have  neve  r  succeeded  in  captur- 
ing them.  If  their  tribes  were  united, 
instead  of  continually  fighting,  one 
against  the  other,  they  would  as- 
suredly be  one  of  the  most  powerful 
African  nations.  Although  these  Galla 
immigprants  have  to  a  great  extent 
preserved  their  original  speech,  physical 
traits,  and  character,  the  Latuka  have 
become  a  half-caste  race,  and  have 
adopted  many  customs  of  the  Nilotic 
Negro  peoples.  Like  the  Bari  and 
Shilluk,  they  woidd  seem  to  be  ashamed 
to  wear  clothes;  but  they  take  great 
'pride  in  dressing  the  hair  in  elegant 
styles,  mostly  affecting  the  form  of  a 
helmet.  The  completion  of  these  ela- 
borate headdresses  is  a  work  of  eight 
or  ten  years.  The  hair,  bound  with 
bark  strips,  is  made  into  a  sort  of  thick 
felt,  ornamented  with  glass  and  china 
beads ;  a  copper  plate  glitters  above 
the  forehead,  and  nodding  tufts  of 
feathers  and  plumes  crown  the  super- 
structure. The  women,  less  elegantly 
formed  than  the  men,  and  possessing 
tmusual  strength,  have  no  right  to 
all  this  finery,  and  confine  themselves 

to  a  few  tattooings ;  they  wear  a  queue  like  a  horsetail,  and  like  most  other  women 
of  this  region,  extract  the  four  lower  incisors.  The  Latuka  huts  resemble  those  of 
the  neighbouring  tribes ;  they  are  shaped  like  a  bell  or  extinguisher,  the  only 
opening  bemg  a  low  door,  which  is  entered  on  all-fours.    Near  each  village  is  a 


.190  HUM. 


-.,-.>..  4^.. 


104 


NORTH-EAST  AFEICA. 


:  I 
)  1 


1  I 


I  I  i 


cemetery,  whither  the  bones  of  the  dead,  first  buried  near  the  dwelling,  are  brought 
after  they  have  been  completely  decomposed.  Funeral  dances  are  kept  up  round 
the  dead  for  weeks  together.  The  territory  of  the  Latuka  is  very  fertile,  and  their 
tobacco,  although  nearly  always  adulterated  with  foreign  substances,  is  in  high 
demand  among  the  neighbouring  peoples.  In  this  country  the  leopard  is  the  only 
beast  that  is  feared,  as  it  often  attacks  man.  The  lion  is  so  little  dreaded  that 
Emin-Bcy  tells  us  that  one  of  these  animals  having  fallen  into  a  leopard-trap,  the 
people  hastened  to  set  it  free. 

The  Latuka  district  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Lofit  or  Lafit  range,  rising 
some  3,300  feet  above  the  plains,  and  on  the  south  by  still  higher  mountains. 
The  whole  country  consists  of  a  long  fertile  valley  studded  with  trees,  amongst 
which  is  the  "  higlik,"  whose  saccharine  fruit  is  so  rich  in  potassium  that  it  is  used 
as  soap.  The  villages  are  tolerably  numerous,  many  even  meriting  the  names  of 
towns.  Tarrangoleh,  the  chief  town,  situated  in  the  midst  of  the  Latuka  country 
on  the  high  bank  of  the  Ehor  Kohs,  is  said  to  contain  no  less  than  three  thousand 
huts,  not  including  the  sheds  for  some  ten  or  twelve  thousand  head  of  cattle.  It  is 
surrounded  by  a  strong  palisade,  each  house  being  further  protected  by  a  separate 
enclosure.  Three-storied  turrets  stand  in  many  parts  of  the  city,  in  which  sentinels 
keep  guard  during  the  night,  ready  to  strike  the  war  drum  at  the  least  appearance 
of  danger.  One  main  street  intersects  the  town,  all  the  rest  being  merely 
winding  alleys,  into  which  the  cows  can  only  enter  one  by  one — an  arrangement 
which  simplifies  counting,  and  prevents  the  enemy  from  surprising  and  carrying  off 
their  herds.  In  the  northern  region  of  this  country,  the  two  villages  of  Wakkala, ' 
or  Okkela,  and  Loronio,  also  known  as  Latomeh,  from  the  name  of  its  chief,  have 
also  a  large  population.  According  to  Emin-Bey,  the  women,  as  in  U-Ganda,  are 
far  more  numerous  than  the  men.  • 

The  Latuka  are  the  most  easterly  of  all  the  Galla  tribes,  imless  the  Lango  of 
the  Upper  Nile  and  the  Wa-Huma  of  the  plateaiix  are  also  to  be  regarded  as 
branches  of  this  race.  But  on  the  B&hr-el- Jebel  itself  and  to  the  west  of  this  river 
none  but  Negroes  are  met.  The  Niambara,  or  Niam-bari,  occupying  a  hilly 
district  which  forms  the  water-parting  between  the  Nile  and  its  tributary  the 
Yei,  are  akin  to  their  easterly  neighbours,  the  Bari,  although  their  speech  is 
distinguished  by  a  greater  variety  of  tones  and  sibilant  consonants  than  the 
language  of  the  neighbouring  peoples.  Like  the  Bari,  the  Niambara  are  tall  and 
strong  and  go  naked,  but  load  themselves  with  iron  bracelets,  rings,  and  other 
ornaments  of  the  same  metal;  while  the  women  wear  daggers  at  t\w  girdle. 
Although  earrings  are  unknown  amongst  most  of  the  Nilotic  peoples,  the  Niambara 
pierce  the  lobes  of  the  ears,  passing  glass  trinkets  through  them,  and,  like  the 
Orechones  of  South  America,  distending  them  on  each  side  of  the  face.  The 
women  also  pierce  the  lips  at  the  comers,  and  insert  a  fragment  of  quartz,  or  if  that 
is  not  available,  a  wooden  cylinder  or  a  piece  of  reed.  They  wear  no  loin-cloths, 
but  only  a  scrap  of  leather,  leaves,  or  occasionaUy  a  small  bell.  About  the  middle 
of  the  century,  before  the  arrival  of  the  ivory  merchants,  elephants'  tusks  were  of 
such  little  value  that  they  were  scarcely  used  except  as  stakes  for  the  cattle 


i  ! 


'   ( 


tii 


"^Afssmmmmmm 


ss^ssss^^ 


1 


THE  DENKA.  ji^^S 


MW 


re  brought 
up  round 
,  and  their 
a  in  high 
is  the  only 
3aded  that 
1-trap,  the 

age,  rising 
mountains. 
8,  amongst 
t  it  is  used 
e  names  of 
ka  country 
le  thousand 
Atle.     It  is 
a  separate 
)h  sentinels 
appearance 
ng  merely 
rrangement 
sarrying  off 
•f  Wakkala,' 
chief,  have 
■Ganda,  are 

le  Lango  of 
egarded  as 
)f  this  river 
ing  a  hilly 
ibutary  the 
r  speech  is 
s  than  the 
Eire  tall  and 
and  other 

th(^  girdle, 
le  Niambara 
nd,  like  the 

face.  The 
tz,  or  if  that 

loin-cloths, 
;  the  middle 
asks  were  of 
the  cattle 


enclosures.  The  Niambara  hunt  this  huge  pachyderm  in  a  totally  different 
manner  from  the  other  tribes.  A  man  concealed  amongst  the  foliage  of  a  tree 
waits  till  the  beaters  have  driven  the  animal  under  the  branch  where  he  is 
stationed,  lance  in  hand ;  then  the  iron  head,  from  26  to  30  inches  long,  plunges  to 
the  shoulders  into  the  elephant's  back,  generally  producing  a  mortal  wound. 
Besides  being  skilful  hunters,  the  Niambara  also  carefully  cultivate  their  orchards 
and  fields,  have  beehives  round  their  huts,  and  as  smiths  rival  the  Bari  of  Beleni&n. 
One  of  the  chief  villages  bears  the  name  of  the  tribe.  It  is  situated  2,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  in  a  valley  surrounded  by  high  hills,  joining  by  a  lateral  branch  the 
mountain  rangpe  which  skirts  the  Nile  from  Mugi  to  Dufil^.  The  pyramid-shaped 
Ku-Gu  peaks  rise  above  the  grassy  plains  of  the  Niambara,  and  mineral  springs, 
used  alike  by  natives  and  the  Arab  dealers,  burst  forth  in  many  parts  of  the 
country. 

The  Denka. 

Of  all  the  peoples  living  on  the  banks  of  the  Bahr-el-Jebel,  the  Denka  or 
Dinka,  also  called  Jeng  and  Jangheh,  occupy  the  most  extensive  domain.  Their 
territory  may  be  estimated  at  about  40,000  square  miles,  and  their  tribes  or 
separate  clans  are  counted  by  the  dozen.  The  best  known  are,  naturally,  those 
which  come  in  contact  with  the  traders,  such  as  the  Tuich,  the  Bor,  the  Eij  or 
Eitch,  and  Eliab  on  the  Nile,  and  the  Waj,  Rek,  and  Afoj  to  the  west,  on  the 
Bahr-el-Ghazal  tributaries.  Other  Denka  communities  are  also  settled  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Bahr-el-Abiad,  below  the  Sobat .  confluence.  But  although 
occupying  the  route  necessarily  followed  by  all  travellers  ascending  the  Upper 
Nile  or  penetrating  to  the  Congo  basin,  the  Denka  have  in  no  way  altered  their 
mode  of  life  under  the  influence  of  foreign  civilisation.  They  have  remained  free 
on  their  plains  or  marshes,  buying  next  to  nothing  from  the  Arab  merchants,  the 
milk  of  their  herds,  the  fruits  of  their  orchards,  and  the  seeds  and  vegetables  of 
their  fields  sufficing  for  all  their  wants.  On  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile,  in  the 
country  of  the  tribe  of  the  same  name,  stands  Boty  a  fort  built  by  the  Egyptian 
Government  to  overawe  the  Denka.  Like  the  Bari,  the  Denka  have  also  been 
visited  by  Italian  and  Austrian  Catholic  missionaries,  who  had  settled  themselves 
at  Panom  or  Fautentum,  below  Bor  in  the  Eij  country,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Nile ;  but  they  were  forced  to  quit  this  establishment  of  the  Holy  Cross  (Santa 
Crooe,  Heiligen  Ereutz),  on  account  of  the  epidemics  that  ravag^  the  mission. 
Nor  did  their  proselytising  labours  produce  any  results  beyond  the  collection  of 
vocabularies  and  translations  that  they  brought  back  from  the  Denka  country. 

The  Mohammedan  missionaries  have  also  had  little  success  amongst  the  Nilotic 
peoples,  who  have  remained  nature-worshippers,  like  most  of  the  other  Central 
African  peoples. 

Like  the  Bari,  who  speak  an  allied  language,  the  Denka  are  ashamed  to  wear 
clothes,  the  women  alone  attaching  hides  to  their  girdle.  They  do  not  however 
despise  ornaments,  wearing  iron  rings  on  the  arms,  ankles,  and  ears,  placing 
ostrich  feathers  en  ■  the  crown  of  the  head,  tattooing  the  face  to  distinguish 


■"TSSttf! 


i 


106 


NORTH-EAST  AFBICA. 


themselves  from  other  tribes,  and  extracting  the  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw.  Nearly 
all  of  them  shave  the  hood,  but  the  dandies  paint  their  hair  so  as  to  make  it 
resemble  that  of  Europeans,  and  give  it  a  reddish  hue  by  moistening  it  with 
animal  matter.  The  natural  complexion  is  of  a  fine  bronze  hue  ;  but  to  prevent  it 
from  changing  they  take  constant  care  to  rub  the  skin  with  greasy  substances  and 
smear  it  with  ashes,  which  gives  thorn  a  bluish-grey  appearance.  Being  accustomed 
to  kindle  large  fires  every  evening,  round  which  they  pass  the  night  with  their 
herds  to  protect  them  from  mosquitoes,  their  villages  become  strewn  with  large  ash- 
heaps,  on  which  they  delight  in  rolling.  The  Denka  of  the  eastern  region  are  one 
of  the  tallest  African  races,  men  often  being  found  amongst  them  over  six  feet  in 
height.  The  Eij  are  especially  tall,  but  westwards,  in  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  basin, 
their  stature  is  scarcely  superior  to  that  of  the  average  European.  They  possess 
generally  great  bodily  strength,  although  they  eat  but  one  meal  a  day,  towards 
sunset.  Their  leg^  are  long  and  thi.i,  and  as  they  live,  like  the  Nuer  and  Shilluks, 
in  marshy  regions,  they  walk  as  if  on  stilts.  Seen  from  a  distance  moving  slowly 
above  the  reeds,  raising  the  knee  and  cautiously  advancing  their  larg^  flat  feet, 
they  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  storks.  Like  the  birds  of  the  swamps,  they  are 
accustomed  to  stand  motionless  on  one  leg,  resting  the  other  above  the  knee,  and 
remaining  in  this  position  for  an  hour  at  a  time. 

Although  living  in  the  iron  age,  as  shown  by  their  preference  for  implements 
of  this  metal,  the  Denka  have  no  smiths,  their  alluvia  being  destitute  of  iron  ores ; 
still  they  show  themselves  to  be  skilful  workmen  in  various  industries.  Sarcasti- 
cally called  "  men  of  the  stick  "  by  their  neighbours  on  account  of  their  favourite 
weapon,  they  make  ingenious  elastic  bows  and  carve  curious  walking-canes  with 
shell  guards  to  protect  the  hands  from  blows.  Their  houses  are  larger  than  those 
of  the  neighbouring  tribes,  and  as  cooks  they  possess  rare  skill,  in  this  respect 
being  unrivalled  in  Africa.  They  are  great  cattle-breeders,  possessing  vast  herds. 
When  an  animal  falls  ill  it  is  separated  from  the  rest,  and  taken  to  a  well-appointed 
infirmary  for  treatment.  They  never  kill  but  only  occasionally  bleed  them,  to 
drink  the  blood  mixed  with  milk,  and  eat  the  flesh  of  those  alone  which  die  of 
disease  or  are  killed  by  accident.  In  spite  of  their  care,  the  bovine  race  appears 
to  degenerate  in  the  country,  owing  probably  to  climatic  conditions,  or  else,  as 
Schweinf  urth  believes,  because  of  the  total  lock  of  crossing  with  other  breeds,  and 
the  want  of  salt  in  their  food.  Amongst  one  hundred  beasts,  scarcely  one  could  be 
found  strong  enough  to  travel  from  one  murah,  or  enclosure,  to  another,  or  to  carry 
burdens  such  as  those  of  the  Baggara  cattle.  In  appearance,  however,  they  are 
handsome  animals  enough,  with  slender  horns  and  delicate  heads,  and  might  be 
almost  mistaken  for  antelopes.  The  bulls  have  a  mane  covering  the  shoulders, 
neck,  and  breast,  the  body  and  tail  being  clipped  close,  giving  them  the  appearance 
of  small  bisons.  The  Denka  also  breed  goats,  the  only  animals  they  kill  for  food. 
A  nation  of  pastors,  living  in  small  groups  on  the  plains,  the  Denka  have  no  public 
or  private  form  of  worship,  although  many  of  their  local  practices  are  supposed  to 
recall,  a  cult  resembling  that  of  the  primitive  Aryan  Hindus.  Like  the  Shilluks 
and  Bari,  they  respect  the  cow,  and  have  a  remarkable  veneration  for  snakes,  whicH 


Nearly 

0  make  it 
g  it  with 
prevent  it 
tances  and 
ccuatomed 
with  their 

large  ash- 
on  are  one 
six  feet  in 
iizal  basin, 
ley  possess 
y,  towards 
i  ShUluks, 
ing  slowly 
9  flat  feet, 
6,  they  are 

1  knee,  and 

mplements 

iron  ores ; 
Sarcasti- 

'  favourite 
canes  with 

than  those 
his  respect 
vast  herds, 
l-appointed 
d  them,  to 
biich  die  of 
Eu»  appears 

or  else,  as 
breeds,  and 
ae  could  be 
or  to  carry 
ir,  they  are 
I  might  be 
I  shoulders, 
appearance 
il  for  food, 
e  no  public 
supposed  to 
he  Shilluks 
akes,  whidi 


■i^-.,<iiw»pimji 


wpwwiwww^^wiiBwi»ijw«MNa"***w"fwwwifiPiPww»w^^  .i.iBiiiiii  '■■■Tiii  w-tms^mtfnmfrnfir^ 


J 


'  ..    ■   V: 


m^i«!iH»iiaiWjg^ 


y»"'l.a.j^iHiiiiJ..i,l»HyiHii 


THE  MAKBAKA.— THE  MUBU. 


2Q7 


they  call  "  brothers ;  "  to  kill  these  reptiles  is  considered  a  great  crime.  Schwein* 
furth  was  told  that  pet  serpents  are  kept  in  every  house,  which  recognise  the 
members  of  the  family  and  answer  to  their  names. 

The  Makraka. 

The  large  river  Yci,  which  rises  in  the  "  Blue  Mountains  "  near  the  Madi 
country  and  the  Upper  Nile,  and  which,  after  describing  a  westward  bend  through 
some  marshy  tracts,  joins  the  Nile  below  Gaba  Chitmbeh  and  the  Bahr-ez-Zaraf 
bifurcation,  traverses  the  lands  of  the  Eakuak,  Fajellu,  and  Eederu  tribes,  most  of 
whom  are  related  to  the  Bari  and  Denka.  But  amongst  the  tribes  of  this  basin 
there  is  at  least  one,  that  of  the  Iddio,  or  Makraka,  who  are  entirely  distinct  in 
speech,  appearance,  and  usages.  They  belong  to  the  powerful  A-Zandeh  or  Niam- 
Niam  nation,  whose  domain  stretches  chiefly  south-west  into  the  Congo  basin. 
The  Makraka  (Makaraka),  or  "  Cannibals,"  fully  deserve  their  name,  as  is  attested 
by  Schweinfurth  and  other  European  explorers.  But  taken  all  in  all  they  are 
decidedly  superior  to  the  surrounding  Negro  tribes.  They  are  of  a  reddish  black 
colour,  with  less  fiat  nose  and  less  prominent  cheek-bones,  and  the  facial  angle 
more  developed  than  those  of  their  neighbours.  The  hair  is  long  and  almost  silky, 
and  by  means  of  berries  and  various  vegetable  substances  built  up  into  the  most 
fantastic  forms.  They  do  not  yield  the  palm  even  to  the  Madi  in  this  respect. 
They  do  not  extract  the  incisors  like  the  surrounding  Negro  tribes,  but  alone  of  all 
non-Mussulman  peoples  practise  circumcision.  They  are  accordingly  regarded  as 
a  kind  of  Mohammedans,  although  they  do  not  recognise  Islam,  and  this  semi- 
religious  brotherhood  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  the  Egyptian  governors  choose 
them  to  recruit  their  troops ;  but  the  chief  cause  is  the  terror  inspired  in  the  other 
tribes  by  their  courage  and  reputed  cannibalism.  The  dealers  traversing  the 
country  had  often  to  fight  not  only  the  Makraka  men,  but  the  women  as  well. 
These  Niam-Niam  are  skilful  agriculturists  and  possess  a  considerable  variety  of 
plants.  Although  their  territory  is  of  small  extent,  it  ranks  from  its  material 
prosperity  as  the  first  amongst  the  surrounding  nations,  and  one  of  the  administra- 
tive departments  established  by  the  Egyptian  Government  is  named  after  these 
people,  although  also  comprising  many  other  nationalities. 

The  Muru. 

The  most  widespread  nation  in  the  Te'i  basin  above  the  Denka  country  are  the 
Muru,  one  of  whose  communities,  carefully  studied  by  Felkin,  bears  the  name  of 
Madi,  like  the  large  tribe  on  the  banks  of  the  Bahr-el- Jebel.  Differing  little  from 
the  Bari  and  Denka  in  usages,  the  Muru  also  go  naked,  seldom  wearing  any 
ornaments  except  iron  rings.  Their  distinctive  tribal  sign  consists  of  two  tattoo- 
marks  on  the  foi^head.  The  stones  heaped  round  their  g^ves  have  the  same  form 
as  the  dolmens  of  Brittany.  Owing  to  their  physical  streng^,  the  Muru  are 
employed  as  porters  throughout  the  whole  region  of  the  Upper  Nile  tributaries. 


SOI 


NOBTU-EAST  Ai'lUCA. 


They  are  also  skilled  tillers  and  gardeners,  »M  each  hut  has  in  its  vicinity  an 
enclosure,  whoro  the  vegetubl.'  beds,  three  feet  high  and  very  narr«)w,  are  so 
disposed  that  they  can  bo  ruitivuted  without  bending  the  back.  The  old  Muru 
custom  of  all  property  being  in  common  has  not  yet  been  completely  replaced  by 
private  ownership.  The  Ix  r  prepared  by  the  women  belongs  to  everybody  ;  it  is 
placed  in  a  public  building,  every  thirsty  native  or  traveller  drinking  at  pleasure, 
but  never  taking  it  away  or  abusing  the  privilege,  drunkenness  being  quite  unknown. 
In  fine  weather  all  the  people  in  the  village,  men  and  women,  dine  together,  served 
by  the  children.  Politeness  is  one  of  the  virtues  most  sedulously  cultivated  by  the 
Muru ;  the  women  are  respected,  and  those  amongst  them  who  practise  medicine, 
with  miioh  more  success  and  intelligence  than  the  men,  are  always  escorted  bock 
to  their  own  dwellings  by  the  head  of  the  family  they  have  honoured  with  a  visit. 
The  education  of  the  children  is  looked  upon  as  the  chief  duty  of  the  tribe.  Boys 
and  girls  are  trained  to  bow  to  and  keep  silence  before  their  elders ;  they  learn 
gymnastics,  dancing,  mimicry,  practise  g^mes  of  strength  and  skill,  acciistom 
themselves  to  the  use  of  arms,  and  make  of  their  father  a  target  for  their  blunt 
arrows.  They  are  taken  away  and  left  in  the  woods,  then  watched  from  a  distance 
to  see  how  they  find  their  way  back  to  the  village.  Their  education  is  completed  by 
travel.  At  the  age  of  ten  the  children  leave  the  paternal  roof  on  visits  to  distant 
friends  of  the  same  or  other  nations,  thus  making-  their  "  tour  of  the  world,"  in 
order  to  become  acquainted  with  the  manners  and  customs  of  foreign  lands.  When 
the  young  women  get  tired  of  travel  their  brothers  bring  them  home,  then  ag^ain 
set  off  on  their  ramblings.  They  also  seek  foreign  wives,  chiefly  amongst  the 
Niam-bara,  exogamy  being  thr  rule  in  the  Muru  nation,  although  unknown 
amongst  the  Bari.  When  the  young  Muru  finds  a  girl  that  takes  his  fancy,  he 
approaches  her  and  attaches  a  wreath  of  foliage  to  her  wrist ;  if  she  retains  this 
(.mament  the  young  man  may  hope,  and  the  negotiations  for  the  marriage  are 
forthwith  begun  between  the  respective  parents. 

The  chief  station  of  the  Muru  is  the  village  of  Modi  (A-Madi),  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Yei,  and  on  the  caravan  route -between  Lado  and  Dem  Suleiman,  in  the 
midst  of  vast  sesame  and  millet-fields.  It  is  one  of  the  centres  of  traffic  between 
the  Nile  basin  and  the  Monbuttu  country.  The  official  reports  record  how  many 
himdredweights  of  ivory  are  purchased  by  the  Egyptian  officials,  but  make  no 
mention  of  a  more  important  commercial  article,  namely,  the  slaves  captured  from 
the  peaceful  tribes  of  the  country.  Till  recently  Madi  also  forwarded  a  large 
number  of  eunuchs  to  the  tout  ^s  of  the  lower  Nile  and  Arabia.  It  is  stated  that  the 
slave-dealers  always  tried  to  capture  and  mutilate  those  chiefs  who  did  not  readily 
countenance  their  traffic  in  human  flesh.  Hence  it  is  not  astonishing  that  the 
sight  of  a  "  Turk  "  terrifies  the  blacks  of  these  regions ;  the  children  on  seeing  a 
stranger  scamper  away  vnth  cries  of  terror. 

The  river  Bol,  which  under  divers  names  flows  parallel  to  the  Ye'i,  and  which  at 
last  runs  out  in  the  Nile  marshes  above  the  cataracts,  flows  through  the  territory  of 
numerous  tribes,  such  as  the  Abukaya,  the  Lori,  the  Lesi,  the  Belli,  and  the  Jiri, 
which  possess  no  political  cohesion.     In  the  country  of  the  Agar,  a  branch  of  the 


'yass»sa@f%5 


THE  BONGO. 


>09 


ioinitj  an 
w,  are  ho 
Ad  Muru 
placed  by 
xly ;  it  ia 

pleasure, 
unknown, 
or,  served 
:ed  by  the 
medicine, 
>rted  book 
th  a  visit, 
be.  Boys 
they  learn 

accustom 
heir  blunt 
a  distance 
npleted  by 
to  distant 
irorld,"  in 
ds.  When 
hen  again 
longst  the 

unknown 

fancy,  he 
jtains  this 
Triage  are 

e  left  bank 
lan,  in  the 
io  between 
how  many 
;  make  no 
tured  from 
3d  a  large 
ted  that  the 
not  readily 
f  that  the 
n  seeing  a 

id  which  at 
territory  of 
d  the  Jiri, 
nch  of  the 


Denkaa,  there  is  a  veritable  town,  Ai/nk,  or  Du/alla,  nfanding  on  tho  right  Iwnk  of 
the  river  and  surrounded  by  n  palisade  and  a  deep  ditch.  Tho  dwellings,  all  built 
on  raised  platforms,  are  crowded  together  within  the  enclosure,  whilst  tho  jscriba  ' 
is  surrounded  by  a  complete  zone  of  villages.  North-west  of  Ayok,  at  some 
distance  from  tho  river,  and  in  a  hilly  cultivated  district,  is  situated  another  zeriba, 
founded  by  the  Arab  traders.  This  is  the  town  of  Rumbek,  also  called  Rol,  after 
the  name  of  the  river  and  its  chief  riverain  tribe.  It  is  the  chief  town  of  the 
Egyptian  administrative  Government.  According  to  Fclkin,  tho  tt)wn  population 
numbers  about  3,000  individuals,  and  that  of  the  neighbouring  villages  30,000. 
In  Rol  dress  is  regarded  as  h  religious  privilege,  and  except  the  wives  of  tho  Arabs, 
no  women  have  a  right  to  be  seen  clothed.  ^       ,       j    .*    ' 

The  Bongo. 

Towards  the  west,  the  g^at  Bongo  nation,  also  called  Dor  or  Doran,  occupy  tho 
hilly  plains  north  of  tho  Niam-Niam,  watered  by  the  Jau,  the  Tonj,  the  Jur,  the 
Bongo,  and  their  numerous  affluents.  Schweinfurth,  who  lived  two  years  amongst 
the  Bongo  tribes,  says  that  before  the  arrival  of  the  slave-dealers  they  must  have 
numbered  at  least  about  300,000,  but  at  present  they  appear  to  be  reduced  to 
100,000.  Formerly  distributed  in  countless  little  independent  communities,  and 
living  in  peace  with  each  other,  the  Bongos  never  thought  of  uniting  to  resist 
hostile  attacks.  When  the  slave-dealers  presented  themselves  with  their  bands 
armed  with  guns,  they  easily  gained  possession  of  the  villages  on  the  plain, 
established  their  zeribas  at  all  strategic  points,  and  the  whole  country  was  soon  at 
th  ir  mercy.  The  whole  Bongo  nation  threatened  to  disappear  in  a  few  years,  so 
rapidly  was  the  country  wasted  by  the  slave-trade  and  oppression.  The  local 
civilisation  perished,  and  certain  industries  were  abandoned.  Schweinfurth  feared 
that  this  original  people,  so  remaikable  in  physical  traits  and  usages,  might  have 
been  discovered  only  to  be  lost  to  science.  It  seems,  however,  that  thanks  to 
several  years  of  peace,  the  country  has  hegun  to  revive,  although  now  again 
threatened  by  the  raids  of  the  Arabs  and  their  native  allies.  The  Bongo  families 
appear  to  be  fairly  numerous,  owing,  perhaps,  to  their  relatively  late  marriages : 
the  young  men  marry  only  between  the  ages  of  fifteen  and  seventeen,  whilst  in 
other  tribes  unions  take  place  at  thirteen  or  fourteen. 

The  Bongo  present  a  striking  contrast  to  tli-.-Lr  northern  neighbours,  the  Uenka, 
although  the  two  languages  appear  to  point  at  a  remote  affinity.  They  are  not  so 
black,  the  skin  being  of  a  reddish  brown,  aimilar  in  colour  to  the  ferruginous  soil 
composing  the  terrace  lands  sloping  northwards.  Of  smaller  stature  than  the 
Denka,  the  Bongo  are  stronger  and  more  thickset,  the  strong  muscles  of  their 
thighs  and  calves  presenting  a  nutrked  contrast  to  the  thin  legs  which  give  such  a 
"stilted"  appearance  to  the  marsh  tribes.  The  women  have  largely  developed 
hips,  and  walk  like  animals,  the  tail  they  ornament  themselves  with,  swinging  about 
at  each  step,  adding  to  the  resemblance.  .  Whilst  the  Denka  head  is  narrow  and 
long,  those  of  tho  Bongo  are  all  brachycephalous,  the  skull  being  near'/  round. 


■Ml 


mmm  '^  ""-  '^mmmm 


m 


NOBTU-KAI^  AFUICA. 


It  i 


According  to  Schwdnlurtb,  no  other  people  powMM  a  higher  cephalic  index;  it 
would  ttppoor  moreover  that  in  certain  di.trictH  the  mothers  compreM  the  heucU  of 
their  chiUlren  into  certain  shapes.  Unlike  ao  many  other  peoples  of  the  riverain 
regions,  the  men  do  not  go  nako<i,  but  wear  a  strip  of  cloth,  and  the  iron  ringt 
which  they  wear  on  the  arms,  occosionally  numbering  several  dozens,  are  so 
arranged  as  to  form  veritable  pieces  of  armour.     The  women  wear  no  loin-cloth, 

T\t(.  M.— Chisv  Boens  or  Explokim  ik  tmi  Zariba  Rboion. 
Boat*  1  :  <l,ooo,n(io. 


m^  180  Mileo. 


merely  attaching  to  the  girdle  a  leafy  branch  or  tufts  of  grass.  Their  ornaments 
consist  of  nails  or  metal  pktes,  which  they  pass  through  the  lower  lip.  Bongo 
women  are  often  seen  wearing,  like  the  Botocudos  of  Brazil,  inserted  in  the  lip,  a 
disc  krge  enough  to  be  used  as  a  plate.  The  dandies  also  insert  pegs  into  the  sides 
of  the  lips,  the  nostrils,  and  other  prominent  parts  of  the  body.  Persons  are  seen 
thus  "  pinned  up  "  in  a  hundred  different  places. 


iiiilliiiiiii 


w>y.»i-»<BL.i|^*.j|i<.^    i;.-*.aM«»M^*flyB' 


It 


SUE  DIVR. 


Ill 


index;  it 
)  hottflH  of 
B  rivoroin 
ron  rings 
18,  are  k) 
luin-oloth, 


^ 


.8* 


N 


WC-* 


'  ornaments 
p.  Bongo 
1  the  lip,  a 
to  the  sides 
>us  are  seen 


The  Bongo  are  perhaps  one  of  the  most  kindly,  gentle,  and  induntrintim  ponplo 
of  Africa.  Thoy  uro  not  poMosscd  of  the  cxtraordinury  iHiHnion  for  cuttlo  whioh 
charaoteriaen  the  Buri  und  Dcnka,  but  occupy  thoniselvoH  montly  with  ugriculturo, 
men  and  women  alike  preparing  the  soil  and  cultivating  their  plantH  with  the 
greatest  earn.  The  fertile  red  soil  yields  abundant  crops  of  tolNicco,  sosanin,  durra, 
and  other  alimentary  plants ;  but  in  spite  of  this  variety  of  vogotablu  products, 
including  wild  roots  and  mushrooms,  the  Bongo  despise  no  flesh,  fresh  or  putrid, 
excepting  that  of  the  dog.  They  drive  away  the  vulture  to  regale  thumsclvcs  on 
the  remains  of  its  meal  of  carrion,  oat  with  relish  the  worms  found  in  the  entrails 
of  the  ox,  devour  scorpions,  termite  larvoD,  and  all  creeping  and  crawling  insects. 
As  amongn^.  other  tribes,  earth-oating  is  also  very  common  amongst  them.  The 
Bongo  are  the  most  skilled  of  African  smiths,  supplying  the  Denka  with  their  arms 
and  ornaments.  They  build  ingenious  furnaces  to  direct  a  current  of  air  across  the 
iron  ore,  and  manufacture  with  the  aid  of  very  simple  tools  articles  equal  in  finish 
to  the  products  of  the  European  workshops.  Like  the  Logone  people  of  the  Tsad 
basin,  they  have  introduced  the  use  of  round  pieces  of  this  metal  as  money.  They 
are  also  skilful  builders  and  carvers,  erecting  substantial  dwellings  with  circular 
ledges,  which  serve  as  t«rraces  or  balconies.  Round  the  graves  of  their  chiefs  they 
carve  stakes  in  the  form  of  human  beings,  which  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  the 
divinities  of  the  South-Sea  Islanders.  But  these  human  figures  of  the  Bongo  are 
not  g^s,  but  merely  symbols  of  the  resurrection,  a  doctrine  in  which,  together  with 
metempsychosis,  they  are  firm  believers.  The  souls  of  old  women  are  supposed  to 
pass  into  the  bodies  of  hyeenas,  on  which  account  these  animals  are  regarded  as 
possible  family  relations,  and  never  killed. 

The  DitjR. 

The  Diur,  that  is  to  say,  "  Men  of  the  Woods,"  "  Savages,"  are  so  called  by  the 
Denka,  who  regard  as  inferior  beings  all  tribes  not  possessing  numerous  herds  of 
cattle.  Their  true  name  is  Luoh  or  Lwo,  and  like  the  more  southerly  Belinda, 
who  have  encroached  on  the  Niam-Niam  domain,  they  are  immigrants  of  Shilluk 
stock.  They  still  speak  an  almost  pure  Shilluk  dialect,  and  some  of  the  aired 
amongst  them  have  preserved  the  traditional  system  of  tattooing  peculiar  to  that 
nation. 

The  Diur  occupy  the  last  ferruginous  terraces  of  the  plateau  between  the  Bongo 
and  Dinka  territories.  Their  domain  is  watered  by  several  streams,  the  largest 
of  which  takes  the  name  of  this  tribe.  According  to  Schweinfurth,  they  number 
some  20,000,  but  increase  rapidly  in  times  of  peace,  because  their  families,  remark- 
able for  their  mutual  affection,  are  generally  numerous.  The  Diur,  much  better 
proportioned  than  the  Denka,  are  one  of  the  naked  peoples  classed  by  the  etuiier 
explorers  amongst  the  "  tailed  men,"  as  they  generally  wear  two  attached  to  the 
girdle.  Skilful  smiths  like  the  Bongo,  they  also  manufacture  rings  for  ornament- 
ing the  arms  and  legs,  but  they  no  longer  dress  the  hair  after  the  complicated 
Shilluk  fashion.     Nearly  all  the  men  and  women  have  very  short  hair.     The  ancient 


WimiwiiiJtinii 


■   I 
1   I 


I 
I 

i 


112 


N0ETH-EA8T  AFBIOA. 


customs  are  disappearing.  Thus,  amongst  others,  the  Diur  have  ceased  to  spit  upon 
each  other  as  a  mark  of  affection ;  and  the  "  tree  of  death,"  to  whose  trunk  the 
heads  of  enemies  were  nailed,  no  longer  stands  at  the  side  of  each  village. 


■M^ 


Topography. 


Diur  Ohattas,  the  principal  zeriba  of  the  country,  is  well  placed  at  the  junction 
of  the  Bongo,  Denka,  and  Diur  territories,  and  in  the  intermediate  zone  between 
the  marshy  plains  and  the  hilly  terraced  lands,  with  their  alternate  woods  and  grassy 
stpjjpes.  Sixty  miles  to  the  north-east,  at  the  Diur  and  Momul  confluence,  sur- 
rounded by  a  labyrinth  of  canals,  and  to  the  east  of  an  immense  forest,  stands  the 
village  and  the  group  of  depots  called  Meshra-er-Bek,  or  "  Station  of  Rek."  Here 
begins  the  navigation  of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  and  here  is  the  starting-point  for  all 
the  caravans  proceeding  south,  south-west,  or  west,  into  the  region  of  the  Upper 
Nile  tributaries.  Before  the  war  which  cut  off  this  region  from  Khartum,  a  steamer 
ascended  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  periodically  as  far  as  Meshra-er-Rek.  North-west  of 
Diur  Ghattas,  other  zeribas  follow  in  the  Diur  territory.  Such  are  Kuchuk-Ali, 
where  Gessi  gained  a  final  victory  over  the  slave-dealer  Suleiman,  and  where  are  some 
fine  banana,  lemon,  and  orange  g^ves,  planted  by  Schweinf  urth  ;  and  Wau,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Diur,  surrounded  by  extensive  forests,  which  furnished  the  materials 
for  the  flotilla  in  which  Gessi  sailed  down  the  Diur  to  the  port  of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal. 


.  li-sr:-  »rVi»>  .■ 


The  Sereh,  Golo,  and  Erej  Tribes. 


West  of  the  Bongo  are  the  Sereh  and  Golo,  whoso  territories  are  both  bounded 
by  the  Ji  or  Pango  tribe.  The  Sereh  greatly  resemble  their  neighbours  the  Niam- 
Niam,  to  whom  they  were  for  some  time  subject.  They  are  a  well-built,  stout,  cleanly, 
and  industrious  people.  They  are  of  a  cheerful  disposition,  enduring  fatigue,  hunger, 
and  thirst  without  complaint.  Of  all  Africans,  they  possess  the  fewest  domestic 
animals,  rearing  poultry  alone  iu  their  villageo. 

In  general,  the  Golo  resemble  the  Bongo  in  appearance  and  customs,  although 
speaking  an  entirely  different  language.  Their  round  huts  have  very  large  eaves 
supported  on  a  circular  row  of  posts,  thus  forming  a  complete  verandah  round  the 
dwelling.  They  erect  exceedingly  elegit  granaries  in  the  form  of  a  vase  resting  on  a 
stool,  and  surmounted  by  a  movable  cover  tapering  to  a  point  ornamented  with  {dumes. 

West  of  the  Golo  dwell  the  Kredi  or  Erej,  who  wander  in  small  bands  in  the 
heart  of  the  forests,  and  whom  Schweinfurth  describes  as  the  most  repulsive  and 
least  intelligent  Negroes  he  ever  met.  This  region,  however,  which  drains  through 
the  Biri  and  other  streams  into  the  Bahr-el-Arab,  is  one  of  those  where  the  popula- 
tions have  become  most  mixed,  not  by  free  crossings,  but  by  promiscuous  intercourse, 
forced  migrations,  and  the  passage  of  troops  and  slave-dealers.  The  whole  of  Dar- 
Fertit,  a  name  usually  applied  by  the  Arabs  to  this  part  of  the  country,  was  recently 
little  more  than  a  camp  of  slave-hunters.  The  affix  Dem  or  Dwem,  meaning  "  town," 
joined  to  so  many  names  of  places,  indicates  the  zeriba  or  fortified  stations  main- 


rTjBV, ' 


d  to  spit  upon 
ise  trunk  the 
age. 


t  the  junction 
zone  between 
da  and  grassy 
ifluence,  sur- 
ist,  stands  the 
Rek."  Here 
-point  for  all 
of  the  Fpper 
um,  a  steamer 
!J^orth-west  of 

Kuchuk-Ali, 
here  are  some 

Wau,  on  the 
the  materials 
hr-el-6hazal. 


K>th  bounded 
rs  the  Niam- 
itout,  cleanly, 
igue,  hunger, 
rest  domestic 

ms,  although 
Y  large  eaves 
ih  round  the 
e  resting  on  a 
with  i^umes. 
bands  in  the 
epulsive  and 
ains  through 
I  the  popula- 
intercourso, 
hole  of  Dar- 
was  recently 
ing  •*  town," 
itions  main- 


i;gggl^fevg:ssp?^3iij^~^^^^-i?^ 


! 


1)  '• 


.^■■' 


TOPOGEAPHY. 


119 


tained  by  the  slave-dealers.  Dem  Idris,  the  chief  town  of  the  Golo  country,  is  one 
of  the  great  centres  of  the  ivory  trade.  When  Bohndorff,  Juncker's  fellow-traveller, 
escaped  northwards  towards  the  end  of  1883,  elephants'  tusks  were  here  heaped  up 
in  the  stores.  Had  the  river  not  been  blocked  by  the  revolt.  Governor  Lupton 
valued  the  merchandise  that  he  could  have  forwarded  to  Khartum  at  125  tons  of 
ivory  and  16  tons  of  indiarubber. 


TOPOGRAFHY.  '  t 

Dem  Ziber,  or  Dem  Suleiman,  the  chief  town  of  the  "  Dwems,"  named  after  the 
two  slave-dealers,  father  and  son,  whose  power  was  overthrown  by  Gessi  in  1878,  is 
one  of  the  largest  places  in  the  Nilotic  basin  above  Khartum.  The  Egyptians  have 
made  it  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Bahr-el-Ghazal.  The  king  of  Uganda's 
envoys  on  reaching  this  "  great  city  "  believed  that  they  had  arrived  in  England, 
of  whose  wealth  and  wonders  they  had  heard  so  much.  Its  stores  are  stocked  with 
European  merchandise  as  well  as  with  local  produce,  exotic  fruits  and  vegetables 
acclimatised  in  the  surrounding  gardens.  Here  jewellers  have  established  themselves, 
and  sculptors  here  carve  ivory  tastefully  as  bracelets,  sword  and  dagger  hilts,  and 
many  other  articles  of  vertu,  and  manage  to  keep  within  the  law  which  claims 
elephants'  tusks  as  the  Khedive's  property.  Dem  Suleiman  is  the  only  town  of  the 
riverain  countries  possessing  a  mosque. 

To  the  north  of  Fertit,  Gessi  chose  as  the  garrison  station  on  the  Arab  frontier 
*'<-  town  of  Hiffi,  situated  in  the  vicinity  of  large  forests  near  the  sources  of  the 
r  uns  flowing  towards  the  Bahr-el-Arab,  but  which  run  quite  dry  during  apart  of 
the  year.  The  Togo'i,  one  of  the  neighbouring  tribes,  belonging  probably  to  the 
same  race  as  the  Krej,  are  savage,  ugly,  and  debased ;  whilst  other  peoples,  such  as 
the  Inderi  and  Shir,  have  features  which,  according  to  Felkin,  are  almost  "  Euro- 
pean," and  are  distinguished  for  their  high  moral  qualities.  The  village  of  Oondu, 
about  24  miles  north  of  Hiffi,  is  a  citadel  of  the  Shir,  perched  on  the  top  of  a  hill 
rising  some  30C  feet  above  the  plain ;  a  rough  path  winds  up  the  side  of  the  hill, 
which,  however,  the  Arab  invaders  have  vainly  attempted  to  scale.  The  Shirs,  with 
no  other  weapons  than  arrows  and  stones,  have  always  repulsed  .aeir  assailants. 
Having  remained  independent  and  retained  their  bravery,  they  have  lost  nothing  of 
their  good  qualities.  At  the  sight  of  a  stranger  they  leave  their  work  and  run  for- 
ward, offering  him  refreshment  and  food.  The  Shir  have  little  of  the  Negro  type, 
their  lips  being  thin  and  the  nose  shapely.  They  daub  the  body  with  oil  and  red 
ochre,  which  g^ves  them  a  resemblance  to  their  namesakes,  the  Shirs  of  the  NUe  Valley. 
Like  the  Madi  and  so  many  other  peoples  of  the  Upper  Nile  region,  they  pass  a 
great  part  of  theii'  life  in  dressing  their  hair.  Their  faY'Ourite  shape  is  that  of  a 
halo  composed  of  lon^jp  tresses. 

The  Mandara,  or  Mandula,  north  of  the  Shirs  in  the  direction  of  the  Baggara 
Arabs,  form  the  most  advanced  section  of  the  Negro  populations.  According  to 
Gessi,  they  are  immigrants  from  Baghirmi,  near  Lake  Tsad,  who,  flying  from  the 
slave-traders,  took  refuge  in  a  country  which,  however,  had  beenm'ost  devastated  by 

8— Af. 


^^W®SW*^^ 


114 


NOBTH-EAST  AFBIOA. 


the  slavers.  It  was  a  hunting-ground  where  the  Sultan  of  Darfur  formerly  hunted 
human  beings  to  pay  hjs  debts.  The  Mandaras  are  nearly  all  Mahommedans,  like 
their  neighbours  on  the  banks  of  the  Bahr-el-Arab.  They  have  allied  themselves 
with  the  Baggara  and  Nuer  to  attack  the  Egjrptian  garrisons  in  the  riverain 

Rg.  37. — Inhabitants  op  thb  Zariba  Rxoioir. 
Soola  1 : 6,000,000. 


JtJmtiat 


ISO  HUM. 


countries,  but  they  were  repulsed  many  times  by  Governor  Lupton  near  the  village 
of  Mayendut. 

The  Fertit  country  forms  the  ethnological  boundary  between  the  clothed  and 
naked  populations.  This  contrast,  combined  with  those  of  the  physical  features, 
impresses  travellers,  who  here  seem  to  enter  a  new  world.  To  effect  its  junction  with 
the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  and  Nile,  the  "  Eiver  of  the  Arabs  "  in  its  lower  course  winds 
across  Negro  territories.  Denka  tribes  and  peoples  of  the  great  and  warlike  Nuer 
nation  occupy  the  swampy  plains  along  its  banks. 


1^»*^-^- 


THE  NUEB. 


m 


)rly  hunted 
ledans,  like 
themselves 
le  riverain 


fer 


the  village 

lothed  and 
il  features, 
lotion  with 
urse  winds 
rlike  Nuer 


The  Nuer. 

Of  all  the  Afrioan  peoples,  the  Nner  best  deserve  the  term  of  "stilted," 
applied  to  the  inhabitants  of  frequently  inundated  districts.  Besembling  the 
Denka  in  this  respect,  they  possess  even  longer  legs  and  flatter  feet,  which  they 
raise  above  the  high  grass  and  place  cautiously  on  the  boggy  g^und.  Like  most 
Negroes  of  the  riverain  countries,  they  go  naked ;  clothes  woidd  greatly  incommode 
them  in  these  damp  regions.  But  they  take  great  pride  in  the  beauty  of  their 
hair,  giving  it  a  yellowish  tint  by  applying  cinders  and  other  substances.  Those 
who  have  short  hair  wear  wigs  of  cotton  dyed  red ;  they  make  incisions  on  the 
forehead,  while  the  young  women -pierce  the  upper  lip,  inserting  rods  two  or  three 
inches  long  encrusted  with  glass  beads.  Like  the  Denkas,  the  Nuer,  whose  fields  are 
above  the  flood  level,  possess  large  herds  of  oxen ;  their  most  binding  oath  is 
taken  on  the  breed  of  their  cattle.  There  are  also  a  few  Nuer  communities  living 
in  the  midst  of  swamps  on  the  floating  islets  of  grass  and  reeds  brought  down  by 
the  river  during  the  floods.  Like  the  aquatic  birds,  they  eat  fish  as  well  as  roots 
and  nelumbo  seeds.  Still  all  travellers  have  wondered  how  these  half  amphibious 
beings  can  settle  down  and  bring  up  their  families  in  the  midst  of  mud  and 
decaying  vegetable  substances.  Their  life  must  indeed  be  a  hard  one.  They  ^re 
in  genei-al  very  sullen,  strangers  rarely  receiving  a  gracious  reception  from  them. 


-Tf-tm 


II 


I  *  J  ' ' 


v\ 

It 


m 


CHAPTER  V. 


80BAT  AND  TAL  BASLNS. 


f|HE  Sohat,  supposed  by  certain  explorers  to  be  the  true  White  Nile, 
is  occasionally  even  superior  in  volume  to  the  main  stream.  It 
receives  the  drainage  of  an  extensive  basin,  roughly  estimated  at 
70,000  square  miles.  This  vast  space  is  still  a  blank  on  iie  map, 
or  exhibits  little  more  than  the  names  of  tribes  inserted  merely  on 
the  authority  of  the  natives  and  of  travellers  who  have  penetrated  farthest  into 
the  interior.  Debono  ascended  the  river  in  a  boat  for  over  80  miles,  while  a 
steamer  advanced  140  miles  beyond  the  confluence.  Antoine  d'Abbadie,  Beke, 
and  recently  Schuver,  have  explored  several  tributary  valleys  on  the  western 
watershed  of  the  Abyssinian  highlands,  and  have,  moreover,  collected  information 
from  the  Arab  dealers  and  natives.  The  Yal,  or  Jal,  which  rises  in  the  Anam  and 
Berta  highlands  under  the  names  of  the  Yavash  or  Eishar,  that  is  "  Great  River," 
is  even  less  known  in  its  middle  and  lower  course  than  the  Sobat.  The  Arab 
traders  call  it  the  Sobat,  like  the  much  larger  river  flowing  farther  south.  Its 
mouth  is  blocked  by  sand  only  during  exceptionally  dry  seasons,  such  as  that  of 
1S61.  Between  the  Yal  and  the  Blue  Nile,  for  the  space  of  more  than  five  degrees 
of  latitude,  the  White  River  receives  only  one  perennial  aflluent.  The  Nile  and 
its  two  tributaries  are  fringed  by  deleb  palms,  tamarinds,  ebony,  and  huge  acacia 
forests,  which  though  rich  in  gum  are  at  present  used  only  for  the  sake  of  the 
wood.  One  of  these  acacias  is  the  "  coftar  "  or  flute-tree  (^acacia  fistula),  whose 
ivory-like  branches  are  drilled  with,  holes  by  the  insects  living  in  the  gall-nuts 
with  which  they  are  covered.  The  wind  rushes  through  these  openings,  producing 
a  soft  mellow  soimd  like  that  of  the  flute.  These  forests  gradually  disappear 
towards  the  mouth  of  the  Yal,  where  the  bare  steppe  stretches  right  and  left, 
relieved  only  by  the  smoke  of  a  few  Arab  camping-grounds. 

The  Gambil  and  Eoma  Tribes. 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Sobat  basin  are  of  Negro  stock,  the  Gallas  being 
met  only  in  comparatively  small  isolated  communities.  The  first  plains  watered 
by  the  Baro  and  Garreh  affluents  on  leaving  the  Abyssinian  mountains  are  occupied 


^ 


"bite  Nile, 
ream.     It 
timated  at 
L  .<he  map, 
merely  on 
rthest  into 
B,  while  a 
idie,  Beke, 
le  western 
aformation 
Anam  and 
lat  River," 
The  Arab 
south.    Its 
as  that  of 
ive  degprees 
6  Nile  and 
uge  acacia 
ike  of  the 
ila),  whose 
9  gall-nuts 
producing 
disappear 
and  lefty 


THE  OAMBIL  AND  EOMA  TBIBES. 


117 


alias  being 
as  watered 
:e  occupied 


by  Denka  and  other  tribes,  who  have  sought  refuge  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  against 
the  slavers  of  the  lower  Sobat.  These  fugitives  have  intermarried  and  formed  new 
tribes  differing  little  from  the  original  stock.  The  level  plains,  watered  by  the 
Bako,  are  inhabited  by  the  Tambo  or  Gambo,  whom  d'Abbadie  believes  to  be  a 
branch  of  the  Shilluks,  while  Schuver  affiliates  them  to  the  Deukas.  Farther  on 
the  land  rises  into  plateaux  inhabited  by  the  Eirims,  Malas,  Ishings,  and  Matze 
Maleas,  said  to  be  of  Negro  origin.  One  of  these  tribes  is  said  to  consist  of  dwarfs 
not  exceeding  4  feet  7  inches  in  height. 

A  community  of  the  warlike  Qambil  people  recently  occupied  the  skirts  of  the 
vast  Wallega  forest  fringing  the  western  foot  of  the  Abyssinian  highlands,  under 
the  same  latitude  as  the  Nile  and  Sobat  confluence.  The  chief  river  traversing 
their  territory  to  join  the  Sobat,  they  named  the  Komanji,  or  "  Cow  River," 
because  their  herds,  during  the  dry  season,  finding  no  pasturage  except  on  its 
banks,  crowded  down  to  the  water's  edge.  To  call  down  rain  the  Gambil  used  to 
throw  a  flayed  cow  into  the  stream,  believing  that  the  farther  the  blood  spread, 
the  more  copious  would  be  the  rainfall.  They  were  one  of  the  Nilotic  Negro 
nations  most  remarkable  for  their  bodily  strength.  Their  distinctive  tribal  signs 
were  two  gazelle  or  goat  horns  fastened  to  the  iorehead,  and  they  were  also 
accustomed  to  extract  the  two  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw.  But  of  this  tribe  there 
are  now  very  few  left,  the  exterminating  wars  created  by  the  Egyptian  "civilisers" 
having  extended  even  to  the  plain  of  Eomanji.  Robbed  of  their  cattle  by  the 
Arab  traders,  the  Denkas  of  the  Nile  fell  upon  their  Oambil  neighbours  to  restock 
their  farms.  A  ruthless  warfare,  waged  for  the  purpose  of  plunder,  ensued  between 
the  two  nations,  in  which  the  Gambil  were  defeated.  Some  fled  eastwards  to  the 
upland  Abyssinian  valleys,  and  sought  refuge  with  the  Legas,  a  Galla  people, 
who  received  them  merely  to  reduce  them  to  slavery.  Others  escaped  to  the  south, 
a  few  only  still  wandering  about  their  native  plains.  Their  capital,  Komanjok,  is 
nothing  but  a  ruin,  like  their  old  market-town  Kepiel,  where  the  Legas  bartered 
their  metal  wares  and  glass  trinkets. 

Better  protected  by  their  mountains,  the  Komas,  occupying  the  north-east  portion 
of  the  former  Gambil  territory,  south  of  the  Upper  Tal  affluents,  still  form  a  con- 
siderable nation.  The  Arabs  have  as  yet  visited  them  only  in  the  character  of 
merchants,  and  the  "  Turk  "  is  not  sufficiently  known  to  be  feared.  The  Eomas 
are,  moreover,  a  peaceful  nation,  having  been  undisturbed  by  wars  for  some 
centuries.  Having  no  need  to  defend  their  country,  and  never  making  slave  raids 
against  their  neighbours,  they  are  bad  archers.  But  though  they  do  not  distinguish 
themselves  as  warriors,  they  are  skilful  agriculturists,  and  their  fine  crops  of  ig^ame 
and  cereals  are  more  than  sufficient  to  support  the  people.  They  barter  the  wild 
honey  abundantly  furnished  by  their  forests  for  iron,  salt,  and  other  articles. 

The  Eoma  mountains,  about  6,660  feet  high,  are  one  of  the  most  pleasant 
regions  in  the  whole  of  Africa,  enjoying  an  equable  climate,  not  too  warm,  and 
never  so  cold  as  to  necessitate  the  wearing  of  heavy  garments.  The  sloping  land 
is  extremely  healthy,  and  the  picturesque  hillocks,  verdant  valleys,  and  limpid 
streams  on  every  side  combine  to  form  a  charming  landscape.    The  huts  scattered 


■■wwiwyiiaiiiin* 


1^    1 


118 


NORTH-EAST  AFBIOA. 


amongst  the  trees  are  a  proof  of  the  general  Bocurity  from  the  attacks  of  enemies 
or  beasts  of  prey.  In  his  many  voyagfes  across  the  world,  Schuver  nowhere  found 
men  whose  simple  pleasures,  quiet  life,  and  mutual  kindness  seemed  to  bring  them 
more  in  harmony  with  the  surrounding  country.  The  Koma  communities  never 
quarrel  with  each  other,  and  no  jealous  authority  prevents  the  families  from 
acting  as  they  please ;  the  people  are  guided  by  the  opinion,  and  in  important 
matters  by  the  decision,  of  a  public  meeting. 

The  Komas  extract  the  upper  incisorn.     The  men  go  naked,  like  most  of  their 
neighbours,  but  some  wear  a  collar  or  necklace  of  teeth  or  pearls.     From  their 


Fig.  38.— CoNrLviNOB  op  thi  Sobat  and  Yal. 

Scale  1 : 8.000,000. 

W\ 

'      K.kjr 

fiyTourm' 

.10' 

9'. 

9» 

E      of   Greenwich           34.*S0'                                                            SS-pO 

aoMiiM. 


childhood  the  women  are  clothed  with  bark  or  cloth  ;  engaged  and  married  women 
mostly  wear  an  apron  embroidered  with  pearls  and  rounded  pieces  of  broken  ostrich 
eggs.  The  women,  moreover,  ornament  themselves  with  red  pigtails  of  hair  or 
vegetable  fibres,  with  which  they  scourge  themselves  when  mourning  for  the  dead. 
Their  cries  and  sobs  are  heard  almost  every  morning,  even  before  cock-crow. 
The  dead,  men  and  women  alike,  are  kept  over  a  period  of  seven  to  ten  years  in 
special  huts,  built  so  as  to  protect  them  from  the  ants,  the  relatives  and  friends 
occasionally  bringing  them  presents  of  salt  or  pearls.  But  when  the  bones  are 
buried  all  these  gifts  are  sold  by  auction  to  defray  thd  expenses  of  a  public  feast. 


THE  8HILLUKS. 


1^ 


The  upland  valleyR  of  the  Yal,  north  of  the  Eoma,  belong  to  the  Amam,  whom 
Mateucci  wrongly  terms  the  African  "  Patagonions."  They  are  certainly  tall, 
but  not  so  tall  as  the  Nuer  and  Eij  ;  but  they  have  so  successfully  repulsed  the 
Egyptians  that  they  are  described  as  giants  and  reputed  cannibals.  Their  customs 
resemble  those  of  the  Eonr  .j. 

The  Suro,  who  roam  on  the  border  of  Eaffa  south  of  the  Gambils,  are  said  to  be 
tributary  to  the  latter  state.  They  have  i.  .-eady  been  brought  into  the  circle  of 
Abyssinian  political  influences.  Like  all  the  tribes  plundered  by  the  Abyssinians, 
they  are  called  "  Shangalla  "  by  the  plateau  populations ;  but  this  designation 
implies  no  connection  with  the  Shangalla  of  the  north,  such  as  the  Bazeh. 
Although  frequently  visited  by  the  Arab  merchants,  the  Suro  are  still  wild  pastors, 
like  the  Shilluks.  They  go  naked,  excepting  the  women,  who  wear  a  narrow  loin- 
oloth  ;  the  chief  alone  wears  garments,  the  insignia  of  power.  Like  several  Nilotic 
Negroes  of  the  same  race,  the  Suro  extract  two  teeth  from  the  lo  jaw,  and  insert 
a  disc  of  wood  in  the  lower  lip.  They  also  pierce  and  thrust  blades  of  g^ass  through 
tho  lobe  of  the  ear.  Like  their  civilised  neighbours  of  the  plateau,  they  eat  no 
other  flesh  but  that  of  their  herds. 

Ihe  riverain  peoples  of  the  lower  Sobat,  although  bearing  various  tribal  names, 
all  belong  either  to  the  Nuer  or  Shilluk  family.  The  formidable  Gibhas,  Bonjaks, 
and  Mivaks  are  isolated  Shilluk  communities ;  while  the  Baloks,  settled  more  to  the 
west,  and  tho  Ndiekens  lower  down,  are  Nuers.  Lastly,  the  populations  of  the  lower 
valley,  near  the  confluence,  are  Shilluks  separated  from  the  main  body  of  the  nation 
only  by  the  breadth  of  the  Nile.  The  Egyptian  Government  had  formerly 
established  the  military  post  of  Ncmser  on  the  Sobat,  about  120  miles  above 
the  confluence ;  but  the  expenses  of  maintaining  it  not  being  covered  by  the  small 
trade,  and  the  land  being  of  little  value,  it  was  abandoned  in  1876.  At  present 
the  vast  unexplored  basin  is  claimed  neither  by  Abyssinia  nor  Egypt,  and  its  political 
system  is  in  the  fragmentary  and  shifting  state  produced  by  the  continual  displace- 
ment of  the  tribes  by  emigration  or  by  conquest.  But  these  unexplored  regions 
traversed  by  the  Upper  Sobat  and  its  affluents,  will  doubtless  become  one  of  the  most 
frequented  parts  of  Africa,  as  it  is  here  that  the  water-parting  between  the  White 
Nile  and  the  Indian  Ocean  can  be  most  easily  crossed.  The  border  range  between 
the  Eaffa  mountains  and  the  volcanic  highlands  of  the  Masai  country  is  partly 
interrupted  by  broad  openings,  at  present  occupied  by  fierce  Galla  tribes,  and  forms 
a  natural  communication  between  the  watersheds. 

The  Shilluks. 

The  Shilluks,  who  occupy  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile  from  below  the  Sobat  jimction 
to  Abha  Island  for  a  distance  of  over  360  miles,  are  one  of  the  largest  African  races, 
and  the  only  one  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  recogni^iug  a  bando,  or  king,  ruling  all 
the  tribes,  and  selling  as  slaves  those  whom  his  anger  or  justice  lights  upon. 

The  riverain  zone  inhabited  by  the  Shilluks  is  only  from  ten  to  twelve  miles 
broad,  the  plains  of  the  interior  being  occupied  by  the  Baggara  (Bagara),  or 
"  Cattle  Arabs,"  pure  or  mixed,  so  called  on  account  of  their  large  herds  of  cattle. 


120 


NOUTU-EAST  AFRICA. 


I< ' 


They  poMoas  nono  of  tho  gontlonoHs  of  their  animals,  however,  being  wild  and 
daring  horsemen,  much  feared  by  their  neigh bnura  the  Shilluks.  According  to  the 
rough  census  taken  by  the  Egyptian  Government  in  1871,  after  the  reduction  of 
the  land,  the  Shilluk  nation  is  one  of  the  most  numerous  in  the  world  in  proportion 
to  the  surface  of  the  cultivated  land.  It  possesses  about  three  thousand  villages, 
each  containing  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  families,  and  the  whole  nation  comprises 
a  total  population  of  at  least  one  million  twelve  hundred  thousand,  a  density  only 
to  be  equalled  in  the  iiuburbs  of  European  industrial  towns  and  districts.    There 


Fig.  au.— SUUJ.VI.  Tvpi. 


■^w 


■A,.: 


>  1  •!•,>';  If 


are  few  other  countries  where  nature  provides  so  abundantly  for  all  the  wants  of 
man.  The  towns  on  the  bank  follow  in  succession  at  intervals  of  less  than  half  a 
mile,  like  one  huge  city.  Seen  from  the  river,  these  collections  of  huts,  all  similar 
in  form,  resemble  clusters  of  mushrooms,  the  white  cylinder  of  the  building  topped 
by  a  spherical  grey  roof  heightening  the  illusion.  In  the  middle  of  each  village  is 
a  circular  open  space,  where  the  villagers  assemble  in  the  evening,  and  seated  on 
mats  or  ox-hides,  smoke  native  tobacco  in  large  pipes  with  clay  bowls,  and  inhale 
the  fumes  of  the  fires  lighted  to  keep  off  the  musquitoes.  To  the  trunk  of  the 
tree  standing  in  the  middle  of  this  square  are  bung  the  drums,  so  that  the  public 


iX-LUL|LaJu.iji.iijmtii.i-^,  lAum 


THE  «U1LLUK8. 


in 


on'en  may  immediately  warn  all  the  peoples  of  the  surrounding  towns  in  case  of 
alarm. 

Hartniann  and  most  other  explorers  of  this  region  of  the  Nile  consider  the 
Shilluks  as  the  typical  representative  of  the  group  of  Negro  nations  whoso  domain 
is  bounded  south  by  the  Bantu,  east  by  the  Oalla  and  other  Ethiopian  races,  north 
by  the  Nubian  and  Arab  tribes,  and  south-west  by  the  Niam-Niam.  The  Shilluks 
are,  moreover,  by  far  the  most  numerous  of  theme  groups,  and  have  migrated  most 
frequently  to  all  the  surrounding  regions.  They  are  said  to  have  come  from  the 
south-east  plains  watered  by  the  Sobat  affluents  ;  since  the  migration,  the  Luoh 
and  Diur,  a  branch  of  the  same  stock,  have  occupied  a  portion  of  the  south-west 
territory  between  the  Bongos  and  Denkas.  Other  of  their  colonists  have  even 
crossed  the  Somerset  Nile  and  settled  in  the  U-Nyoro  country,  under  the  name  of 
Chefalu;  they  are  now  colonising  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile  below  the 
Sobat,  the  districts  of  the  Denka  country  wasted  by  the  slavers.  The  population 
on  both  banks  was  described  by  "Wome  as  "  immense,"  "  incredibly  dense  ;  "  even 
on  the  right  bank,  although  the  least  crowded,  hundreds  of  Denka  villages  followed 
each  other^  at  short  intervals.  But  they  were  all  delivered  to  the  flames,  this  region 
having  been  completely  wasted  in  1862  by  Mohammed  Her,  the  chief  of  a  band  of 
adventurers,  who  had  allied  himself  with  the  Abu-Rof  Arab  tribe  occupying,  west 
of  Senaar,  a  large  tract  between  the  two  main  streams.  The  Abu-Rof,  stationed 
along  the  foot  of  the  hills,  drove  the  Denkas  towards  the  Nile  and  Sobat,  where 
the  slave-boats  were  in  readiness.  The  razzia  was  successful,  not  a  soul  escaping, 
and  a  district  several  thousand  square  miles  in  extent  was  thus  depopulated. 
Qordon's  regret  at  having  contributed  to  spread  the  "  benefits  of  civilisation  "  in 
these  countries  may  easily  be  understood.  "  Wo  want  neither  your  pearls,  your 
friendship,  nor  your  protection ;  we  only  ask  you  to  leave  us,"  were  the  words 
addressed  to  him  by  the  delegates  of  a  tribe  he  was  annexing  to  Egypt. 

Although  for  some  time  in  contact  with  the  Arab  Mussulmans,  the  Shilluks 
have  preserved  their  customs  and  religion.  Like  the  Ban  and  Denka,  they  have 
refused  the  garments  offered  them  by  the  Khartum  merchants,  accepting  nothing 
but  their  glass  or  metal  trinkets ;  the  women  alone  wear  a  calf-skin  attached  to 
their  girdle.  Instead  of  clothes,  the  poor  besmear  themselves  with  ashes,  and  are 
thus  recognised  at  a  distance  by  their  g^y  colour,  the  real  complexion  of  the  tribe 
being  ruddy.  Like  other  riverain  populations  of  the  White  Nile,  the  Shilluks 
ornament  their  hair  with  g^ass  and  feathers  in  the  most  fantastic  forms,  such  as 
that  of  a  crest,  a  fan,  a  halo,  a  helmet,  or  even  a  broad-brimmed  hat.  At  sight  of 
Schweinfurth  wearing  a  broad  felt  hat  of  the  Panama  type,  the  natives  thought 
he  was  one  of  their  tribe,  and  shouted  with  wonder  when  he  took  off  his  hat.  The 
future  form  of  the  headdress  depends  mostly  on  the  fancy  of  the  mother.  Before 
the  children  are  weaned  they  fashion  the  hair  with  clay,  gum,  manure,  and  ashes, 
leaving  its  future  care  to  the  children  thei  selves. 

The  Shilluks  are  skilled  hunters  like  the  Baggara,  not  only  chasing  but  even 
breeding  the  ostrich  in  their  villages.  The  animal  they  fear  the  most  is  the 
buffalo.    When  unable  to  evade  the  furious  beast,  they  throw  themselves  face 


12!2 


NOBTH-EAST  AFUIOA. 


I'  m* 


dnwnwunlii  on  tho  ground  and  nham  death ;  the  buffalo  BnifTn  round  the  body  for 
Homo  niinutoH  und  thuu  ^oea  awuy  without  touching  it.  Tho  Shilluka  boliovo  in  the 
Hupornuturul,  but  pay  little  attention  to  it.  They  worship  an  ancestor  whom  they 
consider  to  be  both  a  god  and  the  creator  of  all  things ;  they  invoke  the  spirits  of 
tho  stream  and  wash  in  its  holy  water,  but  only  in  fear  and  trembling  speak  of  tho 
spirits  of  tho  dead,  which  hover  in  the  air  and  pass  into  the  bodies  of  animals  and 
trunks  of  trees.  The  throne  does  not  {nms  in  direct  descent  from  father  to  son, 
but  to  the  sister's  child  or  to  some  other  relative  on  the  female  side.  Until  the 
new  king  has  been  procli.iiied  the  corpse  of  his  predecessor  remains  enclosed  in 
his  tokid  ;  his  daughters  are  forbidden  to  marry,  and  confined  in  a  village  set  apart 
for  the  purpose. 

■ 

Topography. 

Tho  town  of  Fashoda,  established  by  the  Egyptian  Government  in  1867,  as  the 
capital  of  its  province  of  Bahr-el-Abiad,  is  in  Shilluk  territory.  Although  the 
residence  of  the  Shilluk  king,  it  was  at  that  time  the  village  of  Denab,  a  mere 
group  of  straw  huts  ;  it  is  now  an  imposing  square  fortress  surrounded  by  palings, 
dep6tfi,  and  enclosures ;  but  at  the  beginning  of  1884  it  was  a  city  of  the  dead,  the 
war  having  caused  the  people  to  quit  their  dwelling^.  Here  the  Egyptian  Qovem- 
ment  used  to  send  those  condemned  to  perpetual  exile.  Fashoda  occupies  a  good 
strategic  position  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  at  the  great  bend  which  it  describes 
in  its  northern  course  beyond  the  Bahr-ez-Zaraf  and  Sobat  junction.  The  conflu- 
ence itself  ia  defended  east  by  the  post  of  Takuflkiyah,  so-called  in  honour  of  the 
Khedive,  and  west  by  the  village  of  Sobat,  established  officially  with  a  view  to 
overlook  the  Negro  slave-dealers.  Kaka,  reccntl**  ^\e  chief  slave  market  of  the 
Upper  Nile,  is  the  most  important  place  in  the  Shilluk  country ;  it  lies  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river,  near  the  northern  frontier. 


'.''■■i> 


,  '  1 


ic  body  for 
licvo  in  the 
whom  they 
u  Hpiritfl  of 
3cak  of  the 
Diinala  and 
her  to  son, 
Until  the 
noloned  in 
;e  set  apart 


?67,  as  the 
hough  the 
lb,  a  mere 
>y  palings, 
3  dead,  the 
n  Govem- 
ies  a  good 
t  describes 
"he  conflu- 
our  of  the 
a  view  to 
cet  of  the 
m  the  left 


K*w-,^    ■ 


OHAPTER  VL        ; 

ABYSSINIA  (ETHIOPIA). 

|HE  name  "  Ethiopia,"  like  so  many  other  geographical  terms,  has 
changed  in  value  during  the  lapse  of  centuries.  Like  Libya,  it 
was  once  applied  to  the  whole  of  the  African  continent ;  it  even 
embraced  a  wider  field,  since  '  included  India  ord  all  the  southern 
londs  of  the  Torrid  zone  occ'^ied  by  the  "  mcji  blackened  by  the 
sun,"  for  such  is  the  exact  meaning  of  the  term.  '  The  peoples  of  Ethiopia,  the 
most  remote  in  the  world,"  says  Homer,  "  dwell  f  .Mie  tc-;Tards  the  rising,  others 
towards  the  setting  sun."  The  "  wise  men  "  o.cupying  he  TJppf  Nile,  .  f  whom 
the  Maorobians,  or  "  Men  of  Long  Life,"  are  a  branch,  whose  man  rs  and  customs 
pertain  to  the  Golden  Age,  and  "  those  virtuous  muvtals  whose  fti(.3t8  and  banquets 
are  honoured  by  the  presence  of  Jupiter  himself,"  ■..r'  called  Ethif  ms  by 
Herodotus.  But  he  applies  the  same  term  to  the  welters  Negroes,  whoso  culture 
was  scarcely  superior  to  that  of  irrational  beasts.  However,  according  as  our 
knowledge  of  Africa  increased,  the  term  Ethiopia  became  less  vague,  and  was 
applied  to  a  region  of  smaller  extent.  Now  it  is  restricted  to  the  uplands  forming 
the  water-parting  between  the  Red  Sea,  the  Gidf  of  Aden,  and  the  middle  Nile. 
This  is  the  region  known  to  the  Arabs  by  the  name  oi  Habesh,  or  Abyssinia,  a 
term  supj-osed  to  denote  a  mixed  or  mongrel  population,  hence  reluctantly  accepted 
by  natives  acquainted  with  Arabic.  The  people  occupying  the  plateau  traversed 
by  the  Blue  Nile  and  other  large  Nilotic  affluents,  conscious  of  a  glorious  past, 
proudly  designate  themselves  aa  "  Itiopiavian,"  that  is,  Ethiopians.  Nevertheless, 
the  term  Abyssinia,  like  that  of  Gem.,  t ",  and  so  many  others  that  the  people 
themselves  did  not  give  to  their  counii- ,  has  acquired  amongst  foreigners  the 
force  of  custom,  and  must  be  employed  to  avoid  misunderstandings. 


Belief,  Evn.m:;  Population  of  Abyssinia. 

The  shiftings  of  frf>atier  caused  by  the  fortunes  of  wars  and  conquests  have  long 
prevented,  and  still  prevent,  these  terms,  Ethiopia  or  Habesh,  from  conveying  a 
clear  political  signification.  Now  applied  merely  to  the  lofty  chain  )f  mountains 
whose  coatral  depression  is  flooded  by  Lake  Tana ;  now  extended  v    all  the  sur- 


184 


N0ETH.EA.8T  AFRICA. 


*i 


ml 


rounding  lands  westwards  to  the  Nilotic  plains,  and  eastwards  to  the  shores  of  the 
Red  Sea,  in  its  ordinary  usage  the  term  Abyssinia  is  specially  employed  in  a 
political  sense,  its  limits  being  indicated  by  the  authority  of  the  "King  of  Kings." 

The  word  Ethiopia  has  a  still  wider  sense.  From  the  geographical  standpoint 
its  natural  frontiers  are  traced  by  the  elevations,  which  at  the  same  time  serve  as 
boundary  lines  between  the  surrounding  floras,  faunas,  and  populations.  Speaking 
generally,  the  whole  triangular  space,  rising  to  an  elevation  of  over  3,000  feet, 
between  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Nile,  may  be  called  Ethiopia  proper.  On  all  sides 
the  exterior  escarpments  of  the  plateau  indicate  the  zone  of  transition  between  the 
.Ethiopian  and  surrounding  lands.  To  the  north  they  consist  of  those  spurs  pro- 
jecting to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Red  Sea,  from  which  they  are  separa.ted  by  a 
narrow  strip  of  coastlands.  Eastwards  the  rugged  Tigr^,  Lasta,  and  Shoa  high- 
lands are  abruptly  limited  by  uneven  plains  stretching  seawards,  which  appear  to 
have  formerly  been  partly  submerged.  Wadies  and  marshes  skirt  the  foot  of  the 
hills,  like  those  channels  which  encircle  the  foot  of  recently  upheaved  rocks.  To 
the  west  the  declivities  are  less  precipitous  ;  the  highlands,  breaking  into  ridges 
and  headlands,  fall  in  successive  stages  merging  at  last  in  the  undulating  plains, 
but  reappearing  here  and  there  in  isolated  crags  and  masses  in  the  midst  of  the 
alluvial  strata.  To  the  south  the  natural  boundaries  of  Ethiopia  are  less  distinctly 
defined,  the  plateau  extending  in  this  direction  towards  the  uplands  of  the  Masai 
country.  Still,  depressions  are  known  to  exist  in  this  region  affording  easy  com- 
munication from  the  Nile  Valley  through  the  Sobat  to  the  lands  draining  through 
the  Juba  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Until  these  little-known  regions  have  been  thoroughly  explored,  it  will  bt' 
impossible  to  accurately  calculate  the  extent  of  Ethiopia  in  its  wider  sense.  All 
we  know  is  that,  in  their  present  political  limits,  Abyssinia  and  Shoa  cover  an  area 
of  about  80,000  square  miles,  or  considerably  less  than  half  that  of  France.  The 
Eaffa  country  and  part  of  the  regpion  occupied  by  the  Gallas  and  other  tribes,  as 
far  as  the  water-parting  between  the  Sobat  and  Juba,  should  be  added  to  these 
countries  as  natural  geographical  dependencies.  The  lowlands,  ancient  political 
dependencies  of  the  kingdom  of  Ethiopia,  extend  east  of  the  Abyssinian  mountains 
towards  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Aden  over  an  area  nearly  equal  to  that  of 
Abyssinia  properly  so-called.  The  whole  of  the  region  comprised  between  the 
Nile,  the  Takka  steppes,  the  seacoast  from  Suakin  to  Zeila,  and  the  irreg^ular 
water-parting  between  the  basins  of  the  Awash,  the  Blue  Nile,  the  Sobat,  and  the 
tributaries  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  has  a  superficial  area  exceeding  240,000  square 
miles.     Its  population  may  be  approximately  estimated- at  about  9,000,000. 


\ 


Historic  RETRosPEcrr. 


Separated  from  the  surrounding  countries  by  the  relief  of  its  plateaux  and  moun- 
tains, Ethiopia  also  differs  from  them  in  its  climate,  vegetation,  fauna,  inhabitants, 
and  history.  In  this  vast  continent,  where  the  people  elsewhere  intermingle  like  the 
waters  of  the  sea,  it  rises  like  a  vast  highland  citadel,  constituting  a  world  apart. 


mSTOBIO  BETEOSPEOT. 


'68  of  the 
►yed  in  a 
f  Kings." 
tandpoint 
e  serve  as 
Speaking 
J.OOO  feet, 
all  sides 
itween  the 
spurs  pro- 
ted  by  a 
tioa  high- 
appear  to 
oot  of  the 
"ooka.    To 
ito  ridges 
ng  plains, 
dst  of  the 
distinctly 
the  Masai 
easy  com- 
^  through 

it  will  bi- 
mae.  All 
er  an  area 
nee.  The 
r  tribes,  as 
I  to  these 
t  political 
mountains 

to  that  of 
tween  the 

irregular 
^t,  and  the 
00  square 
0. 


md  moun- 
babitants, 
ie  like  the 
rid  apart. 


The  Abyssinians  have  had  an  historic  evolution  different  from  that  of  the  nations 
surging  round  the  foot  of  their  highlands,  like  the  waves  dashing  against  the  cliffs. 
Wars  and  revolutions  have  been  developed  below  them  without  affecting  them.  But 
if  Ethiopia  seems  to  have  lived  an  independent  existence  amid  its  African  neigh- 
bours, it  offers  on  the  other  hand  a  development  singularly  analogous  to  that  of 
temperate  Europe.  It  is  very  remarkable  that  the  Abyssinians  alone,  of  all  other 
African  peoples,  should  have  accepted  and  retained  a  religion  which  prevails  under 
divers  forms  amongst  European  peoples.  Not  only  its  religious  dogmas,  but  also  its 
political  institutions  and  usages,  present  a  certain  resemblance  to  those  of  mediaeval 
Europe.     In  certain  respects  Abyssinia  is  an  African  Europe. 

But  for  many  centuries  the  relations  between  Ethiopia  and  the  countries  north 
of  Africa  have  been  few  and  transitory.  The  Greeks  were  not  brought  into  contact 
with  the  Abyssinian  highlanders  till  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies,  when  the  open  ports 
on  the  neighbouring  coast  facilitated  the  exchange  of  merchandise  and  the  propaga- 
tion of  the  Hellenic  religion,  as  is  attested  by  the  inscriptions  found  by  explorers  in 
many  parts  of  Ethiopia.  Christianity  and  its  predecessor,  Judaism,  were  introduced 
into  the  country  by  the  same  routes.  Numerous  traditions  have  survived  from  the 
period  of  Greek  influence,  and  at  the  present  day  Ethiopians,  the  statements  of  travel- 
lers notwithstanding,  are  still  inclined  to  believe  that  the  Greeks  are  the  most 
po>/erful  nation  in  Europe. 

Shortly  after  their  conversion,  however,  all  relations  ceased  between  them  and 
the  Byzantines,  and  it  was  through  the  Arabs  that  vague  reports  reached  Europe 
of  their  African  co-religionists.  Even  at  the  time  of  the  Crusades  a  report  was 
circulated  that  the  King  of  Ethiopia  was  coming  to  the  help  of  his  Christian 
brethren.  However,  the  statements  made  about  these  African  Catholics  were  more 
legendary  than  historical,  and  Ethiopia,  like  the  Mongolian  plateaux,  was  supposed 
to  have  its  "  Prester  John,"  under  whom  the  happy  populations  were  said  to  live 
in  a  second  Golden  Age.  For  neariy  a  thousand  years  all  direct  intercourse 
between  Europe  and  Ethiopia  was  suspended,  and  not  resumed  till  about  1450, 
through  the  trade  opened  by  the  Italians  with  India.  If  Bruce  is  to  be  credited, 
the  Venetian  Branoalione  held  theological  discussions  with  the  Abyssinian  priests 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Later  on  a  Portuguese,  Pedro  Covillao, 
accompanied  by  a  second  Brancalione,  succeeded  in  reaching  the  plateau  and  the 
court  of  the  Ethiopian  king  in  1487 ;  but  he  was  not  permitted  to  return  to  his 
own  country.  At  the  same  time  Marcos,  an  Ethiopian  pilgrim,  journeyed  from 
Jerusalem  to  Lisbon.  In  the  following  century  the  Portuguese  penetrated  to  the 
plateau,  where  they  founded  religious  and  military  establishments  in  every 
direction.  Relations  with  Europe,  however,  were  not  yet  thoroughly  cemented, 
when  the  Portuguese  priests  were  accused  of  aspiring  to  political  power  and 
expelled  from  the  country.  They  were  no  doubt  followed  in  1699  by  the  French 
physician,  Ponoet,  invited  by  the  King  of  Abyssinia  to  his  court. 


126 


N0ETH-EA8T  AFBIOA. 


'  Modern  Exploration. 

But  seventy  years  passed  between  Poncet's  short  visit  and  that  of  the  Scotch- 
man Bruce,  with  whom  begins  the  era  of  modem  exploration.  Since  his  time 
the  country  has  been  traversed  by  many  European  travellers,  naturalists,  traders, 
adventurers,  soldiers,  and  missionaries,  and  European  military  expeditions  have 
even  been  made  into  the  heart  of  Abyssinia.  Commercial  relations  are  rapidly 
increasing,  and  many  of  the  plateau  districts  have  already  been  pointed  out  by 
explorers  as  a  future  Held  of  emigration  for  Europeans.  But  it  might  be  doubted 
whether  the  two  races  would  continue  to  live  on  friendly  terms,  without  the 
conflicts  and  wars  of  extermination  generally  proceeding  the  fusion  of  different 
peoples. 

Certain  parts  of  Ethiopia  are  already  much  better  known  than  any  other 
African  region  lying  beyond  the  colonies  and  maritime  regions  under  European 
influence.  Since  Bruoe's  visit,  the  country  has  been  thoroughly  studied  by 
explorers,  such  as  Salt,  Riippel,  Rochet,  Ferret,  and  Galinier ;  Beke,  Sapeto, 
Erapf,  Combes,  and  Tamisier ;  Lejean,  Munzinger,  Baffray,  Bohlfs,  and  Heuglin, 
who  have  brought  back  maps,  charts  and  observations  of  every  description. 
Moreover  Antoine  d'Abbadie,  during  his  twelve  years'  stay  in  Ethiopia,  made  a 
geodetic  survey  of  the  country,  by  a  rapid  but  accurate  method,  hardly  inferior 
in  precision  to  the  lengthy  and  delicate  system  of  triangulation  usually  adopted 
in  Europe.  On  d'Abbadie's  map  the  Bed  Sea  coast  is  connected  witn  the  moun- 
tains of  the  plateau  as  far  as  Kaffa  by  a  continuous  series  of  triangles,  fixing  the 
latitude  and  longitude  of  about  nine  hundred  points.  The  map  is  covered  with  a 
close  network  of  geodetic  lines  and  routes,  the  names  of  many  localities  being 
inserted  with  considerable  accuracy.  Detailed  surveys  were  also  taken  by  the 
British  stafi  officers  during  the  expedition  of  1868  from  Adulis  Bay  to  the 
highland  fortress  of  Magdala. 


Abyssinia  Proper. 

Most  European  explorers  who  have  visited  the  Ethiopian  uplands  have 
penetrated  from  the  east,  where  these  highlands  present  the  most  imposing  aspect. 
Above  the  samhar  or  mudun,  a  naked  plain  separating  the  coast  from  the  plateau, 
the  outer  terraces  of  the  escarpment  are  seen  piled  up  in  domes  and  pyramids, 
barren  rocks  or  verdant  slopes,  whose  shar]  hazy  crests  seem  to  merge  in  a  single 
irregular  range.  At  the  mouth  of  the  ravines  which  cleave  the  rocky  masses 
with  their  parallel  furro^vs,  the  argillaceous  plains  are  succeeded  by  rolled  stones 
and  boulders,  with  here  and  there  a  solitary  tree,  or  patches  of  scrub  or  herbage 
visible  in  the  cavities  occasionally  flooded  by  the  tropical  rains.  StUl  higher  up 
rise  rocky  or  wooded  slopes  and  steep  precipices,  round  which  wind  narrow  and 
dangerous  paths.  When  the  traveller  at  last  reaches  the  summit  he  does  not 
find  himself  on  a  ridge,  as  he  might  have  expected,  but  on  almost  level  pasture- 
lands  interspersed  with  tall  juniper-trees.  At  a  height  of  from  7,000  to  9^000 
feet  the  edge  of  the  plateau  stands  out  in  relief,  on  one  side  overlooking  the  grey 


^"TI-.TEfiB*"^"' 


u.  ii^^iRimwuiwp ' 


5  Scotoh- 
his  time 
1,  traders, 
ons  have 
d  rapidly 
d  out  by 
i  doubted 
;hout  the 
different 

ny  other 
European 
udied  by 
,  Supeto, 
Heuglin, 
scription. 
^  made  a 
r  inferior 
Y  adopted 
he  moun- 
ixing  the 
ad  with  a 
ies  being 
m.  by  the 
ly  to  the 


nds  have 
ag  aspect, 
e  plateau, 
pyramids, 
n  a  single 
Icy  masses 
led  stones 
r  herbage 
higher  up 
irrow  and 
does  not 
(1  pasture- 
)  to  9,000 
J  the  grey 


ABYSSINIA  PEOPEE.  127 

and  naked  plain,  and  on  the  other,  the  strange  "  chess-board"  of  the  interior  with 

Fig.  40 —Chief  Routes  of  Abybkinian  Explorbbs. 
Scale  1 :  8,000^000.' 


IttMtkriN  of  AiiiUdne  d'Abbadie. 


its  irregular  ternice-hmds  overtopped  by  jagged  cliffs  and  cleft  asunder  by  deep 
gorges. 


las 


NOETH-EAST  AFRICA. 


The  Abyssinian  Plateau. 


On  the  whole,  the  Ethiopian  plateau  consists  of  numerous  distinct  table-lands, 
like  the  polyhedric  prisms  formed  by  the  dessication  of  the  clayey  soil  of  plains 
exposed  to  the  action  of  heat.  These  table-lands,  intersected  by  precipices  and 
surmounted  by  crags,  stand  at  different  elevations.  Some  of  them  form  entire 
provinces,  with  towns  and  numerous  populations ;  others,  the  so-called  amba,  are 
mere  blocks  or  quadrangular  masses  some  800  or  1,000  feet  high,  similar  to  the 
druffs  or  "  inaccessibles "  of  Southern  India,  or  the  isolated  crags  of  Saxon 
Switzerland.  .  In  eastern  Ethiopia  the  origin  of  these  ambas  is  doubtless  due  to 
the  disintegration  of  a  thick  layer  of  red  or  grejrish  sandstone,  cleft  into  vertical 
masses,  and  revealing  here  and  there  stratas  of  lower  schistose  and  crystaline 
formations.  In  the  interior,  and  especially  towards  the  west,  where  volcanic 
lands  prevail,  most  of  the  natural  cliffs  consist,  not  of  sandstone,  like  those  of  the 
eastern  plateaux  of  India  and  of  Saxony,  but  of  lava,  and  terminate  in  basaltic 
columns,  some  disposed  in  converging  clusters  or  else  forming  colonnades  Like  the 
temples  of  the  Acropolis.  These  crystaline  rocks,  whose  upper  terrace  is  large 
enough  to  contain  arable  tracts  and  form  the  source  of  rivers,  have  for  the  most 
part  served  as  strongholds,  where  many  a  tribe  or  horde  of  robbers  has  remained 
for  years  besieged  and  out  off  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  Other  ambas  have 
been  chosen  by  the  monks  as  the  sites  of  their  monasteries,  and  such  holy  places 
often  serve  as  sanctuaries  to  those  fleeing  from  justice  or  oppression.  Lastly,  the 
smaller  basalt  columns  are  frequently  used  as  prisons  for  the  g^reat  personages 
who  have  iiicurred  the  displeasure  of  the  reigning  sovereign. 

In  Eastern  Ethiopia  the  general  face  of  the  plateau  is  more  broken  and  out  up 
into  more  secondary  plateaux  and  crystaline  rocks  than  in  the  west.  The  escarp- 
ments of  most  of  the  isolated  mountain  masses  slope  more  gradually  westwards. 
They  thus  reproduce  in  miniature  the  general  aspect  of  the  whole  region,  which 
terminates  abruptly  towards  the  Bed  Sea,  and  slopes  gradually  towards  the  Nilotic 
plains.  This  general  incline,  however,  can  only  be  determined  by  accurate  instru- 
ments, the  aspect  of  the  platejau  and  of  the  surrounding  ranges  being  too  irregular 
to  enable  the  observer  to  detect  its  primitive  outline.  The  ambas  stand  out  at 
various  elevations  in  bold  relief  against  the  blue  sky  like  citadels  and  towers. 
Lower  down,  the  verdant  base  of  the  plateau  breaks  into  abrupt  precipices, 
whose  walls  present  from  a  distance  the  aspect  of  regular  quadrangular  lines.  On 
these  harder  rocks  rest  the  soft  foundations,  here  scored  by  avalanches  of  falling 
rocks,  elsewhere  clothed  with  verdure.  The  Abyssinian  landscapes,  like  those  of 
the  Bocky  Mountains,  consist  of  superimposed  terrace-lands  and  vast  strata  of 
monumental  aspect.  Near  Magdala  the  eastei  a  edge  of  the  Talanta  plateau  is  said 
to  terminate  abruptly  in  a  vertical  wall  of  basaltic  pillars  over  three  thousand 
feet  high. 

The  Ewallas  and  Biver  Gorges. 

The  height  oi  the  Ethiopian  plateaux  varies  greatly,  presenting  between  the 
Simen  range  in  the  north  and  those  of  Lasta  and  Gojam  in  the  south-east  and 


.^.. — ^^. . 


•••■ 


table-landfi, 

il  of  plains 

eoipices  and 

'orm  entire 

1  amba,  are 

milar  to  the 

of  Saxon 

>tleB8  due  to 

into  vertical 

orystaline 

■are  Toloanic 

those  of  the 

9  in  basaltic 

ides  like  the 

■ace  is  large 

'or  the  most 

as  remained 

ambas  have 

holy  places 

Lastly,  the 

personages 

L  and  cut  up 
The  escarp- 
y  westwards, 
'egion,  which 
8  the  Nilotic 
iurate  instru- 
too  irregular 
stand  out  at 
and  towers, 
t  precipices, 
ir  lines.  On 
es  of  falling 
like  those  of 
ist  strata  of 
lateau  is  said 
ree  thousand 


between  the 
mth-east  and 


NORTHERN  ABYSSINIA. 


CBBTfln* 


•MiMbP  t0M*(/.  ot»acMin>.         »ww  SMOim 


HEW  -rORK,  D.  APPLETON  &.C9 


■<*p»" 


THE  ABYSSINIAN  PLATEAU. 


129 


west,  a  mean  altitude  of  about  8,000  feet.  All  the  regfions  attaining  or  exceeding 
this  height  are  called  dega,  a  term  analogous  to  the  Persian  sarhad  and  Arab  nejd. 
Below  the  altitude  of  6,000  feet,  the  intermediate  valleys  and  gorges  dividing  the 
plateau,  excavated  by  the  mountain  torrents  to  various  depths,  take  the  name  of 
kwalla,  kolla,  or  kulla,  a  zone  of  "  hot  lands  "  corresponding  to  the  ghermair  of 
Persia,  or  to  the  tehamas  of  Arabia.  Between  these  two  zones  stretches  the  vdina- 
degd,  or  temperate  region.  In  many  places  the  rugged  escarpments  present  a 
sudden  contrast  between  the  degas  and  the  kwallas,  the  difference  of  their  relief 
being  heightened  by  that  of  their  climate  and  vegetation.  The  cataracts,  such  as 
that  of  Pavezut,  near  Debra-Tabor,  fall  either  in  a  single  sheet  or  through  a  suc- 
cession of  rapids  from  one  zone  to  another.  Most  of  the  partial  granite  pr  basalt 
masses  of  the  plateau  have  outer  walls  formed  of.  cliffs  and  superimposed  talus, 
which  give  the  hills  the  appearance  of  step-pyramids;  but  some  of  these  kwallas 
are  little  more  than  fissures  or  gorges,  like  the  North  American  canons.  Such 
chasms  appear  to  be  but  a  stone's  throw  across  ;  their  true  size,  however,  can  only 

Kg.  41.— PBOFiiiB  or  Abtmimia  from  Eabt  to  Wbsi. 

8«ae  1 :  ifiOOfiOO. 


Tbe  Male  or  heigkto  is  MO  ttasM  lng«r  ihu  that  of  diibuuMa. 
I  6  MOm. 

be  seen  on  descending  into  the  abyss,  walking  for  hours  on  the  edge  of  giddy 
precipices,  crossing  the  torrents  at  the  bottom,  and  then  scaling  their  abrupt  sides. 
The  defiles  are  occasionally  blocked  by  masses  of  rock  swept  down  by  the  mountain 
torrents,  and  presenting  serious  obstacles  to  the  local  traffic  The  most  remark- 
able ravines  occur  along  the  eastern  edge  of  the  plateau,  where  the  total  fissure 
exceeds  6,600  feet,  measured  from  the  summit  of  the  degas  down  to  the  sea-level. 
Nowhere  else  can  a  more  convincing  proof  be  observed  of  the  erosive  action  of 
running  waters.  The  two  walls  of  certain  gorges,  rising  nearly  vertically  within 
a  few  feet  of  each  other  to  a  height  of  some  hundreds  of  feet,  represent  an  erosion 
of  hard  rock  amounting  to  at  least  ten  thousand  five  hundred  million  cubic  feet. 
Nevertheless,  the  waters  have  regulated  the  fall  of  the  channel,  which  averages  not 
more  than  one  in  forty  yards.  This  incline  is  easily  ascended,  but  several  of  the 
defiles  remain  blocked  for  months  together, by  the  mountain  torrents;  every  year 
new  paths  have  to  be  formed  across  the  debris,  while  some  have  had  to  be  entirely 
abandoned.  The  route  to  Eumaili,  through  which  t^e  English  army  marched  to 
the  Abyssinian  plateau,  had  probably  not  been  occupied  by  a  military  force  since 

9— AF, 


— . — — —- '-<T^:,'.,,;JgJ»"'"' 


180 


NORTU-EAST  AFRICA.  r 

Fig.  42.— Datkut  Palw,  nbam  Sauaka  (Dbiika-Taboh). 


■-'■■■r^. 


^i?>      ':       ■■■,1.    »■: 


V, ,     :■•<; 


3:,.-«?^. 


^^^^■:.^:-^ 


>fl' 


^?^-%^ 


r^.\i.^ 


^t^^ 


■4|^^»^ 


r^^V 


""•^3 


""'^ 

1 

f^'''  •" 

^  f^-~ 

'^^^         ' 

'    ■;                  ,'    '     ''  .    t 

*i^ 

^msMi 

■    I 

'^-^^ 

•  V 

'  V%      .''"i 


^#-^:^^/ 


■>Siv^S. 


.*I:'i^^S«l^«iiii^i3 


the  time  of  the  Greeks.    Ethiopia  is  thus  divided  by  gorges  into  numerous  natural 


MBfiaaBEMVam 


••  ^^^Ijr  jHil^MBiBBr"" 


THE  ^OBTHKKN  U1(»11I«VND8. 


lUl 


€« 


^M 


^-«^ 


seotionn.  Instead  of  fucilitating  communication,  uh  in  the  lowlnurln,  tho  Ahyflninian 
rivers  become  ho  many  defiles  difficult  to  traverse,  and  often  completely  cutting  off 
two  conterminous  provinces  for  weeks  and  months  at  a  time. 


Orographic  System. 


erous  natural 


From  a  geological  point  of  view,  the  Ethiopian  highlands  present  a  striking 
resemblance  to  those  of  Arabia  facing  them.  The  rocky  formations  are  identical, 
and  consequently  the  mountains  have  much  the  same  outlines,  tho  same  general 
aspect,  and  almost  the  same  vegetation ;  while  the  populations,  of  common  origin 
on  both  plateaux,  have  been  developed  in  almost  identical  surroundinrv^'.  The  back- 
bone of  the  whole  Ethiopian  plateau,  still  appearing  on  some  old  maps  under  the 
name  of  "  Spina  Mundi,"  is  formed  by  the  eastern  edge  of  the  mountains  over- 
looking the  low  coastlands  of  the  Red  Sea.  For  a  distance  of  about  600  nules 
this  edge,  precipitous  on  one  side  and  developing  a  gentle  incline  on  the  other, 
runs  north  and  south  nearly  in  the  direction  of  the  meridian.  West  of  this  range, 
which  also  forms  the  water-parting,  the  whole  of  the  plateaux  gradually  slope 
towards  the  Nile,  as  indicated  by  the  kwallas  through  which  flow  the  waters  of 
the  Mareb,  Takkazeh,  Beshilo,  Abai,  Jemna,  and  their  affluents.  On  the  eastern 
slope  the  escarpments  are  intersected  at  intervals  by  the  deep  valleys  of  the 
wadies  rising  on  the  plateau,  which  thus  affords  an  accessible  route  to  the  heart  of 
Ethiopia ;  but  one  river  alone,  the  Awash,  rises  far  west  of  the  chain.  The  valley 
of  this  watercourse  describes  a  regular  semioircle  south  of  the  Shoa  highlands, 
thus  forming  a  natural  barrier  between  the  Abyssinian  and  southern  Galla 
territory. 

The  Northern  Highlands. 

In  its  northern  section  the  axis  of  the  rang^  is  scarcely  sixty  miles  broad, 
including  the  spurs  and  the  lateral  ridges.  Its  lowest  eminences  overlook  the 
plain  of  Tokar  from  the  south,  where  the  river  Barka  loses  itself  in  a  marshy  delta. 
Rising  in  abrupt  terraces,  it  presents  a  steep  face  to  the  coast-Une,  which  is  here 
indented  by  inlets  and  broken  into  rugg^  headlands ;  the  jagged  crests  leave  only 
a  narrow  passage  at  their  base,  blocked  by  rocks  and  interrupted  by  wadies 
interspersed  with  quagmires.  This  region  would  prove  an  Ethiopian  Thermopylae 
for  an  army  endeavouring  to  reach  the  mountain  regions  <m  this  side.  Farther 
south  the  sea  retires  from  the  mountains,  leaving  a  strip  of  lowlands  known,  as  in 
Algeria,  by  the  name  of  Sahel,  which  stretches  at  a  mean  breadth  of  twelve  miles 
along  the  base  of  the  gneisf^,  granite,  and  schist  escarpments ;  a  few  volcanic  cones 
are  scattered  between  the  hills  and  the  seacoast,  while  lava-streams  here  alternate 
with  the  sand  and  clay  beds  of  the  arid  zone.  The  mountain  range  rises  to  a  height 
of  from  4,000  to  6,000  feet  above  the  Sahel.  The  Rora,  as  the  parallel  chains  are 
here  called,  expand  in  some  places  into  plateaux,  which,  from  the  abundant  rainfal 
and  fertility  of  the  soil,  would  amply  repay  the  labour  of  cultivation.    Thus  the  Rora 


-^mss^'' 


183 


NOUTU-KA«T  AFEIOA. 


Azgodeh,  running  parallel  with  the  coast,  is  oonnooted  by  ridgos  with  tlio  Rora 
Isallim,  or  "  Black  Mountain,"  which  lies  still  nearer  the  coast.  They  jointly 
bound  the  upland  plain  of  Nakfu,  about  5,000  feet  above  the  sea,  which  drains  into 
the  Red  Sea  through  one  large  torrent.  At  present  a  desolutn  district  consisting  of 
nothing  but  pasture  lands,  the  Nakfa,  "  the  most  delightful  region  in  Abyssinia," 
appears  to  be  suitable  for  the  culture  of  coffee,  cotton,  roulborries,  the  vine,  and 
tobacco.  A  few  mountain  masses  project  in  lofty  headlands  west  of  the  Rora 
Azgodoh.  Such  is  Hagar  Abei  Nejran,  that  is,  "  Capital  of  Nejron,"  over  8,000 
feet  in  height,  which  is  now  covered  with  ruins,  but  which  formerly  contained  the 
celebrated  monastery  frequented  by  pilgrim  it  journeying  from  Aksum  to  Jerusalem. 

Fig.  43. — VToKTiiiBX  BpvKa  of  thb  Abyhhinian  Hiaui.ANn«. 
8m1«  1 :  1,«)0,000. 


-■t.i 


JkVtbB. 


u  to  160 
Feet. 


160  toaiO 

Feut. 


810  to  640 
Feat. 


SiOFaet 
nndnprnrdi. 


.  aOMUM 


Farther  south  the  valley  of  the  Anseba  is  dominated  east  by  the  Debr-Abi,  or 
"  Great  Mountain,"  another  almost  solitary  cliff,  known  also  by  the  name  of  Tem- 
belleh. 

Bounded  westwards  by  the  valley  of  the  Barka,  the  moimtain  range,  forming  a 
continuation  of  the  Rora  Azgedeh,  is  intersected  by  numerous  headstreams  of  that 
river.  The  most  important  of  these  affluents,  notably  of  the  Anseba  and  the  Barka 
itself,  rise  west  of  Massawah  on  the  plateau,  4,000  feet  high,  which  forms  the 
north-east  comer  of  Abyssinia  proper.  On  this  base  another  group  of  superb 
g^nite  mountains  rises  to  an  elevation  of  some  16,000  feet.  Such  is  the  famous 
Debra  Sina,  or  "  Mount  Sinai,"  to  the  east  of  Keren,  and  capital  of  the  Bogo  country. 


^■P*"  "  ^^^^l^y^^r^^r" 


I 


THE  HAMAHBN  AND  HIM£N  UPLANDS. 


188 


I  the  Rora 
boy  jointly 
drains  into 
Dnaiitting  of 
Abyssinia," 
e  vine,  and 
f  the  Rora 
'  over  8,000 
ntained  the 
>  Jerusalem. 


The  crest  of  this  mountain  is  u  chaotic  mass  of  rooks  of  all  sizes,  which  might  be 
supposed  duo  to  vulcanic  eruptions,  but  which  are  indebted  for  their  present  form 
to  slow  meteoric  action.  These  rocks,  lying  obliquely  on  each  other,  form  the 
arched  roofs  of  numerous  caves,  wliich  huvu  been  artificially  worked  into  dwellings 
and  in  many  places  connected  by  galleries.  One  has  even  been  hewn  into  a 
monastery  and  a  church,  which  is  annually  visited  by  thousands  of  pilgrims  from 
every  {wrt  of  Abyssinia.  South  of  Keren  stands  the  Isad  Amba,  or  "  White 
Fortress,"  another  rock   famous    in    the   religious   annals   of    Abyssinia.      Thin 


Fig.  44.— ThS  SlMIN   HlOHLANM. 
■mU  1 1  l,00(S00O. 

iS^SSS^ 

.       ■-■""•         '     "■■'     s^'    J"^^«k      ' 

4,"     f 

■Ej-  ,i  V  ii^-^ 

15' 
50 

.'3' 

is: 

50 
•5-. 

'^mmm 

"^•r':w#^ltw^^ 

■i 

i^JE 

|^^^H^^HjffiSf|gk|fi^ 

1 

i^'V 

i^* 

@l 

^B^BJBBTJi^dr*.^  tq[.«riK.<KBfti 

aK^JH^^f 

mmmoimm 

S^:S^.-.   '' 

W^m 

56'                                                          38-50 

E  .  of  Greenwich 

15  Mike. 


mountain  rises  almost  vertically  about  4,000  feet  above  the  Barka  Valley,  its  sharp 
peak  scarcely  affording  sufficient  space  for  the  site  ol  the  convent  walls. 


Debr-Abi,  or 
larae  of  Tem- 

ge,  forming  a 
reams  of  that 
md  the  Barka 
ich  forms  the 
up  of  superb 
is  the  famous 
Bogo  country. 


The  Hamasen  and  Simbn  Uplands. 

In  Abyssinia  proper,  commencing  at  the  Hamasen  plateau,  the  base  of  ihe 
uplands  is  at  once  broader  and  more  elevated  than  in  the  Bogo  (Bilen)  country, 
its  mean  height  exceeding  7,460  feet.  Like  most  of  the  Ethiopian  mountain 
masses,  Hamasen  is  covered  with  trachytic  or  basaltic  lavaa,  which  are  themselves 
overlaid  by  a  reddish  or  yellowish  earth.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  this 
ochrous  soil  covering  the  Abyssinia  plateaux  consists  of  decomposed  lava,  like 
the  vast  laterite  masses  stretching  over  the  Dekkan  and  most  of  southern  India. 
In  various  localities  basaltic  columns  are  found  partially  changed  to  maaseB  of 


184 


NORTU-KAST  AFRICA. 


FlpT-    <*.— I<AKIW  or  Ra»T   AllTMIf?<IA. 
■oiO*  I  :  l,S(M,000. 


nxldiNli  olay.  Rod  it  the  nnrniiil  colour  of  tho  Abyuiiiiun  rooka,  tho  very  voina 
of  <|iiurtz  ))oin((  of  ton  of  a  pink  huu,  ca(i-'«Hl  by  tho  oxide  of  iron.  According  to 
Hrii^flin,  at  Umnt  ono  of  the  ortttorn,  from  which  Wf-ro  fonnerly  ej(>r»i'd  the  llainaHon 
hivuB,  haa  Ikhmi  iM)rfo<rtly  prcmsrvod.    liiaing  midway  b«>twet    >'<(/'  nnd  Adiui  to  i 

,      (     .    ,  .  ,  height  of  ul^mt   tOl       •',  i-  ^  h»iiUk1  to 

pruRont  tho  upjHiumi  -,  ni  a  orator  hut 
recently  extinct,  although  Ilohlf  follow- 
ing tho  luimo  route,  failed  to  discover  it. 
To  tho  Houth,  on  tho  oaatem  edge  of  the 
plateau,  riao  the  iaolated  conea  of  other 
voloanooB.  8ome  of  the  Tigr^  creata 
are  veritable  mountaina,  not  merely  in 
ubaoluto  altitude,  but  alao  in  their  eleva* 
tion  relative  to  the  aurrounding  plaina. 
Thus  eaat  of  Adua,  the  cleft  cone  of  Soma- 
yata  attains  a  height  of  10,306  feet,  or 
over  3,000  feet  above  the  town  occupying 
a  depreaaion  of  the  plateau  at  ita  boae. 
Eaatwarda,  near  the  outer  ledge  of  the 
uplands,  are  other  lofty  hills,  one  of  which, 
Aleqwa,  riaea  to  a  height  of  11,260  feet. 
To  the  west,  between  the  Mareb  and  Tak* 
kazeh,  the  plateau  gradually  falla,  the 
relative  heighta  of  the  moimtaina  dimin- 
ishing in  proportion. 

The  loftieat  headland  of  northern 
Abyssinia  is  separated  from  Tigr4  in  the 
north  and  east  by  the  semicircular  gorge 
of  the  Takkazeh,  while  the  affluents  of 
this  great  river  encircle  the  plateau  on 
the  south-west,  thus  isolating  the  Simen 
(Samen,  Semen,  Semien,  or  Semieneh), 
that  is  the  "northern"  or  "cold  region." 
The  mean  height  of  its  escarpments  ez- 
oeeds  10,000  feet,  whilst  the  surrounding 
valleys  of  the  Balagas  to  the  south  and  of 
the  Takkazeh  to  the  north,  are  respectively 
5,000  and  6,000  feet  lower.  Hence  the 
waters  flowing  from  the  snowy  Simen 
\  uplands  have  a  very  rapid  course,  in  many 

places  broken  by  cascades.  One  of  these  cataracts  Heuglin  describes  as  falling  some 
1,600  feet  into  a  chasm  which  appears  to  have  been  a  crater  partly  destroyed  by 
erosion.  Like  most  of  the  other  fragments  of  the  Abyssinian  plateau  properly  so- 
called,  the  Simen  uplands  consist  entirely  of  volcanic,  basaltic,  trachytic,  phonolithic. 


39°  10 


E    .  of  Greenwich  5t)°40' 


,80  Miles. 


)  vory  vi'in* 
coordiiig  to 
IV  Hamilton 
1  Adiia  to  u 

'■<    «*llt<Ml    to 

crutur  but 
hlf  roilow 
diacovor  it. 
edge  of  the 
leH  of  other 
rigr^  crests 
merely  in 
their  eleva- 
ding  plains. 
3ne  of  Sema- 
306  feet,  or 
n  occupying 

at  ita  base, 
edge  of  the 
me  of  which, 

11.260  feet, 
reb  ond  Tak- 
y  falls,  the 
itains  dimin* 

of    northern 
Tigr4  in  the 
ircular  gorge 
)  affluents  of 
«  plateau  on 
ig  the  Simen 
r  Semieneh), 
cold  region." 
larpments  ex- 
i  surrounding 
)  south  and  of 
re  respectively 
'.     Hence  the 
snowy  Simen 
mrse,  in  many 
18  falling  some 
destroyed  by 
a  properly  so- 
c,  phonolithic, 


>'^^,^'^ 


THE  EASTERN  BOBDEB  RANGE. 


186 


rocks  and  pumice,  although  their  snowy  peaks  contain  no  craters.  Till  recently 
the  Ras  Dajun,  probably  over  15,000  feet,  was  considered  the  highest  poiii  iu  this 
district,  but  this  distinction  belongs  probably  to  that  of  Buahit,  or  Abba-Yared. 
The  highest  peaks  of  these  two  mountains,  rivalling  Mont  Rosa  or  Mont  Blanc  of 
the  European  Alps,  are  streaked  with  snow,  and  according  to  the  natives,  snow 
rests  on  them  throughout  the  year.  The  aspect  of  the  Simen  highlands  is  scarcely 
80  imposing  as  that  of  the  Alps.  They  rise  little  more  than  from  1,500  to  2,500 
feet  above  the  base  of  the  plateau ;  but  at  the  escarpments  of  the  terrace  lands, 
from  which  they  are  separated  by  deep  gorges,  these  mountains,  with  their 
fantastic  towers,  peaks,  and  successive  vegetations  of  every  climate  clothing  their 
flanks,  stand  out  in  all  their  sublimity.  From  the  pass  of  Lamalmon  on  the 
Gondar  route,  the  traveller  on  turning  a  rock  comes  suddenly  on  this  amazing 
prospect,  and  utters  an  involuntary  cry  of  admiration  at  the  sight  of  the  snowy 
peaks  piercing  the  clouds. 

The  EASTfeRN  Bordbr  Range. 

East  of  Tigre,  the  chain  forming  the  eastern  escarpment  of  Abyssinia  is 
continued  regularly  north  and  south,  interrupted  by  breaches  some  8,000  or  10,000 
ieet  high,  which  would  facilitate  communication  with  the  plains  on  the  Red  Sea 
coast  were  the  country  not  occupied  by  the  dreaded  Afar  tribes.  This  border 
chain  maintains  its  normal  elevation  for  a  distance  of  about  180  miles,  but  at 
certain  points  it  merges  in  a  rugged  upland  plain  whose  depressions  are  flooded  by 
lakes  such  as  Ashangi,  Haitk,  and  Ardibbo.  Eastwards  the  mountainous  tableland 
of  Zebul,  some  3,000  feet  high,  and  dominated  by  peaks  rising  from  1,000  to  2,000 
feet  higher,  advances  far  into  the  country  of  the  Somali.  Although  their  escarp- 
ments are  so  precipitous^  and  so  densely  clothed  with  matted  vegetation,  as  to 
render  them  ahnost  inaccessible,  the  Zebul  heights  are  not  to  be  compared  with 
the  majestic  Abyssinian  mountains.  The  Bekenna,  or  Berkona,  an  affluent  of  the 
Awash,  rising  in  the  watershed  near  the  sources  of  the  Takkazeh  and  Beshilo, 
separates  the  border  chain  from  the  Argobba,  a  lateral  ridge  which  projects  far 
into  the  lowlands,  forming  in  the  south-west  the  last  epur  of  the  Abyssinian 
highlands. 

The  line  of  transverse  depressions,  indicated  on  the  coast  by  the  Gulf  of 
Tajurah,  and  in  the  interior  by  the  bed  of  Lake  Tana,  is  well  defined  on  the 
border  terrace  by  a  nucleus  of  diverging  valleys  constituting  the  main  point  of 
radiation  of  all  the  Abyssinian  rivers.  Near  the  hot  spring  forming  its  source 
rise  other  tributary  rivers  of  the  Takkazeh ;  the  chief  affluents  of  the  Beshilo  or 
Beshlo,  which  with  the  Abai  forms  one  of  the  main  headstreams  of  the  Blue  Nile, 
also  originate  in  these  mountains,  while  their  eastern  slopes  give  birth  to  many 
tributaries  of  the  Awash  and  of  the  Gwalima,  or  Golima,  which  latter  finally  runs 
dry  in  the  plains  of  the  Mara. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Haik,  east  of  the  fortress  of  Magdala,  the  range  is 
crossed  by  a  pass  said  to  be  considerably  less  than  7,000  feet  high,  thus  forming  the 


1 


S*-i^^ 


■■-H-^^ijil^^pftti^™***"* 


m 


NOETH-BAST  ATEIOA. 


lowest  breach  in  the  border  chain  of  Eastern  Abyssinia.  But  on  this  side,  where 
the  regions  are  broken  up  into  distinct  fragments  by  the  deep  river  gorges,  many 
mountains  attain  a  height  inferior  only  to  those  of  the  Simen  and  Gojam.  Thus 
east  of  Lake  Ashangi,  on  the  almost  isolated  upland  province  of  Lasta,  which  is 
almost  surrounded  by  the  Takkazeh  and  Tzellari  rivers,  Mounts  Biala  and ' 
Gavzigivla  exceed  12,600  feet ;  while  the  heights  of  Abuna,  Yosef,  and  Imaraha, 
not  far  from  the  source  of  the  Takkazeh,  attain  an  elevation  of  over  13,000  feet. 
South  of  the  Takkazeh  an  irregular  plateau  stretches  westwards,  terminating  in 
Mount  Guna,  one  of  the  highest  Abyssinian  summits  (14,000  feet).  Its  western  spur, 
sloping  towards  Lake  Tana,  forms  the  famous  Debra-Tabor,  or  "  Mount  Tabor," 
site  of  the  present  military  capital  of  Abyssinia.  To  the  north  rise  the  Beg- 
hemeder  Mountains,  beyond  which  are  the  still  little-known  Belessa  highlands, 
connected  with  those  of  "Wagara  and  Ewalla  Wagara,  the  whole  series  forming 
a  successive  series  of  terraces  towards  the  Nilotic  plains. 


Centhal  and  Western  Highlands. 

.  i  West  of  the  Galla  Wollo  plateau,  supposed  to  be  a  vast  lava  field,  the  slopes 
incline  gradually  towards  the  Blue  Nile,  interrupted,  however,  by  secondary 
chains.  Abruptly  intersected  southwards  by  the  deep  semicircular  gorge 
containing  ^he  waters  of  the  Abai,  or  Blue  Nile,  the  plateau  recommences  more 
to  the  west,  rising  in  terraces  up  to  the  Gojam  Mountains,  which,  jointly  with 
those  of  Simen  and  Lasta,  form  the  culminating  points  of  Abyssinia.  The  chief 
range  of  this  mountainous  province  extends  in  a  semicircle,  concentric  to  that 
described  by  the  Blue  Nile  ;  its  highest  crest,  the  Talba  Waha,  probably  exceeds 
12,000  feet.  But  although  one  of  the  peaks  takes  the  name  of  Semayata,  that  is 
"  Heaven  -kissing,"  it  does  not  appear  tc  '>e  ever  covered  with  snow ;  nor  do  any 
of  the  summits  in  this  region,  between  11°  and  12°  of  latitude,  seem  to  reach  the 
snow-line. 

Like  most  other  Abyssinian  ranges,  the  Talba  Waha  Mountains  fall  in  steep 
escarpments  east  and  north,  whilst  on  the  west  they  slope  gently  towards  the 
territory  of  the  Gumis  and  Bertas.  The  rest  of  the  plateau  is  broken  in  the 
north  and  nortb-west  by  watercourses  into  countless  fragments,  forming  a  suc- 
cession of  steps  overlooked  by  a  few  pyramids  of  a  relatively  slight  elevation. 
The  Waidebba  height,  in  the  north-west  angle  of  Lake  Tana,  exceeds  7,000  feet. 
The  whole  of  this  region  is  of  volcanic  origin,  terminating  towards  the  lowlands 
in  abrupt  masses  with  vertical  walls  from  80  to  100  feet  high,  surmounted  by 
basaltic  columns.  Beyond  the  promontory  of  Rus-el-Fil,  that  is,  "  Elephaxit 
Cape,"  skirted  by  the  river  Rahad  on  the  south-west,  the  level  steppe  presents 
an  extraordinary  appearance,  from  the  fantastic  crags,  peaks  and  needles  covering 
it.  xhe  most  advanced  of  these  remarkable  formations  is  the  completely  isolated 
granite  mass  of  Gana  ov  Jebel  Arang,  whose  sides  and  summit  to  a  height  of  nearly 
2,000  feet  are  clothed  Mrith  large  forest-treos,  including  the  baobab,  which  here 
reaches  its  northern  limit. 


ide,  where 
ges,  many 
m.  Thus 
,  which  is 
Biala  and 
.  Imaraha, 
1,000  feet, 
inating  in 
item  spur, 
It  Tabor," 
the  Beg- 
highlands, 
s  forming 


THE  ABYSSINIAN  SEABOARD.— LAKE  ALALBED. 


The  Abyssinian  Seaboard. 


187 


the  slopes 
secondary 
lar  gorge 
nces  more 
intly  with 
The  chief 
ic  to  that 
ly  exceeds 
ita,  that  is 
aor  do  any 
)  reach  the 

11  in  steep 
awards  the 
ken  in  the 
ing  a  suc- 
r  elevation. 
7,000  feet, 
e  lowlands 
Qounted  by 
"  Elephant 
pe  presents 
es  covering 
ely  isolated 
bt  of  nearly 
which  here 


Beyond  the  Abyssinian  plateaux  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Red  Sea  rise  such  pro- 
montories and  isolated  headlands  as  the  Gadam,  or  Gedem,  formerly  an  insular  rock, 
but  which  now  forms  a  promontory  between  the  Gulf  of  Massawah  and  Adulis 
Bay,  terminating  in  an  abrupt  incline.  This  granite  mass,  although  visible  from 
Massawah,  has  not  yet  been  accurat«ly  measured,  the  estimates  of  travellers  varying 
from  2,700  to  3,300  feet ;  but  d'Abbadie  has  geodetically  determined  its  highest 
point  at  over  5,000  feet.  The  Buri  headland,  bounding  Adulis  Bay  on  the  east, 
also  terminates  in  the  imposing  volcanic  cone  of  Awen,  the  Hurtow  Peak  of  the 
English  maps,  which,  although  apparently  extinct,  is  said  by  the  natives  still  to 
emit  steam  and  sulphureous  vapours.  Copious  hot  springs  flow  from  its  sides,  while 
thousands  of  jets  at  a  temperature  of  168°  F.  bubble  up  amidst  the  surf  on  the 
beach. 

South  of  the  Buri  peninsula  are.  other  irregular  hills  composed  of  volcanic  rocks 
completely  separated  from  the  moimtains  of  Abyssinia  proper.  But  a  still  active 
volcano,  known  to  the  Afars  under  the  name  of  Artali,  or  Ortoaleh,  that  is,  "  Smoky 
Moimtain,"  rises  at  the  extremity  of  a  spur  of  the  Abyssinuin  plateaux,  south-west 
of  Hanfila  (Hamfaleh)  Bay,  att'^sting  the  existence  of  underground  energy,  of 
which  80  few  examples  still  occur  on  the  African  coast.  It  is  described  by  Hilde- 
brandt,  the  only  explorer  who  has  approached  its  crater,  as  a  cone  of  blackish  lava 
seamed  with  crevasses,  and  ejecting  dense  volumes  of  whitish  vapour.  In  its 
vicinity  stands  another  aow  quiescent  sulphureous  mountain,  from  the  deposits  in 
its  crater  known  as  Eibrealeh,  or  "Sulphur  Mountain;"  whilst  farther  north, 
near  the  salt  plains,  ave  the  isolated  solfataras  of  Delol,  or  Dallol,  whence  the 
Abyssinian  highlanders  obtain  the  sulphur  with  which  they  manufacture  their 
gunpowder.  Finally,  to  the  east,  near  the  small  harbour  of  Edd,  a  chaotic  mass  of 
solfataras  and  craters  gives  the  district  the  appearance  of  a  storm-tossed  sea.  Sea- 
farers speak  of  lavas  ejected  within  "a  day's  march  "  of  Edd,  especially  in  1861, 
but  their  origin  is  unkno>/n,  unless  they  proceed  from  the  already  mentioned 
Mount  Ortoaleh,  which  lies,  however,  not  at  a  day's  journey,  but  fully  sixty  miles 
inland.  These  volcanoes  are  greatly  feared  by  the  natives,  who  believe  them  to  be 
the  abode  of  evil  spirits ;  under  the  guidance  of  their  wizards  they  sacrifice  a  cow 
to  them,  but  directly  the  animal  is  placed  on  the  flaming  pyre  they  run  away, 
lest  evil  sho^ild  befall  them  if  they  saw  the  spirits  devouring  their  prey. 

Lake  Alalbed. 

Although  Ortoaleh  is  not  situated  on  the  sea-coast,  it  rises  above  the  district  of 
Bahad,  a  lacustrine  plain  which  was  formerly  a  marine  inlet.  This  depression, 
which  Munzinger  called  Ansali,  from  an  isolated  mound  rising  in  its  midst,  stretches 
over  a  superficial  area  of  about  1,000  square  miles  at  a  mean  level  of  some  200 
feet  below  the  Red  Sea.  This  plain,  a  miniature  "  ghor  "  similar  to  that  flooded  by 
the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea,  is  almost  entirely  surrounded  by  a  sinuous  belt  of 


i 


188 


NORTH-EAST  AFEIOA. 


gypsum  cliffs,  here  and  there  intersected  hy  wadies.  Their  summits  are  crowned 
with  feathery  ditm  palms,  and  frorr  their  sides  flow  perennial  springs.  A  verdant 
circle  thus  surrounds  this  desert  waste,  where  nothing  is  visible  but  a  few  acacias 
anu  brushwood.  At  some  distance  from  the  cliffs  are  saline  efflorescences,  which 
become  gradually  solidified  towards  the  middle  of  the  plains,  where  they  acquiro 
the  consistency  of  slabs  some  two  feet  thick.  Here  and  there  they  present  a  greyish 
tesselated  appearance,  the  interstices  being  filled  with  dazzling  white  crystals.  At 
the  lowest  level  of  the  depression,  between  the  Ansali  promontory  and  Mount 
Ortoaleh,  are  collected  the  waters  of  Lake  Alalbed,  or  AUolebed,  whose  size  varies 
according  to  the  quantity  of  water  brought  down  by  the  torrents.  Its  mean 
depth  is  said  scarcely  to  exceed  40  inches.     The  dessication  of  the  old  bay  of 


Fig.  46.— Laxi  of  Alalbbo. 
SeaU  1  :  1,«W,000. 


39-50' 


L   t  of   GreanwicK 


40*  30' 


■  80Mil<». 


Ansali  may  be  explained  by  a  gradual  upheaval  of  the  coast  west  of  the  Red  Sea, 
as  well  as  on  the  east  side  in  Arabila.  The  coral  banks  and  recent  shells  found  at 
the  north  of  the  plain  attest  the  presence  of  marine  wate-s  on  the  now  upheaved 
depression  between  the  plain  of  Ragad  and  Auwakil  Bay.  The  rivers  flowing 
from  the  Abyssinian  chain  arc  not  sufficiently  copious  to  repair  the  loss  by 
evaporation,  and  thus  the  old  lake,  formerly  of  some  extent,  has  gradually  become 
a  shallow  swamp.  The  Taltals,  who  inhabit  the  surrounding  district,  assure  the 
Abyssinians,  possibly  to  protect  themselves  from  their  visits,  that  Chfj  lake 
occasionally  "walks  away"  from  its  old  bed  in  search  of  a  new  one;  p;ad  woe  to 
the  caravans  overtaken  by  this  sudden  inundation!  Besides,  even  at  some 
distance  from  the  lake,  travellers  run  the  risk  of  sinking  into  the  treacherous 
soil,  and  whole  companies  of  men  and  beasts  are  said  to  have  thus  disappeared. 


pi^as». 


DAHLAK  ISLAND.— CLIMATE. 


189 


However,  the  banks  of  the  lake  are  traversed  in  safety  by  hundreds  of  Taltals, 
who  here  procure  nearly  all  the  salt  required  for  the  Abyssinian  market,  and  the 
little  salt  bricks  used  as  a  small  currency  in  southern  Abyssinia.  According  to 
Munzinger,  they  procure  from  the  bed  of  this  lake  some  thirty  millions  of  bricks 
annually,  equivalent  at  Antalo,  on  the  plateau,  to  a  sum  of  £320,000. 


Dahlak  Island.  ".''''.''' 

The  islands  of  the  neighbouring  coast,  notably  that  of  Dahlak,  the  largest  in 
the  Red  Sea,  which  shelters  Masaawah  Bay  from  the  east,  are  partly  of  coral  and 
partly  of  volcanic  origin.  They  are  skirted  by  headlands  and  lava  streams,  and 
in  many  places  the  land  is  intersected  by  deep  crevices,  apparently  due  to  sub- 
terranean disturbances.  The  two  walls  of  these  chasms  do  not  always  stand  at 
the  same,  elevation,  in  some  instances  showing  discrepancies  of  some  fifty  feet. 
During  the  rainy  season  the  water  collects  in  these  hollows,  and  when  evaporated 
verdant  meadows  spring  up  from  the  damp  soil,  contrasting  pleasantly  with  the 
bare  rocks  surroimding  them.  The  island  of  Dahlak  is  subject  to  earthquakes, 
which  the  natives  say  are  caused  by  the  movements  of  the  "  bull  who  supports  the 
world.*!'  Hot  springs  are  found  in  the  interior,  in  which  fish  are  said  to  live, 
although  their  temperature  exceeds  172"  F. 


Climate. 
\  '■■  '    ) 

Abysdnia,  whose  summits  rise  above  the  snow-line,  while  their  base  sinks  to 

the  le^l  of  the  Torrid  zone,  naturally  presents  every  diversity  of  climate  according 
to  the  altitude  and  aspect  of  its  uplands.     On  the  slopes  of  the  plateau±  and 
mountains,  the  seasons  are  diversely  distribtited,  continually  overlapping  th«  net- 
work pf  isothermal  lines  so   regularly  placed   on   our.  climatological  maps   of 
Abyssinifi.     How  often  have  travellers,  facing  the  bitter  cold  wind  of  the  plateaux, 
succunlbed  i*  that  frosty  sleep  which  ends  in  death !     On  military  expeditions 
whole    battdions    have   he&n    frozen  whilst   crossmg  these   snowy  passes,  and 
d'Abb^die  quotes  a  chronide,  which  btates  that  a  whole  army  thvis  perished  in 
Lasta.,    But  at  the  bottom   jf  the  narrow  ambas  death  is  more  frequently  caused 
rather  by  the  intense  heat,  for  under  the  summer  sun  these  gorges  become  verit- 
able furnaces,  the  soil  glowing  at  times  with  a  heat  of  some  190°  to  200°  F.    The 
air  is  generally  calm  in  these  apparently  closed  ravines ;  but  if  the  equilibrium  is 
suddenly  disturbed,  a  raging  tempest  tf'ura  up  the  valley,  the  air  soon  returning  to 
its  former  tranquillity.    The  absence  of  regula:  currents  sweeping  away  the  impuri- 
ties of  the  air,  renders  the  amhas  extremely  dangeroiis  to  traverse.     Before  or  after 
the  rainy  season  they  must  be  crossed  rapidly,  in  order  to  reach  the  slopes  above 
the  fever  zone.     Although  exposed  to  an  almost  equal  degree  cf  heat,  the  plains 
bordering  the  Bed  Sea  are  much  more  salubrious,  and  are  dangerous  only  in  those 
years  when  the  rainfall  is  excessivt. 

But  these  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  unknown  in  the  central  districts,  where 


■i 


140 


NOBTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


nearly  all  the  urban  populations  arc  concentrated,  with  the  exception  of  the  towns 
that  have  sprung  up  round  the  mountain  strongholds,  or  places  of  pilgrimage.  The 
inhabited  zone — that  is,  the  vo'ina-dega,  or  "  wine  region,"  between  the  degas  and 

Fig.  47. — I^TEHMEDIATE   AbYSBINIAN    i'LATEAOX   AND   VaLLBTB. 

fioiUe  1  : 8.800.000. 


KwOU. 


Vidoa-dega.  Dega. 

______  00  MUes. 


kwallas — lies  mainly  at  a  height  of  from  6,000  to  8,000  feet.  At  these  elevations 
the  mean  temperature  corresponds  to  that  of  the  Mediterranean  sea-coast,  with  this 
difference,  that  the  changes  of  season  are  much  leas  noticeable.     As  the  plateaux 


■^— '■-«srtiJ!e»»>WW  (r-^;- 


^^•^  '"^t^-^-'ftnar**  f  j.fea'4^ 


T 


-T" 


le  towns 
^.  The 
gas  and 


levatione 
with  this 
plateaux 


CLIMATE. 


m 


lie  within  the  tropics,  the  sun's  rays  maintain  their  intensity  throughout  the  year, 
the  discrepancies  hetween  winter  and  summer  heing  very  slight,  and  due  mainly  to 
the  purity  of  the  air  and  density  of  the  clouds.  As  in  the  West  Indies  and  in  all 
countries  suhjeot  to  regular  monsoons,  the  Abyssinian  year  is  regulated  by  the 
appearance  and  disappearance  of  the  rains.  .  '  >: 

The  rainy  season  varies  in  time  and  duration  according  tn  the  height,  latitude, 
and  position  of  the  various  provinces.  Some  regions  have  even  two  rainy  seasons, 
being  lands  of  transition  belong^g  at  once  to  two  meteorological  domains.  The 
southern  Abyssinian  uplands  have  two  winters,  the  first  commencing  in  July,  when 
the  sun  is  nearly  vertical  above  the  soil,  and  ending  in  September ;  the  second  and 
shorte-  falling  in  January,  February,  or  March,  when  the  belt  of  clouds  formed  at 
the  zone  of  contact  between  the  trade-winds  and  polar  currents  is  deflected  south- 
wards. In  the  central  region  the  winter,  or  azmara,  commences  usually  in  April, 
continuing,  with  a  few  interruptions,  till  the  end  of  September ;  but  at  the  north- 
west base  of  the  mountains,  in  the  Bogos,  Galabat,  Gedaref,  and  Senaar  provinces, 
this  rainy  season  is  broken  into  two,  one  beginning  in  April  or  May,  the  other, 
accompanied  by  tiemendous  downpours,  lasting  throughout  the  months  of  July, 
August,  and  September.  The  rains,  brought  by  the  wind  blowing  from  the  Bed 
Sea  or  Indian  Ocean,  fall  nearly  always  in  the  afternoon,  accompanied  by  tempests, 
but  soon  clear  off,  leaving  the  sky  unclouded  during  the  night  and  following  morn- 
ing. On  the  eastern  slope  of  the  mountains,  however,  the  seasons  are  reversed,  the 
rains  brought  by  the  north  wind  falling  in  winter,  which  lasts  from  November  to 
March. 

The  African  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  lies  within  the  zone  of  the  Mediterranean 
winter  rains,  whilst  those  of  Arabia,  the  interior  of  Egypt,  and  Upper  Abyssinia 
belong  to  a  different  climatic  system.  Certain  mountains  situated  on  the  boundary 
of  the  two  zones  are  alternately  beaten  by  winter  and  summer  rains,  and  the  Abys- 
sinian shepherds  have  but  to  go  round  the  mountain  to  find,  according  to  the 
season,  the  herbage  necessary  for  their  flocks  or  land  ready  for  culture.  During 
this  period  the  air  enveloping  the  lowland  plains  is  excessively  damp,  the  hygro- 
meter never  indicating  a  less  proportion  than  GO  per  cent.,  while  the  air  of  the 
plateaux  is,  on  the  contrary,  usually  dry. 

In  the  distiicts  where  the  annual  rainfall  has  been  roughly  estimated,  it  is 
found  to  vary  from  two  to  three  inches  yearly.  But  the  discrepancy  must  be  much 
greater  in  some  upland  valleys,  where  the  rainclouds  are  driven  together  by  the 
winds.  Here  hailstorms  are  very  frequent.  Floodings  are  known  to  be  extremely 
dangerous  in  valleys  surmounted  by  precipitous  and  barren  rocks ;  but  on  the 
eastern  ledges  of  the  Abyssinian  border  ranges  these  sudden  deluges  rushing 
through  steeply  inclined  watercourses  are  even  more  dangerous  than  elsewhere. 
During  the  rainy  season  all  communication  ceastis  between  the  plateaux,  which 
are  divided  one  from  the  other  by  deep  kwallas.  In  the  plains  of  Samhar  the 
aaravans,  journeying  through  sand,  saUne  clays,  and  lavas,  are  occasionally  stopped 
by  the  intolerable  heat  reflected  from  the  earth  or  rocks,  or  else  by  the  sandy 
whirlwinds  of  the  kharif,  or  columns  of  red  sand  sweeping  over  the  desert. 


142 


NOBTH-EAST  Ai'BlCA. 


Fr-ORA. 


Thanks  to  its  variety  of  climate,  the  flora  of  Abyssinia  is  extremely  diversified. 
The  two  chief  zones  of  vegetation  are  naturally  those  of  the  upland  plateaux  and 
lowland  valleys ;  but  many  of  the  species  flourish  in  both  regions.  Each  plant 
has  ite  particular  zone,  differing  in  range  and  vertical  height  along  the  slopes. 
The  shores  of  the  Red  Sea  have  their  special  flora,  oharacteristio  of  which  are  the 
kudel  {cnssipourea  qfrieana)  and  the  ahora  (^avicennia  tomentoaa),  trees  growing 
on  the  strip  of  coast  which  is  alternately  flooded  by  the  tides.  On  the  shores  of 
Hawakil  Bay  these  trees  are  similar  in  appearance  and  nearly  as  large  as  the 
European  beech.  At  the  foot  of  the  range  in  the  Sahel  zone,  often  described  as 
barren,  the  vegetation  consists  merely  of  scrub,  except  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
streams.  The  flora  of  the  kwallas  is  distinguished  especially  by  its  wealth  in 
deciduous  trees,  whose  leaves  fall  in  the  dry  season.  Here  flourish  the  sycamore 
and  the  fig ;  here  the  tamarind  and  acacia  intertwine  their  thorny  branches  along 
the  banks  of  the  mountain  torrents.  Here  and  there  the  huge  baobab,  "  giant  of 
the  vegetable  kingdom,"  which,  nevertheless,  in  many  respects  presents  the 
appearance  of  a  grass,  raises  its  bulging  stem,  often  hollow  and  filled  with  water, 
its  tufted  branches  terminating  in  wreaths  of  foliage.  When  blown  down  by  the 
wind  its  huge  trunk,  some  60  to  80  feet  in  circumference,  affords  a  refuge  to  the 
shepherds  and  their  flocks. 

The  palm  scarcely  penetrates  into  the  kwallas,  being  confined  mostly  to  the 
Bed  Sea  coast.  Hence  the  Abyssinians  import  their  dates  from  Arabia.  The 
cereals  are  of  a  particular  species,  or  else  of  varieties  very  different  from  those  of 
Europe,  and  flourish  best  in  the  middle  zone,  where  nearly  all  the  Abyssinian  towns 
are  concentrated.  The  Shea  and  Amhara  peasants  are  said  to  possess  twenty-eight 
varieties  of  millet,  twenty-four  of  wheat,  sixteen  of  barley,  and  several  kinds  of  rye 
and  maize.  The  most  general  cereal  is  the  dakuasa,  an  eleusina,  which  is  now  made 
into  beer,  but  which  formerly  supplied  bread  exclusively  for  the  royal  family. 
The  tef  (tief),  a  species  of  poa,  is  eltio  largely  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
farinaceous  foods.  The  potato,  intniduced  by  Sohimper,  after  flourishing  for 
some  time,  was  attacked  by  blight,  and  its  culture  has  now  been  almost  completely 
abandoned.  The  muaa  emete,  a  species  of  banana  growing  in  the  kwallas,  rarely 
bears  fruit,  probably  because  it  comes  originally  from  the  Galla  lowlands.  The 
leaves  are  utilised  for  forage,  and  its  roots  taste  like  the  potato  when  cooked.  The 
European  fruit-trees,  or  their  corresponding  varieties,  generally  produce  excellent 
crops.  The  vine,  doubtless  introduced  from  Europe,  as  attested  by  its  Greek  name 
of  voina  (oinos),  was  formerly  widely  diffused  throughout  the  whole  intermediary 
zone,  which  was  thence  known  as  "  vine-land."  But  this  plant  has  almost  dis- 
appeared, having  been  destroyed  by  the  oidium.  Some  travellers  have  also  accused 
King  Theodore  of  having  uprooted  it,  on  the  pretext  that  wine  should  be  reserved 
for  beings  superior  to  mortals.  Lastly,  coffee  does  not  appear  to  be  indigenous, 
and  is  cultivated  only  in  Gbjam,  in  the  Gondar  district,  on  the  southern  shore  of 
Lake  Tana,  and  in  a  few  other  regions  of  the  plateau. 


FLORA. 


148 


One  of  the  most  characteristic  wild  plants  of  Abyssinian  scenery  is  the 
kolkwal,  or  branching  euphorbia,  similar  to  the  giant  euphorbias  of  the  Canaries 
and  Azores.  The  fleshy  branches  of  these  trees  interlock  so  tenaciously  that  they 
are  trained  round  villages  Uf  protect  them  from  sudden  attacks.  Many  attain  a 
height  of  over  40  feet.  Their  milky  sap  is  a  rank  poison,  much  employed  in  the 
Abyssinian  pharmacopoeia,  while  the  wood  serves  for  the  manufacture  of  gun- 
powder. Another  plant,  the  jibara  {^rhynchopetalum  montanum^,  an  annual 
similar  in  appearance  to  the  palm,  clothes  the  mountain  sides  to  a  height  of  some 
11,000  feet.  It  is  remarkable  for  a  gorgeous  display  of  lilac  blossom  clustering 
round  a  floral  stem  shooting  from  10  to  16  feet  above  a  topmost  tuft  of  sword-like 
leaves.  Another  characteristic  plant  of  the  uplands  is  a  giant  thistle  (^echinops 
giganteus),  with  a  stem  like  that  of  a  forest-tree,  and  flowers  the  size  of  a  man's 
head.  Still  larger  are  the  furze-bushes,  which  attain  a  height  of  some  26  feet. 
On  the  upland  terraces  also  flourishes  the  tpajestic  kuHno  {^Brayera  anthelmintmi), 
whose  dense  foliage,  interspersed  with  innumerable  bunches  of  pink  flowers,  is 
employed  in  Abyssinia,  and  even  in  Europe,  as  an  infusion,  as  recommended  by 
Brayer,  against  the  tape-worm ;  the  ficus  dara,  a  species  of  fig,  resembles  the 
Indian  banian,  with  its  aerial  roots  forming  fresh  atoms  and  developing  forests 
capable  of  sheltering  some  hundreds  of  people.  The  wanzeh  (cordia  AbysainicX 
is  a  tufted  tree  usuallyplanted  round  houses.  The  conifer  family  Is  represented 
on  the  upland  plateaux  by  the  yew,  and  especially  by  the  juniper,  whose  huge 
trunk  rises  from  100  to  130  feet,  and  in  Shoa  even  to  160  feet. 

Some  regions  of  Abyssinia,  especially  the  hilly  Zebul  district  east  of  the  border 
range,  are  covered  with  vast  juniper  forests,  which  present  an  unique  appearance, 
for  in  no  other  part  of  the  globe  are  conifers  resembling  those  of  the  northern  zone 
to  be  found  matted  together  with  a  network  of  tangled  creepers  resembling  those 
of  the  tropical  forests.  But,  on  the  whole,  Abyssinia  is  a  disafforested  country, 
the  destruction  of  nearly  all  its  upland  woodlands  being  due  to  the  common 
African  practice  of  firing  the  prairie  tracts.  The  landscape  seen  from  the  uplands 
is  in  many  places  relieved  only  by  the  green  oases  surrounding  the  villages  or  the 
sacred  groves  of  the  churches.  Besides,  but  few  varieties  of  trees  are  included  in 
the  Abyssinian  flora,  merely  some  2.35  known  species,  of  which  thirty  belong  to  the 
vo'ina'degas,  and  ten  to  the  degas.  But  thanks  to  tlie  variety  of  climates  and  vege- 
tation on  the  slopes  and  uplands,  Abyssinia  may  possibly  one  day  become  a  vast 
botanic  garden  for  the  cultivation  of  all  European  trees,  alimentary  and  useful 
plants.  A  poor  mineral  country,  containing  little  else  but  iron,  salt,  and  sulphur 
in  the  volcanic  regions,  and  some  gold  dust  in  Gojam  and  Damot,  it  is  amply  com- 
pensated by  the  abundant  resources  yielded  by  its  diversified  flora,  European  on  the 
uplands  and  Indian  on  the  lowlands.  But  these  resources  will  be  of  little  use  till 
easy  routes  of  communication  are  opened  between  the  Abyssinian  plateaux  and  the 
outer  world.  Even  in  the  favourable  season,  when  the  rains  have  not  swollen  the 
torrents  and  converted  the  paths  into  quagmires,  the  traveller  crossing  Abyssinia 
from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  plains  sloping  to  the  Nile  has  a  journey  of  some  months 
before  him.  The  stages  and  provisions  are  regulated  by  the  king,  and  many  a 
traveller  has  had  to  wait  some  weeks  for  the  permission  to  continue  Lis  route. 


mmm 


K 


144 


NOKTH-EAST  AFKICA. 


Fauna.  '       '  i 

The  diversity  of  climate  and  flora  naturally  gives  rise  to  a  corresponding 
variety  in  the  animal  kingdom.  On  the  lowlands  the  fauna  resembles  that  of 
Arabia  or  the  Sahara,  on  the  outer  spurs  that  of  Senegal,  that  of  the  Mediterranean 
on  the  plateaux,  whilst  it  is  almost  European  on  the  mountain  summits.  On  the 
lower  plain.i  are  found  the  giraffe,  the  zebra,  the  wild  ass,  and  the  ostrich.  Of 
the  numerous  species  of  antelopes  inhabiting  Abyssinia,  few  ailvAnco  far  up  the 
plateaux,  although  the  wild  goat  is  found  on  the  crests  of  tfaf;  ijimen  rong^,  ut  a 
height  of  over  1 3,000  feet.  Numerous  varieties  of  the  monkey  family,  among^ 
others  the  coluhm  guereza,  noted  for  its  beautiful  black-and-white  fur,  are  confined 
to  the  lowland  forests  of  Shoa,  Gojam,  and  Ewalla-Woggara.  But  a  certain 
species  of  cynocephales  are  found  at  an  altitude  of  some  6,000  feet.  The  rhinoceros 
has  also  been  met  at  an  elevation  of  8,000  feet.  The  elephant  also  frequents  the 
mountains,  although  he  prefers  the  thickets  of  the  valleys,  where  he  commits 
extensive  depredations  on  the  plantations.  But  this  pachyderm  is  disappearing 
before  the  attacks  of  the  hunter,  who  eagerly  pursues  it,  as  much  for  the  sake  of 
its  ivory  as  to  retaliate  for  the  havoc  it  commits  on  the  cultivated  lands.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Arab  lowlanders,  the  elephant  knows  when  to  expect  the  caravans  laden 
with  durrah,  attacks  them  from  its  ambuscades,  and  takes  possession  of  the  supplies. 
The  hippopotamus  is  also  forced  by  want  of  water  as  far  into  the  inteiior  as  the 
foot  of  the  cascades,  and  is  also  numerous  in  Lake  Tana,  where,  however,  it  does 
not  grow  to  such  a  size  as  those  of  the  large  African  rivers. 

The  lion  is  rarely  found  above  the  lowlands  or  beyond  the  Beni-Amer  territory 
in  the  north.  It  differs  from  its  Central  African  congeners  by  its  deep  black 
mane ;  indeed,  one  variety,  infesting  the  banks  of  the  Takkazeh,  is  almost  entirely 
black.  A  liiore  dangorous  animal  is  the  leopard,  which  roams  throughout  the 
country  to  a  iieight  of  11,000  feet.  Like  the  Indian  tiger,  these  carnivora  of  tea 
become  man-eaters,  for  when  they  have  once  tasted  human  flesh  they  prefer  it  to  all 
other  prey.  A  still  more  formidable  beast  is  the  wobo  or  abammho,  believed  by 
Lefebvre  to  be  a  wolf,  and  said  to  partake  of  the  quolities  of  the  lion  and  the 
leopard.  The  spotted  hyeena  is  also  very  common.  The  buffalo,  which  frequents 
chiefly  the  riverain  kwallas,  is  of  all  other  savage  beasts  the  readiest  to  attack 
men ;  it  fears  no  enemy,  and  its  furious  rush  is  checked  neither  by  quagmires, 
rocks,  nor  prickly  thickets.  The  wild  faima  also  includes  the  wild  boar,  which, 
to  spite  the  Mohammedans,  is  occasionally  eaten  by  the  Abyssinian  Christians, 
although  usually  regarded  as  impure.  The  Abyssinians  also  reject  the  flesh  of 
the  tortoise,  and  of  all  animals  show  the  greatest  repugnance  to  the  hare,  in  this 
latter  respect  strictly  adhering  to  the  law  of  Moses.  It  is  usually  stated  that 
Africa  possesses  no  song-birds,  but  Abyssinia  best  shows  how  erroneous  thio  state- 
ment is,  as  it  possesses  numerous  varieties  of  these  birds,  nearly  all  of  gorgeous 
plumage.  The  sacred  ibis  {jieronticua  lethiopicus),  no  longer  seen  on  the  banks  of 
the  Egyptian  Nile,  is  still  met  in  the  Upland  Abyssinian  valleys.  The  branches 
of  trees  overhanging  rivers  and  pools  are  covered  with  the  nests  of  the  textor  akcto, 


+1  »■ 


I  'wf^w  "i"!   pnnr^<^T»^'iiTii'i' ',  i,if' ' 


iponding 

that  of 
erraneun 

On  the 
ich.  Of 
vr  up  the 
nge,  ut  a 
amongst 
I  confiued 
a  certain 
hinoceros 
uents  the 

commits 
appearing 
le  sake  of 

Accord- 
rans  laden 
)  supplies, 
ior  as  the 
or,  it  does 

p  territory 
eep  black 
Bt  entirely 
ghout  the 
rora  oftea 
er  it  to  all 
elieved  by 
1  and  the 
I  frequents 

to  attack 
^[uagmires, 
ar,  which, 
Christiana, 
le  flesh  of 
ire,  in  this 
stated  that 

this  state- 
gorgeous 
B  banks  of 
le  branches 
extor  akcto. 


INnABTTANTS. 


145 


' -T*(i8^aaK«^'- ■ 


or  ploceus  aureua ;  Stcckcr  has  counted  as  many  as  eight  hundred  and  seventy-two 
of  these  biiHkot-nests  on  a  single  acucia. 

According  to  the  altitude  of  the  country  that  thoy  inhabit,  the  AbyHsinians 
»rcar  different  domestic  animals,  (^amols  are  used  only  on  the  lowlundH,  novor 
being  found  beyond  a  height  of  6,000  foot.  The  Abyssinian  horse,  br«>d 
throughout  uU  the  inhabited  regions,  is  evidently  of  Arab  stock,  but  smaller  and 
stouter,  of  dog-like  fidelity,  and  almost  as  strong  and  surofootc<l  in  climbing  rooks 
as  the  mule.  The  donkey  has  also  been  introduced  into  the  plateau,  but  it  is 
weak  and  useless  as  a  pack  animal,  possessing  none  of  the  qualities  of  the 
Europeon  variety.  .    .     .  ,, 

Thanks  to  its  immense  and  succulent  pasture-lands,  Abyssinia  is  an  excellent 
cattle-breeding  country,  and  some  of  its  breeds,  differing  in  stature,  shape,  length 
of  horn  and  colour,  almost  rival  the  finest  European  species.  In  many  parts  of 
the  plateau  are  found  the  two  kinds  of  sheep,  the  short  and  fat-tailed,  besides  an 
intermediate  variety.  The  goat  is  also  bred,  its  skin  supplying  the  parchment  on 
which  most  of  the  sacred  books  are  written.  There  are  neither  pigs,  pigeons, 
ducks,  nor  geese,  but  poultry  is  foun  '  every  village,  and  in  some  churches 
cocks  are  kept  to  announce  the  hoiir  c !  mg  prayer.     Excepting  the  sheep-dog, 

which  is  large  and  courageous,  the  dumcstic  dog  is  small  and  of  indifferent 
qualities.  The  Abyssinians  occupy  themselves  with  apiculture  in  some  districts, 
but  the  honey  has  poisonous  properties  whenever  the  bees  obtain  it  from  the 
flower  of  the  branching  euphorbia.  An  analogous  phenomenon  has  been  observed 
for  ages  in  the  Caucasian  and  Pontine  mountains. 


Inhabitants. 

Elements  of  the  most  diverse  origin  have  been  blended  in  the  present  popula- 
tions of  Abyssinia.  Immigrants  from  the  Arabian  peninsula,  the  banks  of  the 
Nile,  and  the  surrounding  uplands  and  lowlands,  have  here  become  intermingled 
in  divers  proportions  with  the  aborigines.  Amongst  those  still  regarded  as  of 
native  origin  are  the  Agau,  that  is  "  The  Free,"  still  forming  the  fundamental 
element  of  the  Abyssinian  nation,  and  found  chiefly  in  the  provinces  of  Lasta  on 
the  Upper  Takkazeh,  and  in  Agaumeder,  west  of  Lake  Tana.  According  to  some 
Egyptologists,  the  Agau  are  the  descendants  of  the  Uaua,  the  Nubian  people 
spoken  of  on  ancient  moniiments  who  were  g^radually  driven  towards  the  Upper 
Nile  and  neighbouring  highlands.  Many  of  their  sacred  ceremonies  are  saii  to 
betray  traces  of  the  uninterrupted  influence  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  religion.- 
The  Agau  hold  feasts  on  the  banks  of  the  Blue  Nile  and  Takkazeh  in  honour  of 
these  sacred  rivers ;  they  likewise  worship  the  serpent,  which  plays  so  important 
a  part  in  primitive  Egyptian  mythology,  and  which  is  even  still  adored  by 
numerous  nations  of  the  old  and  new  worlds.  They  speak  a  peculiar  dialect,  the 
hamtenga  or  hamva,  which,  however,  is  allied  to  the  same  stock  as  the  amhantia, 
the  current  speech  of  Abyssinia. 

10— AF. 


1 


1 


•'I 


!t 

■    ■■il 


'^''^M 


146 


NOliTU-EAST  AFUICA. 


Tmk  Fki.ahiias.  '  ' 

Tho  Ff/aafiiiH,  or  "  Jowm  of  AbyHflinia,"  variously  oHtima  d  at  from  10,000  to 
20,000,  art)  very  prolmbly  of  tho  same  ntock  ua  th«  Agau.  Thoy  are  found  throughout 
the  plateaux,  and  oven  in  fShoa  and  Ourageh,  divided  into  throo  rcligioUH  ot^otH,  each 
with  its  high  priest.  In  southern  Abyssinia  they  are  called  Fonjas,  but  are  no 
longer  found  in  the  Sinien  mountains,  where  they  still  predominated  towards  the 
close  of  the  sixtoonth  century.  The  national  name,  Folasha,  signifies  "exilos," 
and  in  point  of  fact  they  claim  descent  from  the  ten  tribes  banished  from  the 
Holy  Land.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  fond  of  quoting  legends  to  prove  that 
their  ancestor  was  Menolik,  the  son  of  Solomon  and  the  Queen  of  Sheba.  Of  the 
explorers  who  have  visited  them,  several  consider  tb'ir  type  similar  to  that  of  the 
eastern  Jews ;  but  observers  have  generally  failed  to  notice  any  striking  difference 
in  fuut<(res  between  them  and  their  neighbours,  except  perhaps  that  their  eyes  are 
a  littl'^  more  oblique  than  those  of  the  Agau.  Their  language,  tho  kuara,  huara,  or 
huaraza,  said  to  be  dying  out,  also  resembles  that  of  the  Agau,  and  lends  additional 
force  to  tht  hypothesis  of  the  two  peoples  springing  from  a  common  stock.  But 
their  religious  zeal  connects  them  so  closely  with  the  Jews  that  it  would  not  be 
surprising  to  find  other  Israelites  regarding  them  r"  of  kindred  race.  In  any  case, 
there  was  a  complete  religious  cuhesion  between  th  t  nimierous  Jewish  communities 
of  Palestine  and  Abyssinia  at  the  period  when  uninterrupted  communications 
existed  between  'He  Moriah  of  Jerusalem  and  the  nimierous  "Mount  Sinai's"  of 
the  African  plateaus.  Intercourse  was  maintained  chiefly  by  means  of  the  power- 
ful Jewish  republics  then  occupying  a  large  part  of  the  Arabian  peninsula.  One 
of  thepe  states  still  exi«-*^ed  in  tho  Hii/'  vantic  country  fifty  years  before  the  birth 
of  Mohammed.  Their  religj'  rs  ~  \%  ti  \  from  the  east  beyond  the  Red  Sea,  and 
at  the  period  of  their  decaden  .le  '••  chosen  people  "  held  their  ground  best  in 
the  west.  The  Felasha  rc:i.\,>  >.  no  longer  predominates  in  Abyssinia,  and  their 
dynasties  survive  only  in  i<<j  popular  traditions;  still,  unlike  the  Arabian  Jews, 
they  are  not  a  hated    fuse  persecuted  by  the  other  sections  of  the  community. 

In  nearly  all  the  provinces  they  hold  themselves  aloof  from  the  Abyssinians, 
occupying  separate  villages  or  else  separate  quarters  in  the  towns.  The  mosques 
are  divided  into  three  compartments  of  unequal  sanctity,  like  the  primitive  Jewish 
tabernacles,  and  are  recognised  from  a  distance  by  an  earthenware  vessel  placed 
on  the  highest  pinnacle.  Desirous  of  preserving  the  purity  of  their  race,  the 
Felashas  never  marry  women  of  alien  religions ;  they  are  even  forbidden  to  enter 
Christian  dwellings,  and  when  they  have  been  polluted  by  such  a  visit,  are  bound 
to  purify  themselves  before  returning  to  their  own  homes. 

Polygamy  is  not  practised,  and  marriage  is  much  more  respected  by  them  than 
by  the  Abyssinians,  although  the  women  have  more  personal  freedom.  Early 
marriages,  so  common  amongst  the  Christian  families,  are  rare  amongst  them,  the 
men  marrying  between  the  ages  of  twenty  to  thirty,  and  the  women  from  fifteen  to 
twenty.  Like  the  Mohamm'^dans,  their  morals  are  generally  superior  to  those  of 
their  Christian  masters,  but  unlike  other  Jews,  they  have  no  taste  for  trade.    They 


0,000  to 
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lity. 

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THE  BOGOS. 


147 


«9 

are  mostly  artisans,  smiths,  masons,  carpenters,  potters,  and  weavers ;  some  also 
are  farmers  and  cattle-breeders,  but  all  unanimously  reject  the  mercantile  profes- 
sion as  contrary  to  the  laws  of  Moses.  Their  interpretation  of  the  holy  books 
does  not  correspond  to  that  of  the  rabbis  of  Europe  and  Asia ;  besides,  however 
zealous  they  are  to  obey  the  precepts  of  the  "  law,"  many  of  their  practices  are 
intermingled  with  numerous  ceremonies  borrowed  from  the  native  Christians. 
'  They  are  zealous  in  the  strict  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  in  the  sacrificial  offerings 
on  the  holy  stone  of  the  temple,  and  adhering  to  the  traditional  rites  in  purifying 
themselves  by  frequent  ablutions.  Each  family  possesses  a  hut  outside  the  village, 
where  all  sick  persons  must  be  removed  for  a  stated  term,  a  practice  often  causing 
the  death  of  the  aged,  who  are  thus  deprived  of  the  services  of  their  relations. 
But  these  religious  customs  will  soon  probably  be  but  a  memory  of  the  past,  as  the 
Abyssinian  Government  considers  that  the  subject  should  profess  the  same  religion 
as  the  king.  According  to  the  reports  of  late  travellers,  a  royal  manifesto  com- 
pelling the  Felashas  to  become  Christians  was  about  to  be  issued. 

The  caste  of  the  Kamants,  believed  to  be  of  Agau  origin,  are  found  in  small 
communities  in  the  mountains  surrounding  Gondar,  in  the  k wallas  of  the  north- 
western slope  of  Abyssinia,  as  well  as  in  Shoa.  They  speak  the  same  language  ua 
the  Felashas,  whom  they  resemble  in  physical  appearance ;  their  traditions  are 
the  same,  and  like  them  they  claim  descent  from  the  prophet  Moses.  If  they  do 
not  celebrate  the  Sabbath,  they  at  least  abstain  from  work  upon  that  day ;  some  are 
also  said  to  do  no  work  on  Christian  feast-days.  However,  they  are  considered  as 
pagans  by  Jews  and  Christians  alike,  and  are  said  to  practise  certain  ceremonies  in 
the  recesses  of  the  mountains.  At  the  beginning  of  his  reign  Theodore  intended 
to  forcibly  convert  them  to  Christianity  ;  but  he  was  advised  that  it  would  not  be 
proper  to  treat  as  equals  before  God  these  despised  people,  the  hewers  of  wood  and 
drawers  of  water  to  the  families  of  Gondar.  The  Eamants  are  far  more  indus- 
trious than  the  Abyssinians,  who  consider  themselves  their  superiors,  and  Gondar 
and  the  surrounding  towns  are  dependent  for  their  daily  supplies  on  the  labour  of 
this  tribe.  Like  the  Orejones  of  the  New  World,  and  like  the  "Wa-Kwafi  of  the 
Kilima  N'jaro  district  and  many  other  Bantu  tribes,  the  Eamant  women  distend 
the  lobe  of  the  ears  with  wooden  discs,  causing  the  outer  cartilage  to  reach  the 
shoulders.  •  ^ 

The  Wo'ito,  on  the  banks  of  Lake  Tana,  hippopotamus  hunters  and  fishermen, 
who  till  recently  still  spoke  the  Agau  dialect,  belong  also  to  the  aboriginal 
populations.  They  do  not  circumcise  their  children,  and  eat  the  flesh  of  animals 
clean  or  unclean.    The  Tsellans,  in  the  same  region,  are  wandering  shepherds. 


The  Boons.  ..'  .ui^-ti':-  .■---iK-.^-;. 

The  Mensa,  and  Bogos,  or  Bilens,  who  occupy  the  northern  slope  of  the 
Abyssinian  mountains  in  the  Senhit  (Sennaheit  or  "beautifid")  country,  which 
separates  the  Sahel  from  the  Barka  Valley,  are  also  said  to  be  of  Agau  origin, 
although  d'Abbadie  connects  them  with  the  ancient  Blemmyea.     The  Bogos,  or 


■'."^'..*>*-f,"^'iy,'.'''- 


U!,.,l.-i.')i;-J!i..l.„'^V.'-Vt- 


148 


NOETH-EAST  APRICA. 


rather  the  Boasgors,  that  is  "  Sons  of  the  Boas,"  say  that  their  ancestor  was  an 
Agau  of  Lasta,  who  is  said  to  have  fled  from  his  country  towards  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century  to  escape  the  vendetta.  Situated  as  they  are,  between  the 
hostile  lowland  Mohammedans  and  upland  Christians,  the  Bogos  have  been 
almost  exterminated.  In  1858  they  numbered  merely  some  8,400,  but  this 
remnant  have  kept  their  Bilen  language  and  a  few  of  their  Christian  practices. 
Although  reduced  to  a  few  family  communities  they  have  been  studied  most  care- 
fully, their  customs  being  taken  as  typical  of  those  found  among  all  the  peoples  of 
Northern  Abyssinia. 

The  commimity  is  divided  into  two  classes,  the  Shumaglieh,  or  "  elders,"  and  the 
Tigr^,  or  "  clients  ;  "  these  latter  probably  conquered  Abyssinians  or  immigrants 
that  have  been  received  into  the  tribe.  The  Tigr^  is  the  slave  of  the  Shumaglieh, 
who,  however,  cannot  sell  him,  though  he  may  yield  him  with  his  lands  to  another 
master ;  he  is  even  bound  to  protect  him  and  avenge  his  insults.  The  life  of  a 
Tigre  is  valued  at  that  of  another,  or  at  ninety-three  cows,  whereas  that  of  a 
Shumaglieh  is  worth  another  Shumaglieh,  or  one  hundred  and  fifty-eight  head  of 
cattle.  The  eldest  son  of  a  Shumaglieh  inherits  his  father's  two-edged  sword, 
white  cows,  lands,  and  slaves,  but  the  paternal  dwelling  falls  to  the  lot  of  the 
youngest  son,  the  daughters  receiving  nothing.  Female  virtue  is  highly  esteemed, 
but  women  have  no  personal  rights  or  responsibilities,  being  regarded  merely  n^  so 
much  property,  and  are  classed  with  the  hyaena,  the  most  despised  animal  through- 
out Abyssinia.  The  Bogo  husband  never  sees  the  face  or  pronounces  the  name 
of  his  mother-in-law,  whilst  it  is  criminal  for  the  wife  to  mention  the  name  of  her 
husband  or  father-in-law.  According  to  tradition  the  picturesque  country  now 
occupied  by  the  Bogos  was  once  the  country  of  the  Roms,  who  are  still  com- 
memorated in  song  as  daring  warriors,  who  "  hurled  their  spears  against  heaven." 
These  ancient  Roms  were,  perhaps,  the  advanced  pioneers  of  Byzantine  civilisation, 
or  else  Adulitains  driven  into  the  interior  by  the  Mussulman  conquest. 


I 


The  Mensas  and  Mareas. 

North  of  the  Bogos,  and  occupying  the  same  uplands,  dwell  the  Takueh,  also  of 
Agau  stock  and  speaking  the  Bilen  language,  whence  their  name  of  Bilen,  some- 
times given  to  them  by  the  Bogos.  Like  most  of  their  neighbours,  and  probably 
with  good  reason,  they  pride  themselves  on  being  a  nation  of  conquerors,  but  they 
have  been  aborigines  of  African  extraction  since  time  immemorial,  and  lands 
formerly  belonging  to  their  families  are  still  shown  in  Hamassen.  The  Dambellas 
in  the  west  are  also  Abyssinians,  whilst  the  Mensa  highlanders  of  the  east  and  the 
Marea  in  the  mountainous  region  bounded  north  by  the  Anseba  river,  claim  to  be 
of  Arab  origin,  and  even  trace  their  descent  from  an  uncle  of  the  Prophet.  Although 
peasants,  they  are  half  nomads  dwelling  in  tents.  Yet  the  Mensas  and  Mareas 
were  formerly  Christians  like  the  Takueh  and  Bogos,  and  the  work  of  converting 
them  to  Mohammedanism  was  not  undertaken  till  the  first  half  of  this  century. 
Since  their  conversion,  in  times  of  peril  they  still  often  pray  to  Ezgiabeher,  their 


TI 


istoT  wus  an 
e  middle  of 
jetween  the 
have  been 
0,  but  this 
in  practices, 
i  most  care- 
le  peoples  of 

)TB,"  and  the 
immigrants 
Shumaglieh, 
Is  to  another 
he  life  of  a 
Eis  that  of  a 
ight  head  of 
dged  sword, 
e  lot  of  the 
ily  esteemed, 
merely  u^  so 
nal  through- 
ses  the  name 
name  of  her 
country  now 
re  still  com- 
aist  heaven." 
3  civilisation, 


kuefa,  also  of 

Bilen,  some- 

and  probably 

)rs,  but  thev 

[,   and  lands 

le  Dambellas 

east  and  the 

claim  to  be 

it.   Although 

and  Mareas 

f  converting 

ihis  century. 

abeher,  their 


THE  HABABS— THE  BENI-AMEES. 


149 


former  god,  instead  of  to  Allah,  and  have  also  ceased  to  raise  mounds  over  their 
dead,  like  the  Bogos.  They  number  about  16,000,  and  are  divided  into  two  tribes, 
the  "  Blacks  "  au,d  the  "  Reds."  These  last,  forming  the  southern  division,  by  a 
strange  contrast,  cultivate  a  blackish  soil,  whilst  the  former,  or  northern  division, 
occupy  a  reddish  soil.  Their  language  is  identical  with  that  of  their  slaves,  the 
conquered  Tigre,  who  possess  no  rights,  in  spite  of  the  precepts  of  Mohammedanism, 
which  confers  the  title  of  brothers  on  all  the  faithful.  On  the  death  of  a  Marea 
the  head  of  every  Tigr^  family  is  bound  to  present  a  cow  to  his  heirs.  The 
Mareas  exceed  all  other  races  in  aristocratic  pride.  Death  without  defence  is  the 
only  punishment  they  will  receive,  for  they  refuse  to  humble  themselves  by 
appearing  before  any  tribunal  and  offering  any  excuses  for  their  conduct.  If  the 
blood  of  the  tribe  is  sidlied  by  an  illegitimate  birth,  father,  mother,  and  child  are  all 
destroyed. 

.    The  Hababs. 

North  of  the  Mensas  and  Mareas  are  the  Az-Hibbehs  or  Hababs,  pastors 
wandering  over  the  mountainous  plateaus  bounded  east  by  the  Sahel  plains  of  the 
Red  Sea,  and  west  by  the  Barka  Valley.  These  people  also  are  connected  with  the 
Abyssinians  by  their  language — ^which,  like  the  Tigr^,  is  a  Ghez  dialect — as  well  as 
by  their  traditions.  They  were  ChristianB,  at  least  in  name,  doMm  to  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  but  on  adopting  a  nomad  life  they  also  conformed  to  the 
religion  of  the  surroxmding  tribes.  Divided  into  small  republics,  their  only  wealth 
consisting  of  cattle,  the  Hababs  roam  amongst  the  surroimding  mountains  and 
plains  in  search  of  water  and  pastures.  During  the  winter  the  lonely  Nafka 
plateau,  which  may  be  considered  the  centre  of  the  Habab  country,  is  completely 
abandoned  to  the  wild  beasts. 

Nevertheless,  the  remains  of  buildings  and  graves  disposed  in  three  or  four 
circular  stages  prove  that  this  region  was  once  permanently  occupied.  These  ruins 
are  attributed  to  the  Bet-Maliehs,  or  "  People  of  the  wealthy  abode,"  a  small  tribe 
believed  to  be  of  aboriginal  extraction.  Like  the  Habab  people,  the  elephant  of 
this  region  is  also  nomad  ;  during  the  winter  rains  its  herds  frequent  the 
eastern  slopes  of  the  plateau  bordering  the  Sahel,  in  summer  returning  to  the 
Nafka  heights  on  their  way  westwards  to  the  Barka  Valley  and  the  slopes  of  the 
Abyssinian  mountains. 

'-';"  The  Beni-Amebs.  '■i.^-fi^^^:^'.'.^- 

In  the  lowland  districts  north,  west,  and  east  of  the  Hababs  dwell  the  Beni- 
Amers,  who  appear  to  be  of  mixed  Abyssinian  and  Beja  origin,  speaking  a  dialect 
half  Beja,  "Bedouin,"  and  half  Tigr^,  locally  known  by  the  name  of  Hmm. 
Amongst  the  Nebtabs  of  the  Sahel — all  nobles,  and  recognised  as  such  by  their 
neighbours — ^both  languages  are  also  current.  The  Abyssinian  element  is  more 
strongly  represented  according  as  the  Beni-Amer  tribes  approach  the  great  plateau, 
and  those  living  in  the  plains  of  Samhar,  near  the  Mensas,  speak  Tigr^  almost 


i 


i 

i 


I  w 

If 

m 


'  1*1  iiiw 


f'h-  "."IW.f  JHKW 


160 


NORTH-EAST  AFBIOA. 


exclusively.  They  marry  the  women  of  the  Bogos  and  other  mountain  tribes,  but 
are  too  proud  to  give  their  daughters  in  marriage  to  the  Abyssinians.  In  these 
regions  of  transition,  as  well  as  in  the  slave-markets  surrounding  the  plateaux, 
strikingly  different  types  are  met,  such  as  the  broad  faces  and  high  cheekbones 
of  the  Agau,  and  the  high  forehead,  hollow  cheeks,  delicate  nose,  and  savage 
eye  of  the  Arabs,  or  of  those  assimilated  to  the  Arabs,  such  as  the  Hadendoas  and 
Shaikiehs. 


The  Sahos. 

The  Sahos  or  Shohos,  occupying  the  slope  of  the  Hamassen  plateau  west  of 
Massawah,  live  by  cattle-breeding  and  acting  as  guides  between  the  seaport  and 
the  highlands.  Some  authors  look  upon  them  as  true  Abyssinians,  but  most 
explorers  connect  them  with  the  Afars,  or  even  with  the  Gallas.  Their  dialects, 
of  Afar  origin,  resemble  those  spoken  throughout  the  southern  region  as  far  as  the 
Awash  River.  Although  very  frugal,  they  have  full  features  with  a  fresh  and 
healthy  complexion.  Like  all  the  other  peoples  of  the  coast,  they  are  mostly 
Mohammedans;  nevertheless,  near  the  plateau  there  are  some  who  intermingle 
Christian  traditions  with  their  Mussulman  faith,  whilst  a  few  villages,  where  the 
missionaries  reside,  have  become  Catholic. 

Although  nominally  subject  to  the  "  King  of  Kings,"  the  Shohos  are  really 
independent,  even  the  chiefs  possessing  merely  a  nominal  authority  over  their 
subjects.  All  the  members  of  the  tribe  have  an  equal  voice  in  the  assemblies,  and 
anyone  trying  to  dictate  to  another  would  be  excluded  or  put  to  death.  The 
observance  of  their  hereditary  customs  and  the  respect  of  public  opinion,  unite  the 
Shoho  tribes  in  a  compact  nationality.  The  law  of  blood  for  blood  is  rigidly  observed ; 
a  murderer  must  either  die  or  pay  the  price  fixed  for  a  life,  and  if  the  assassin  has 
no  relations  to  answer  for  him,  his  tribe  draw  lots  for  a  substitute.  In  some 
instances,  however,  the  family  of  the  murderer  consents  to  his  execution,  and  in 
this  case  his  parents  and  friends  assist  in  putting  him  to  death,  so  as  to  share  in  the 
responsibility  of  his  punishment. 


The  Shanoat.las. 

West  of  the  Abyssinian  plateaux,  on  the  spurs  facing  the  Atbara,  the  Rahad, 
the  Dender,  the  Blue  River  and  its  affluent  the  Tumat,  the  Abyssinian  peoples  no 
longer  intermingle  with  the  Arabs  and  Afars,  but  with  Negro  elements.  The 
name  of  Shangalla,  or  ShankaUa,  by  which  these  nat'.ves  occupying  the  western 
slope  of  the  mountains  are  known,  is  indiscriminately  applied  to  numerous  tribes, 
differing  in  appearance,  language,  and  origin,  their  only  resemblance  lying  in  their 
almost  black  skins,  relatively  barbarous  condition,  warlike  and  slave-hunting  pro- 
pensities. From  time  immemorial  it  has  been  and  still  continues  to  be  the  custom 
of  the  Abyssinian  barons  living  near  the  Shangallas  to  descend  into  the  forests  with 
their  marauding  hordes,  plundering  and  killing  those  who  dare  to  defend  themselves, 


n  tribes,  but 
s.  In  these 
the  plateaux, 
1  cheekbones 
and  savage 
dendoas  and 


teau  west  of 

e  seaport  and 

18,  but  most 

'heir  dialects, 

as  far  as  the 

a  fresh  and 

y  are  mostly 

intermingle 

«s,  where  the 

OS  are  really 
ty  over  their 
ssemblies,  and 
death.  The 
ion,  unite  the 
idly  observed; 
le  assassin  has 
ite.  In  some 
iution,  and  in 
x>  share  in  the 

'a,  the  Rahad, 
ian  peoples  no 
lements.  The 
g  the  western 
merous  tribes, 
I  lying  in  their 
s-hunting  pro- 
be the  custom 
he  forests  with 
tnd  themselves, 


^„^,l^|^^'^*'"^^H  '-^Mf  ^~*^ 


>    <'<!?Nr>vvvi\:' 


^ 


■*<yiy-c.->'r':!"'::., 


r'^'^W 'W ^/ k  ^*''"^**'- 


s 


S 


m 


' 


THE  9HANOALLA8. 


161 


and  presenting  their  captives  to  their  king,  or  selling  them  to  the  slave  merchants. 
Xear  the  plains  the  Shangallas  have  other  enemies  to  fear,  the  Arabs,  who  have 
also  reduced  a  considerable  portion  of  the  black  population  to  slavery.     Lastly,  the 


Fig.  48.— InHABITAIfTt  OF  AbYMINIA. 
Soala  1 ;  8.800.000. 


ssr,s  .If)  x  X*  \j^'"^^^sSkjJisiiSii3'^^^K 

\  /   r^^    jv^\   '^.  |7\j>*j^^^^^J3i(^Mk^lll^SS 

Y   '■^"7V-^''j^^   ^i  ^hQjS!'    "^''f         1 

^ssm^-^r^m^ 

Vs 

' 

\  ^  /^^fLrn^  \.""J^ri^y     -"^"Vi 

^■'^Sfe^ 

'TV^WE^r 

"5! 

^^^^^ 

15* 

1*  ^"^  ^''  J  ^^  ^                 ..■^'                         Ml^^S   ■^      »                     'pfT     A^Mv        ^^BKiiJ^n 

't->^ML  Hv^^^^Sli 

^''''"^.^ffTr^^'Er  V^ML  .^  JW-^    tT       ^'^  BM^g^u-l^^SL^    «'\^l 

iA^.|,£^lJijla^m                                     •'xjll^/.^^i^^vrj^yji^ifi^'^pB 

.V^^QPk^^  |HA\y^RnHK^n^|^^3B|29r^^^VI       tjft^   ^^^^'^^Cv^^^'^-mjE^i^''^^^     ^^^H 

.'/'f^if^jH^^^^iAuLV                           ^■k.^^^ii^sssi^^     '^1'^^?^^^       '1 

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^SCTaffP^^^^^^-^^™*™^''^^^^*^^*'^^                  j#'^^^^*'fe'<i 

^^M^i^^BPl!iR1^.;iSBff'^||^^St_                 *"«S^rfiiw  .-.■'''•'al 

^  fi^pi^^i^^Hi^ir^''s^^^iR 

^<i^^wi»i](RKij^BBJH|KJraS^ 

ll^^lw^^^'' ''^BM^^L^I^^M^SFw3vV^*'r'4b;MP^           ^3flK^"?v'V^M'##40    ffJs^  ^^'j^^^^i 

^^^^'!Vl9HiH^llBlR^^^^i'^^i^^.<.^''^^^B*^        _jgf*y.'yiK« 

P^^lE^MjHP^M^H^i'     "^    ^^"^L^^'^riLt.    /^r^Sil^^S 

'?8HEyP!8'^ij8Karalfe..       ^jt^iv     l^kh  \^^«<^<^,^«t£!!|BXyKS 

K^JliJ'iSBfl^^^i^'S^'"'^^  ^'^^HSlT^  j^M^M 

Wss^SsI^^sSSr^^^^  ii'     w^  -wA£i^-^w^^'^'^'i!<Am~Wi 

wS^'^^y^^^^^iL^K^'^^      ■^isiSSSi^^L.JmVvfl'i 

tltO^r      .f\ Ai^j^     f  ^'iAiMl^r^St^iki'^"fySr^^^              M            '-^Biuf^SI^^KtS^^^w^*^       V^uSniZjfW^ 

Wi  'immtm^3B^^^^t*^^^^^£Sh'!!^'wt^^ 

12: 

.'2* 

gljE 

k^l^^3ff7  Vaf*           ^'^SBai^rtl        R    -tfJ'^jiiff^k   ^^'Sv           ^^^SS«^^^^LawiEw^ 

r^s^i^ 

^mi 

37*                                                          &  .    of   Greenwich 

40" 

>80  1Iilei. 


land  has  also  been  frequently  wasted  by  the  invasions  of  the  Gallas  or  Ilm-Oniias 
from  the  south.  Some  of  these  Gallas,  however,  such  as  those  west  of  the  Abai 
River,  and  those  in  the  province  of  Mecha,  have  settled  in  the  districts  depopulated 
by  them. 


i 


162 


NORTU-KAST  AFKICA. 


The  TioRfi  and  Amiiahas. 

The  civilised  Abysginiun  highlundorH  arc  divided  into  two  main  groupH,  differ- 
ing from  each  other  in  speech  and  traditions — the  Tigr<S  nation,  occupying  the 
north-cast  highhinds,  and  the  Araharas  and  Shoas  of  the  western  and  southern 
regions.  The  features  of  the  Tigr<^,  who  have  given  their  name  to  their  province, 
are  perhaps  somewhat  more  characteristic  than  those  of  the  other  Abyssinians,  from 
whom,  however,  they  cannot  easily  be  distinguished.  But  they  speak  the  Tigrifia, 
a  peculiar  form  of  speech  derived  from  the  Ghez,  the  classical  language,  in  which 
are  written  all  the  religious  works  and  liturgies  of  the  Abyssinian  nation.  Ijike 
the  Tigris  (Tigr^,  Tigrai),  a  kindred  dialect  current  amongst  the  peoples  of  the 
northern  slopes  along  the  headstreams  of  the  Barka,  the  Semitic  roots  of  the  Ghez 
are  found  more  or  less  intermingled  in  the  Tigrifia,  with  Galla  and  other  elements 
of  foreign  origin.  The  "  Bedouin  "  language  of  the  Ilababs  is  a  well-preserved 
form  of  Ghez,  and  many  Abyssinian  theologians  have  resided  amongst  these  humble 
highland  shepherds  in  order  to  study  the  origin  of  their  sacred  language.  The 
Hassa,  another  dialect  of  the  same  family,  diifering  slightly  from  Tigris,  has  sur- 
vived amongst  the  Beni-Amers  of  the  Samhar  plains  on  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea. 
In  this  direction  the  Abyssinian  linguistic  domain  is  being  gradually  encroached 
upon  by  the  Arab,  just  as  the  Christian  religion  itself  has  recently  yielded  to 
Mohammedanism. 

Of  the  two  chief  Abyssinian  languages,  the  Tigrifia  and  the  Amharina,  the 
latter,  also  derived  from  Ghez,  predominates,  thanks  to  the  higher  civilisation  and 
political  preponderance  of  the  Amhara  people.  The  Amharina  is  the  language  of 
trade,  diplomacy,  and  literature,  possessing  a  special  alphabet  of  thirty-three  letters, 
each  with  seven  forms,  or  two  htmdred  and  fifty-one  characters  altogether,  written 
from  left  to  right,  like  the  European  languages.  Whole  libraries  of  books  have 
been  written  in  this  tongue.  The  most  important  works  are  found  in  Europe, 
especially  in  the  British  Museum,  which  possesses  as  many  as  three  hundred  and 
forty-eight,  obtained  chiefly  from  the  collections  of  King  Theodore.  Most  of  the 
Amharina  books  have  been  written  for  the  edification  of  the  faithful ;  but  magic, 
history,  an<}  grammar  are  also  represented  in  the  national  literature.  Science 
already  possesses  three  dictionaries  of  the  Amhariila  language,  the  last  a  philological 
work  of  great  importance  on  which  d'Abbadie  spent  more  than  twenty-five  years. 
The  Tigriiia  dialects  possess  no  literature.  r' "^  .  ;■,    ^^v'^U      N 


The  Abyssinians. 


.1^ 


The  inhabitants  of  the  various  Tigr^  and  Amhara  provinces  present  striking 
contrasts  according  to  their  locality,  trade,  food,  and  racial  crossings.  But  apart 
from  the  extremes,  varying  from  the  pure  Negro  to  the  European  type,  the 
Abyssinian  on  the  whole  may  be  considered  as  possessing  shapely  limbs  and  regular 
features.  They  are  mostly  of  middle  height,  broad-shouldered,  with  somewhat 
slender  body,  and  of  very  graceful  action  and  carriage.     They  wear  the  ahutna,  a 


THE  ABTRflTNlANfl. 


IM 


mpB,  (liffer- 
upying  the 

d  8outhem 
provinco, 
iniuns,  from 
he  Tigrifla, 
in  which 
tion.     Like 

pies  of  the 
)f  the  Ghez 
or  elementa 
U-preserved 
lese  humble 
[uage.  The 
ri^,  has  Hur- 
le  Red  Sea. 

encroached 

yielded  to 

ahariiia,  the 

ilisation  and 

language  of 

three  letters, 

;her,  written 

books  have 

in  Europe, 

lundred  and 

Most  of  the 

but  magic, 

re.    Science 

philological 

(T-five  years. 


ent  striking 
But  apart 
XL  type,  the 
and  regular 
h  somewhat 
he  akuma,  a 


garment  resembling  the  Roman  toga,  which  they  fold  gracefully  round  the  InmIv 
in  divers  fashions.  In  general  the  forehead  is  high,  the  nose  Htraiglit,  or  even 
aquiliiip,  the  lipn  thick,  the  mouth  Bo..iewhat  pouting,  and  the  chin  iK)intod.  Tlio 
head  is  dolichocephalous,  and  covered  with  slightly  frizzle<l,  almost  woolly,  huir, 
often  arranged  in  little  tufts,  which  the  Mussulman  slavo-doalcrs  call  "  ]M<p{)er- 
coms."  Like  most  other  Africans  they  are  rarely  bearded,  but  in  common  with 
them  have  the  habit  of  lowering  the  eyelids,  which  often  gives  them  a  treacherous 
and  deceitful  appearance.  The  colour  of  the  skin  varies  greatly,  from  the  deep 
black  of  the  Neg^o  to  the  pale  complexion  of  the  Mediterranean  coast  peoples,  but 
is  generally  of  a  darkish  yellow  hue,  clear  enough  to  admit  of  blushes  being 
observed.  Most  of  the  women  when  young  are  very  graceful,  but  their  beauty 
does  not  last  long ;  they  are  shorter  than  the  men,  their  height,  according  to 
Hartmann,  rarely  exceeding  from  4  feet  11  inches  to  5  feet. 

The  Abyssinians,  both  men  and  women,  are  subject  to  internal  parasites,  probably 
due  to  the  practice  of  eating  raw  flesh,  common  to  all  the  natives,  excepting  those 
of  the  northern  province  of  Seraweh,  whose  diet  consists  almost  exclusively  of 
vegetables.  In  the  last  century  Bruce's  account  of  these  feasts  of  brondo,  or 
steaks  cut  from  the  living  animal  and  eaten  with  pepper  and  pimento,  were 
discredited ;  but  his  statements  have  been  confirmed  by  all  subsequent  explorers. 
To  free  themselves  from  these  internal  pests,  the  Abyssinians  make  decoctions  of 
the  kusso  leaf,  bitter  barks,  and  various  other  herbs ;  but  they  prefer  to  expose 
themselves  to  this  disorder  rather  than  abandon  their  savoury  brondo.  Leprosy, 
amongst  other  diseases,  is  very  common  in  the  kwallas,  and  more  especially  in  the 
Felasha  villages.  Like  those  of  Europe  and  South  America,  the  Abyssinian 
highlanders,  and  especially  the  women,  suffer  much  from  goitre.  According  to 
Dr.  Blanc,  an  Englishmen  who  was  for  some  time  a  prisoner  of  King  Theodore's, 
the  women  frequently  die  in  parturition,  whilst  in  the  neighbouring  coimtries  they 
pass  easily  through  this  trial.  Wounds  heal  slowly,  the  slightest  contusion 
often  causing  bone  diseases  of  long  standing,  although  amputation  of  the  arms 
and  legs,  and  even  the  mutilations  of  eunuchs,  are  rarely  mortal,  and  in  general  heal 
rapidly.  The  peoples  of  the  upper  plateaux  dread  the  feverish  atmosphere  of  the 
kwallas  as  much  as  Europeans,  and  rarely  descend  below  a  height  of  3,000  feet 
during  the  rainy  season.  The  danger  these  mountaineers  run  under  the  deleterious 
influence  of  this  damp  heat  is  the  best  safeguard  of  the  lowlanders  against  the 
attacks  of  the  Abyssinian  marauders.  When  the  "  king  of  kings  "  has  occasion 
to  punish  one  of  these  lowland  peoples,  he  despatches  a  band  of  Galla  warriors, 
accustomed  to  a  similar  climate  in  their  forests  of  southern  Abyssinia.  However, 
the  elephant  hunters  and  slave  dealers,  whose  pursuits  bring  them  to  these  regions, 
are  said  to  brave  the  miasmas  with  impunity,  protecting  themselves  successfully 
against  the  marsh  fever  by  daily  fumigations  of  sulphur. 

Most  European  observers  describe  the  Amharas  and  Tigris  as  distinguished  by 
their  great  intelligence,  much  natural  gaiety,  and  easy  address.  Although  untutored 
in  elocution,  they  express  themselves  with  a  remarkable  fluency,  rendered  the  more 
impressive  by  their  commanding  height  and  appropriate  gestures.    Yain,  selfish, 


154 


NORTn-EART  AFRICA. 


and  irritable,  thoy  ore  canity  led  into  foolhardy  enterprinei.  Theii  tmbition  is 
inaatiubio,  but  when  uniiucuenNfuI  they  roRiKn<<<lly  accept  their  ill  luck.  The  sad 
political  Htate  of  AbyNninia  fully  accounto  for  the  vices  of  it*  peoplea.  Continual 
warn  put  a  stop  to  all  peaceful  labours ;  the  soldiers  live  by  plunder,  the  monks  by 
ulms ;  hence  nil  work  iH  despised  and  left  to  the  women  and  siaveH.  Like  the 
Kgyptiun  fcUahin,  the  haughty  Abyssiniuns  do  not  consider  themselves  dcgrade<l 
by  askinf^  for  presents,  remarking  cynically,  •'  God  has  given  us  speech  for  the 
purpose  of  begging."  Amongst  the  Shohos  the  love  of  bakshish  is  pushed  to  such 
an  extent  that  many  of  the  chiefs  are  buried  with  the  hand  projecting  from  the 
gruvc  as  if  still  soliciting  from  their  tombs.  Disregard  of  truth  is  another 
national  vice,  veracity  being  little  respected  in  this  country  of  theological  (]uib- 
blingN,  where  each  interpretation  is  based  on  a  sacred  text.  "  Lying  gives  a  salt  to 
speech  which  the  pure  truth  never  does,"  said  an  Abyssinian  to  d'Abbadie. 

AORICULTTJBB. 

Although  the  Abyssinians  rank  as  a  "  civilised  people,"  their  agriculture  is  still 
in  a  very  rudimentary  state ;  many  of  the  ploughs  have  merely  a  stick  or  iron 
lance  for  t^  a  fhare,  which  tears  up  the  soil  without  turning  it  over.  After  the  seed 
is  sown,  the  land  is  never  touched  till  harvest  time,  whilst  certain  useful  plants  are 
left  to  grow  wild.  Even  the  harvest  is  neglected,  and  the  gums,  yielded  abun- 
dantly by  the  acacias  on  the  Sahal  and  Samhar  slopes  of  the  Abyssinian  chains,  are 
gathered  only  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  trade  routes  between  Massawah  and 
the  plateaus.  However,  numerous  varieties  of  vegetables  are  known  to  have  been 
introduced  into  the  country,  notably  the  vine,  at  the  period  of  its  trade  with 
Byzantium.  During  the  present  century  Schimper  has  spread  the  culture  of  the 
potato,  the  German  missionaries  have  brought  over  the  red  cabbage,  and  Munzinger 
has  introduced  several  new  plants  into  the  country  of  the  Bog06.  Were  the 
arable  lands  cultivated,  like  those  of  the  more  flourishing  European  colonies,  the 
Abyssinian  highlands  might  supply  the  markets  of  the  world  with  co£Fee  and 
quinine,  and  the  valleys  of  the  advanced  spurs  might  rival  the  United  States  in 
the  production  of  cotton.  ; 

The  Arts  and  Industries.         ■'  .  * 

>^~-;'.' .?.,'-.-, 'v.,v:;;;;  >^-' 

The  industries,  properly  so  called,  are  in  the  same  state  of  neglect  as  ag^culture, 
although  the  Abyssinians  themselves  are  sufficiently  intelligent  and  skilful  to  utilise 
their  own  raw  materials  instead  of  exporting  them  to  foreign  manufacturers. 
Incessant  wars  compelling  all  the  able  population  to  bear  arms,  and  the  contempt 
for  ^abour  and  workmen  existing  in  all  feudal  and  slave  countries,  have  prevented 
the  Abyssinians  from  developing  their  natural  skill  and  taste  for  the  industries. 
All  the  masonry,  carpentering,  and  upholstering,  as  weU  as  the  manufacture  of 
tools,  weapons,  and  instsuments,  are  left  to  the  Felasha  Jews,  who  are  rewarded  for 
their  services  by  being  hated  and  persecuted  as  budaa — that  is,  were- wolves — or  else 


I » 


Siit^jtib.^ 


.-J«k 


mbition  U 
The  sad 
Continual 
\c  monkn  by 
Like  tho 
H  dogrudtxl 
»och  for  tho 
hed  to  such 
nf;  from  the 
iH  another 
ogioal  quib- 
ves  a  salt  to 
idle. 


ulture  is  still 
stick  or  iron 
Lf  ter  the  seed 
'ul  plants  are 
ielded  abun- 
tn  chains,  are 
[assawah  and 
to  have  been 
s  trade  with 
sulture  of  the 
id  Munzinger 
Were  the 
colonies,  the 
h  coffee  and 
ted  States  in 


»  agriculture, 
ilful  to  utilise 
lanufacturers. 
the  contempt 
ve  prevented 
le  industries, 
mufacture  of 
rewarded  for 
jIves — or  else 


I  f 


RELIGION  AND  EDUCATION. 


IM 


M  sorcorrrs.  A  fow  families  of  Hindu  extraction,  and  naturali^nl  Amn>tiinnn, 
omamont  tho  shioldN,  «word«,  and  noddloH  with  filigree  work,  make  trinkotn,  and 
prepare  tho  jewels,  nocklacen,  and  bracelets  of  tho  women ;  whilst  a  few  Kuropoun 
workmen,  residing  at  tho  court,  also  contribute  somewhat  to  tho  induitriul  pr«Hlucts 
of  AbysHinia.  The  fine  cotton  tissues  used  for  tho  »haman  and  other  articleiH  of 
clothing  are  manufactured  in  the  country,  but  the  red  and  blue  cotton  fringes  with 
which  tho  borders  are  ornamented  aro  usually  imported.  Liko  tho  Mohammedan 
peoples  of  the  surrounding  districts,  tho  Abyssinians  are  very  skilful  in  tho  prepa- 
ration of  all  kinds  of  loatherwaro,  such  as  shields,  saddles,  and  amulets.  Most  of 
the  people  are  their  own 'tailors,  and  bleach  thoir  own  cloth  by  means  of  endot  seeds, 
which  answer  the  purpose  of  soap.  It  is  a  point  of  honour  amongst  them  on  feast- 
days  to  wear  clothes  of  spotless  whiteness. 

Art,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  is  wrongly  supposed  to  be  unknown  to  the 
Abyssinians.  Most  European  explorers  speak  in  very  contemptuous  terms  of  the 
work  of  the  native  painters,  and  certain  barbarous  frescoes  are  doubtless  of  a 
character  to  justify  their  sneers.  Nevertheless,  the  Abyssinian  school,  sprung  from 
the  Byzuntino  ecclesiastical  art,  has  produced  several  works  which  show  at  least 
imagination  and  vigour.  In  the  ruins  of  the  palace  of  Eoskoam,  near  Qondar, 
remains  of  Portuguese  frescoes  and  native  paintings  are  still  to  be  seen  side  by  side, 
and  here  the  foreign  artists,  with  their  insipid  saints,  scarcely  compare  favourably 
with  the  natives.  Nor  are  there  lacking  in  Abyssinia  innovating  artists  who 
protest  by  their  bold  conceptions  against  the  stagnation  of  the  traditional  rules. 
They  even  treat  historic  subjects,  and  produce  battle-scenes,  painting  the  Abyssinians 
in  full  face,  and  their  enemies,  such  us  Mohammedans,  Jews,  and  devils,  in  profile. 
They  also  display  much  skill  and  tasto  in  bookbinding,  copying  and  illuminating 
manuscripts.  As  to  the  atmari,  or  strolling  minstrels,  they  live  on  the  bounty  of 
the  nobles,  whose  mighty  deeds  it  is  their  duty  to  sing.  Hence  their  poetry  is  a 
mere  mixture  of  flattery  and  mendacity,  except  when  they  are  inspired  by  the  love 
of  war.  Abyssinian  bards  recite  before  the  warriors,  inspiring  their  friends  and 
insulting  their  adversaries,  whilst  female  poets  mingle  with  the  soldiers,  encouraging 
them  by  word  and  deed.  •■  .  '  •;   4 

Religion  and  Education. 

In  spite  of  the  encroachments  of  Mohammedanism,  which  besieges  the  Abyssinian 
plateaux  like  the  waves  of  the  sea  beating  against  the  foot  of  the  rocks,  the  old 
religion  of  "  Prester  John  "  is  still  professed.  Introduced  in  the  fourth  century, 
at  the  period  when  the  political  preponderance  belonged  to  Constantinople,  and 
communications  were  easily  established  between  Aksimi  and  "  Eastern  Rome  "  by 
"dij  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  Arabian  peninsula,  and  Syria,  the  doctrine  of  the  Abyssinian 
christians  is  one  of  those  which  at  one  time  contended  for  the  supremacy  among  the 
Churches  of  Asia  Minor.  The  Abyssinian  Christians,  like  the  Copts  of  Egypt,  jointly 
forming  the  so-called  "  Alexandrian  Church,"  are  connected  with  these  primitive 
commimities  through  the  sects  condemned  by  the  coimcil  of  Chalcedon  in  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  century.     The  Abyssinian  "  Monophysites,"  following  the  doctrines  of 


166 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


Dioscorus  and  Eutychius,  diEPer  from  the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholics  by  recognis- 
ing one  nature  only  in  Jesus  Christ,  and  in  making  the  Holy  Ghost  proceed  from 
God  the  Father  alone.  Christ,  however,  although  he  became  man,  is  none  the  leiss 
considered  as  Cod,  thanks  to  his  double  or  triple  birth,  the  manner  and  succession 
of  which  have  given  rise  to  so  many  endless  disputes  between  theologians,  and  have 
even  caused  sanguinary  wars.  Gondar  and  Aksum  have  often  had  recourse  to 
arms  to  settle  the  vexed  question  of  the  "  double  "  or  "  triple  birth."  Following 
the  interpretations,  the  words,  at  one  time  taken  in  the  proper  sense,  at  another 
translated  into  a  mystic  language,  completely  change  their  value ;  and  European 
Catholic  or  Protestant  missionaries  have  often  been  able  to  explain,  to  the  applause 
of  their  hearers,  that  there  was  no  essential  difference  between  the  Abyssinian  faith 
and  that  which  they  wished  to  introduce.  For  the  Roman  Catholics  especially  the 
process  is  easy  enough,  for  have  they  not,  like  the  Abyssinians,  the  worship  of 
Mary,  the  veneration  of  images,  the  intercession  of  the  saints,  fasts,  purgatory, 
indulgences,  and  begging  communities  P  Received  like  a  native,  JBermudez,  the 
first  Catholic  missionary,  who  arrived  in  Abyssinia  about  1525,  caused  himself  to  be 
consecrated  by  the  Abyssinian  primate,  and  became  for  a  time  his  successor. 

Meanwhile  the  Mohammedan  Gallas,  led  by  Ahmed  Graneh,  that  is,  "  the  Left- 
handed,"  who  possessed  firearms,  invaded  Abyssinia,  destroying  its  armies,  sacking 
and  burning  its  villages,  and  the  empire  would  probably  hove  been  destroyed,  had 
not  400  Portuguese,  led  by  Christopher  de  Gama,  son  of  the  famous  navigator, 
hastened  to  restore  the  balance  of  power.  These  events  took  place  in  1541.  The 
Gallas  were  beaten,  but  the  Portuguese  demanded  as  the  price  of  their  services  a 
fief  comprising  a  third  part  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  conversion  of  all  the  Abys- 
sinians to  the  Catholic  faith.  Thus  began  the  religious  wars  between  the  Alexan- 
drian and  Roman  sectaries.  One  of  the  first  Jesuit  missions  was  compelled  to  leave 
the  country  before  securing  the  recognition  of  the  Pope's  authority ;  but  a  second 
was  more  successful,  and  in  1624  the  "  king  of  kings  "  abjured  the  Monophysite 
faith  and  issued  an  older  for  the  imiversal  adoption  of  Romanism.  The  Inquisition 
was  introduced,  and  revolts,  barbarously  suppressed,  stained  the  kingdom  with  blood. 
For  eight  years  Abyssinia  was  officially  a  province  ol  the  Catholic  world ;  but  after 
a  terrible  massacre  of  the  peasants,  the  Emperor  Claudius,  wearied  of  bloodshed, 
issued  an  edict  of  toleration,  and  all  the  Abyssinians  soon  returned  to  the  old  faith. 
The  Catholic  priests  were  exiled  or  died  violent  deaths,  excepting  the  Patriarch, 
whom  the  Arabs  captured,  and  for  whom  they  obtained  a  }ieavy  ransom  from  the 
Portuguese  of  Goa. 

>  During  the  present  century  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  missionaries  have 
returned  to  Abyssinia,  but  being  regarded  with  suspicion  as  strangers,  have  never 
been  tolerated  for  any  length  of  time.  The  Abyssinians  are  usually  very  indifferent 
to  religious  matters,  and  would  readily  allow  churches  of  divers  denominations  to 
be  built  by  the  side  of  their  own,  but  they  fear  lest  conversion  might  be  the  fore- 
runner of  conquest.  Prince  Eassa,  afterwards  the  famous  £!ing  Theodore,  is  stated 
to  have  said,  "  The  missionaries  will  be  welcome  in  my  kingdom,  on  the  condition 
that  my  subjects  do  not  say,  '  I  am  a  Frenchmtan  because  I  am  a  Catholic/  or  <  I 


I 


"'^wfle^itBj^ 


EELIGION  AND  EDUCATION. 


107 


ic8  by  recognis- 

t  proceed  from 

is  none  the  1qb8 

and  succession 

gians,  and  hare 

lad  recourse  to 

h."     Following 

ense,  at  another 

;  and  European 

to  the  applause 

Abyssinian  faith 

Bs  especially  the 

the  worship  of 

'asts,  purgatory, 

I,  Bermudez,  the 

jed  himself  to  be 

successor.       ^f, 

at  is,  "  the  Left- 

i  armies,  sacking 

Q  destroyed,  had 

imous  navigator, 

e  in  1641.    The 

their  services  a 

ai  all  the  Abys- 

reen  the  Alexan- 

ompelled  to  leave 

by ;  but  a  second 

the  Monophysite 

The  Inquisition 

igdom  with  blood. 

!  world ;  but  after 

ied  of  bloodshed, 

1  to  the  old  faith. 

ng  the  FatriaroL, 

ransom  from  the 

nissionaries  have 
ngers,  have  never 
ly  very  indifferent 
denominations  to 
ight  be  the  fore- 
rheodore,  is  stated 
1,  on  the  condition 
Catholic,'  or  *  I 


am  an  Englishman  because  I  am  a  Protestant.'  "  Later  on  he  even  forbade 
foreigners  to  preach,  tolerating  them  only  as  artisans.  His  own  fate  justified  the 
sentiment  he  so  often  repeated — "  First  the  missionaries,  then  the  consuls,  and  then 
the  soldiers !  "  Abyssinian  territory  is  now  interdicted  to  priests  of  foreign 
religions,  and  Europeans,  like  Schimper,  dwelling  in  the  coimtry,  have  been  obliged 
to  adopt  the  national  religion. 

Till  recently  the  Mussulman  propagandists  seem  to  have  been  more  successful 
than  the  European  missionaries.  Nearly  all  the  frontier  peoples  had  embraced 
Islam,  retaining  but  a  vague  recollection  of  their  Christian  faith,  and  even  in  the 
interior  the  Mussulmans  threatened  t<o  acquire  the  ascendancy.  According  to  some 
writers,  they  already  formed  a  third  of  the  nation,  and  in  the  towns  they  prevailed 
through  their  numbers,  influence,  and  wealth,  whilst  all  the  trade  was  in  their  hands. 
In  virtue  of  the  fundamental  law  of  the  country,  they  failed  to  attain  political 
power  only  because  rulers  must  profess  the  Christian  religion ;  but  in  the  middle  of 
the  century  the  master  of  the  obimtry,  R&s  Ali,  was  seen  to  abjura  Mohammedanism 
only  with  his  lips,  whilst  distributing  offices  uud  the  plunder  of  the  churches  to  the 
disciples  of  Islam.  The  reaction  against  Mohammedanism  was  principally  caused 
by  the  invasion  of  the  Egyptian  armies,  when  the  hatred  of  foreign  enemies 
reflected  upon  those  of  the  interior.  An  order  for  a  general  conversion  was  issued, 
and  all  the  Abyssinian  Mussulmans  were  obliged  apparently  to  conform  to  the 
established  Church,  and  to  wear,  imder  pain  of  exile,  the  mateb,  or  "  sky-blue  "  cord, 
the  Christian  badge.  The  Mohammedans  who  remained  faithful  to  their  religion 
fled  to  the  frontier  states,  especially  to  Gal&bat,  on  the  route  to  Khartum.  Abyssinia, 
the  refuge  of  Mohammed's  disciples  in  the  fifth  year  of  persecution,  has  not,  there- 
fore, justified  the  praise  the  Prophet  awarded  it  in  calling  it  "a  country  of  upright- 
ness,  where  no  man  falls  a  victim  to  injustice." 

The  abuna,  that  is  "  our  father,"  head  of  the  Abyssinian  clergy,  is  not  an 
Abyssinian,  for  since  the  reign  of  Lalibala,  some  seven  centuries  ago,  this  prelate 
has  always  been  a  ioreig^er.  It  was  doubtlesis  feared  that  he  woiild  acquire  too 
much  power  in  the  country  were  he  a  native  of  royal  descent ;  hence  a  Coptic  priest 
is  sent  them  by  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  in  return  for  a  considerable  sum  of 
money.  Thus  his  precious  life  is  most  carefully  guarded  to  save  further  expense  to 
the  State,  and  on  the  death  of  an  abuna  the  pontifical  chair  has  often  remained 
empty  for  many  years.  The  duties  of  this  high  priest  consists  in  ordaining  priests 
and  deacons,  in  consecrating  altars,  and  in  excommunicating  criminals  and  blasphe- 
mers. For  these  services  he  possesses  an  entire  quarter  of  Gondar,  and  receives  the 
revenues  of  numerous  fief s,  _  besides  perquisites,  regulated  by  a  strict  tarifi. 
Although  highly  yenerated  by  the  natives,  his  power  is  not  equal  to  that  of  the 
vegua;  and  Theodore,  when  excommunicated  by  the  abima,  was  seen  to  coolly 
draw  a  pistol  and  cover  the  prelate,  demandiog  a  blessing,  which  it  is  needless  to 
add  "  the  holy  father  "  hastened  to  grant  him. 

The  abuna's  power  is  held  in  check  by  the  king's  political  spies,  as  well  as  by 
the  echagheh,  the  national  priest  and  a  religious  rival,  his  equal  in  dignity  and 
power  of  excommunication,  althoucrb  he  cannot  confer  oij^ders;  he  also  possesses  a 


Il41 


pi 


r 


h\ 


168 


NOBTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


•;h 


quarter  of  Gondar.  The  echagheh  governs  the  numerous  convents  of  Ahyssinia,  and 
rules  over  the  numerous  dabtara,  or  "  literati,"  who  form  the  best  instructed  and 
most  influential  class  of  the  country.  They  are  laymen,  but  they  usually  possess 
more  authority  in  the  Chr^ch  than  the  priest  himself.  The  dabtara  enjoys  the 
usufruct  of  the  ecclesiastical  fiefs ;  he  hires  by  the  month,  pays,  reprimands,  or 
dismisses  the  priest  who  celebrates  mass,  and  often  occupies  the  post  of  parish 
priest,  which  is  quite  a  temporal  office  in  Abyssinia.  He  composes  the  new  hymns 
for  each  feast,  and  often  introduces  sarcastic  remarks  levelled  against  the  bishops, 
and  occasionally  even  warnings  against  the  king. 

Excepting  the  high  dignitaries,  the  Abyssinian  priests  are  not  bound  to  celibacy, 
but  are  forbidden  to  make  a  second  marriage.  There  are  also  numerous  religious 
orders,  comprising  about  12,000  monks,  without  counting  the  nuns,  who  are  mostly 
aged  women  driven  by  domestic  troubles  to  retire  from  the  world.  Deposed  princes, 
disgraced  oflicials,  and  penniless  soldiers  also  seek  a  home  in  the  monasteries.  A 
large  part  of  the  land  belongs  to  the  priests  and  monks,  and  would  lie  fallow  were 
not  the  peasantry  compelled  to  cultivate  it. 

The  churches  and  convent«  are  the  schools  of  the  country,  and  with  the  excep- 
tion of  those  chosen  from  the  dabtara  class,  all  the  teachers  are  priests  or  monks. 
They  teach  choral  singing,  grammar,  poetry,  and  the  recitation  of  the  texts  of  their 
sacred  books  and  commentaries,  the  classic  lore  of  the  Abyssinians  being  limited  to 
these  subjects.  But  although  restricted,  education  is  at  least  gratuitous,  the 
teacher's  duty  being  to  give  voluntarily  to  others  the  insi^ruction  imparted  to  him 
in  the  same  way.  It  is  also  the  duty  of  the  ecclesiastics  to  give  food  and  shelter  to 
whomsoever  asks  it.  Convents  and  even  the  ecclesiastical  domains  were  formerly 
inviolable  places  of  refuge ;  but  degrees  of  sanctity  have  been  gradually  established 
in  these  refuges,  and  at  present  there  are  very  few  from  which  the  sovereign  can- 
not tear  his  victim  and  deliver  him  up  to  the  executioner.  Many  convents  which 
formerly  attracted  crowds  of  pilgrims  are  now  no  longer  visited.  A  few,  however, 
are  still  visited  for  the  combined  purpose  of  worship  and  trade,  every  place  of 
pilgrimage  being  at  the  same  time  a  "  camp-meeting." 

The  Abyssinian  theologians,  more  versed  in  the  Old  Testament  than  the  New, 
are  fond  of  justifying  their  surviving  barbarous  customs  by  the  examples  supplied 
by  the  lives  .of  their  pretended  ancestors,  David  and  Solomon.  The  bulk  of  the 
faithful,  although  far  from  zealous,  and  extremely  ignorant  of  their  tenets,  rigidly 
observe  the  outward  forms  of  their  religion.  They  submit  to  the  penances  imposed 
by  their  confessors,  purchase  pardon  for  their  sins  by  almsgiving  to  the  Church, 
and  observe  the  long  fasts  ordered  them,  unless  indeed  they  can  afford  to  pay  for  a 
substitute.  They  have  two  Lents,  the  most  rigorous  lasting  forty-five  days,  besides 
two  days  of  the  week  being  set  apart  for  the  ordinary  abstinence.  As  in  Russia 
and  Rumania,  more  than  half  of  the  year  consists  of  days  of  feasts  or  fasts,  apart 
from  those  set  aside  for  the  celebration  of  births,  deaths,  and  marriages. 

Every  man  has  a  baptismal  and  ordinary  name,  the  former  taken  from  their 
national  saints,  the  latter  composed  of  the  first  words  spoken  by  his  mother  after 
his  birth.    The  chiefs  have  a  third  name,  consisting  of  their  war-cry.    Religious 


GOVERNMENT. 


159 


yssinia,  and 
Tucted  and 
ally  possess 
enjoys  the 
irimands,  or 
t  of  parish 
new  hymns 
;he  bishops, 

to  celibacy, 
US  religious 
)  are  mostly 
tsed  princes, 
asteries.     A 

fallow  were 

1  the  excep- 
s  or  monks, 
exts  of  their 
ig  limited  to 
ituitous,  the 
irted  to  him 
nd  shelter  to 
ere  formerly 
y  established 
yereign  can- 
ivents  which 
ew,  however, 
ery  place  of 

an  the  New, 
pies  supplied 

bulk  of  the 
enets,  rigidly 
inces  imposed 

the  Church, 
I  to  pay  for  a 

days,  besides 

As  in  Russia 

n*  fasts,  apart 

es. 

in  from  their 

motner  after 
y.     Religious 


marriage  rites,  which  are  also  celebrated  by  communion  and  regarded  an  indissoluble, 
are  of  rare  occurrence,  not  one  in  a  hundred  unions  being  solemnised  by  a  priest. 
Legally  the  husband  or  wife  can  only  be  divorced  three  times,  but  in  reality  they 
dissolve  the  marriage  as  often  as  they  please,  and  in  this  case  the  father  takes  the 
sons,  the  daughters  remaining  with  the  mother.  In  the  case  of  a  single  child,  if 
under  seven  he  goes  to  the  mother,  but  if  older  to  the  father.  Of  all  their  religious 
practices  the  most  important  are  the  funeral  rites.  The  most  upright  man  would 
be  thought  unworthy  to  enter  heaven  did  his  relations  not  pay  for  masses  to  be  said 
for  his  soul  and  for  a  splendid  funeitil  banquet.  The  poor  people  pinch  themselves 
during  lifetime  to  save  enough  to  acquit  this  sacred  duty  of  the  "  teskar."  As  in 
Christian  Europe,  the  enclosures  surrounding  the  churches  are  used  as  cemeteries ; 
and  the  conifer  trees,  such  as  the  cedar,  yew,  and  juniper,  planted  on  the  gpraves  of 
the  Abyssinians,  are  said  to  be  also  considered  in  the  East  as  sepulchral  trees. 

''■'        '■•■'■''••  «'V',  v.::'''.  Government.  v  .■ - 

The  royal  power  is  by  right  absolute,  although  in  practice  restrained  by  force 
of  custom,  and  especially  by  the  powers  of  a  thousand  restless  vassals  and  feudal 
communities  of  landed  proprietors  armed  with  shields  and  javelins,  whom  the 
least  change  in  the  political  equilibrium  might  league  against  the  king.  Until 
the  plateaux  are  connected  one  with  the  other  by  easy  routes  over  the  mountains 
and  through  the  gorges,  the  country  will  not  obtain  the  cohesion  that  it  lacks,  and 
Abyssinia  will  be  condemned  to  the  feudal  system.  Each  isolated  mass  covered 
with  villages  or  hamlets,  but  cut  o£E  by  deep  ravines,  constitutes  a  natural  fief,  held 
in  awe  by  an  amba,  or  *'  mountain  fort,"  denoting  the  dwelling  of  the  master. 
From  this  eyrie  he  overlooks  the  surrounding  lands,  calculating  what  return  the 
crops  of  the  fields  below  will  yield  him,  and  watching  for  travellers,  on  whom  he 
levies  black-mail.  However,  the  sovereign  endeavours  to  grant  these  great  military 
or  ecclesiastical  fiefs  only  to  members  of  his  family  or  to  devoted  servants.  Besides, 
he  surrounds  himself  with  a  permanent  army  of  tcdtioader  or  mercenaries,  now 
armed  with  modem  rifles,  and  "accustomed  to  stand  fire,"  like  the  Egyptian 
soldiers,  which  enables  him  to  dispense  with  the  support  of  the  restless  feudatories 
or  the  free  landholders.  He  also  endeavours  to  keep  at  his  court  the  vassals  he 
most  mistrusts.  However,  the  modem  history  of  Abyssinia  shows  with  what 
rapidity  the  power  shifts  from  suzerain  to  vassal.  Although  these  negus-negeat,  that 
is,  "  kings  of  kings,"  these  sovereigns  of  Israel,  all  endeavour  to  prove  their  descent 
from  Solomon  and  the  Queen  of  Sheba,  mother  of  Menelik,  first  king  of  Ethiopia, 
and  bear  on  their  standards  "  the  Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,"  they  have  not 
sufficient  time  to  impress  their  subjects  with  awe.  In  reality,  the  king  of 
Abyssinia  is  master  only  of  the  ground  on  which  his  army  is  encamped,  and  of  the 
more  exposed  towns,  where  his  mounted  troops  can  show  themselves  at  the  slightest 
alarm.  Such  is  the  reason  why  the  present  sovereign,  like  his  predecessor 
Theodore,  has  no  other  capital  than  his  camp,  where  the  first  stroke  of  the  war- 
drum  suffices  to  put  the  whdle  army  on  the  march. 


mm  a 


.— .'' 


r^ 


160  NOBTH-EAST  AFBIOA. 

Administration  of  Justice. 

As  the  Abyssinian  sovereigns  are  theoretically  autocrats,  so  the  governors  of 
provinces,  landholders,  and  the  ahum  or  "  chiefs "  of  each  village,  have  also  the 
right  to  do  as  they  please,  being  responsible  only  to  their  superiors.  Nevertheless 
there  is  a  code  of  laws,  the  "  King's  Guide,"  attributed  to  Constantine,  and  which 
certainly  dates  from  the  period  when  Byzantine  influence  preponderated  in  the 
Eastern  world.  According  to  this  code,  which  contains  many  ordinances  of  the 
Pentateuch  and  extracts  from  the  laws  of  Justinian,  the  father  has  the  right  of  life 
or  death  over  his  children,  as  the  king  has  over  his  subjects.  The  rebellion  of  the 
son  against  the  father,  or  of  the  vassal  against  his  lord,  is  punished  by  blinding  or 
death ;  the  blasphemer  or  liar,  taking  the  name  of  Ood  or  of  the  king  in  vain,  is 
punished  with  the  loss  of  his  tongue  ;  the  thief  loses  his  right  hand ;  the  assassin 
is  delivered  up  to  the  family  of  the  murdered  man  and  killed  in  the  same  way  as 
he  disposed  of  his  victim,  but  if  the  crime  was  involuntary,  blood-money  must  be 
accepted.  The  amputated  limbs  of  prisoners  are  always  baked  under  their  eyes 
and  returned  to  them  steeped  in  butter,  so  that  they  can  preserve  them  to  be  buried 
with  the  rest  of  the  body,  and  thus  rise  unmutilated  on  the  last  day.  Smoking  is 
forbidden,  "  because  tobacco  originated  in  the  tomb  of  Arius,"  and  fanatic  chiefs 
have  caused  the  lips  of  transgressors  to  be  cut  off.  Chiefs  rarely  condemn  anyone 
to  prison,  which  consists  of  a  chain  with  a  strong  ring  at  each  end,  one  being  fixed 
to  the  prisoner's  right  wrist,  the  other  to  the  left  hand  of  his  gaoler,  who  thus 
becomes  a  captive  himself;  accordingly  he  strives  promptly  to  get  rid  of  his 
unwelcome  companion  either  by  a  compromise  or  by  an  absolute  judgment.  When 
one  Abyssinian  wishes  to  complain  of  another,  he  attaches  his  toga  to  that  of  his 
adversary,  who  cannot  get  released  without  pleading  guilty.  He  must  follow  his 
accuser  before  the  judge,  and,  both  uncovering  the  back  and  shoulders  so  as  to 
await  the  blows  which  will  fall  upon  one  or  the  other,  beg  for  the  magistrate's 
decision.  Each  conducts  his  own  defence,  as  it  is  thought  disg^ceful  to  employ  a 
third  person  to  plead,  the  title  of  lawyer  being  considered  an  insult.  The 
Abyssinians  often  appeal  to  a  child  to  judge  between  them :  being  himself  innocent, 
the  child  is  held  as  the  best  judge  of  good  and  evil.  After  having  gravely  listened 
to  the  suitors  and  the  witnesses,  he  pronounces  sentence,  which  all  receive  with 
the  greatest  deference,  and  which  is  occasionally  accepted  as  a  definite  judgment 
between  the  parties. 


wA^:: 


Slavkby. 


Slavery  still  exists  in  Abyssinia,  but  it  affects  the  blacks  alone,  who  constitute 
but  a  small  portion  of  the  population.  The  master  has  not  the  right  of  life  and 
death  over  his  slave,  and  would  even  be  liable  to  capital  punishment  by  selling  him. 
After  some  years'  service  the  slave  usually  receives  his  liberty,  together  with 
sufficient  implements  and  money  necessary  for  his  support.  On  becoming  a  freed- 
man  he  increases  the  importance  of  his  former  uiaster.  Before  their  enforced 
conversion  all  the  traffic  in  human  flesh  was  carried  on  by  the  Mussulmans.     Like 


governors  of 
lave  alao  the 
Nevertheless 
and  which 
rated  in  the 
inces  of  the 

right  of  life 
lellion  of  the 

blinding  or 
g  in  vain,  is 

the  assassin 
same  way  as 
tney  must  be 
Ler  their  eyes 
I  to  be  buried 

Smoking  is 
fanatic  chiefs 
demn  anyone 
le  being  fixed 
er,  who  thus 
Bt  rid  of  his 
nent.  When 
to  that  of  his 
list  follow  his 
ulders  so  as  to 
B  magistrate's 
I  to  employ  a 
insult.  The 
Qself  innocent, 
avely  listened 
[  receive  with 
lite  judgment 


who  constitute 
bt  of  life  and 
>y  selling  him. 
together  with 
)ming  a  f  reed- 
their  enforced 
iilmans.    Like 


TOPOGRAPHY— GONDAE, 


161 


the  American  abolitionists,  but  for  an  entirely  different  purpose,  they  had 
established  a  "  i1)terranean  route,"  that  is  to  say,  a  series  of  secret  depots  under- 
ground or  in  the  woods,  stretching  between  Gondar  and  Metamneh.  The  convoys 
of  slaves  were  carefully  imprisoned  all  day  in  these  depots,  passing  from  one  to  the 
other  only  under  cover  of  night. 

Topography. 

The  natural  centre  of  Abyssinia,  which  has  also  at  various  epochs  been  the  seat 
of  empire,  is  the  fertile  basin  whose  central  depression  contains  the  waters  of  Lake 
Tana.  The  mean  height  of  this  favoured  region  exceeds  6,600  feet ;  it  forms  the 
voina-dega  zone,  which  corresponds  to  the  temperate  zone  of  Europe,  although 
enjoying  a  more  equable  climate  and  a  richer  vegetation.  Thanks  to  these  happy 
conditions,  the  land  yields  the  most  abundant  and  varied  crops  in  Abyssinia,  and 
here  have  been  built  the  most  populous  towns,  which  in  this  feudal  region  are 
elsewhere  extremely  rare.  Another  great  advantage  of  this  district  is  its  relative 
facility  of  access.  From  Khartum  to  Lake  Tana  the  direct  route  rises  gradually, 
crossing  only  one  steep  ridge,  that  of  Wali-dabba,  north-west  of  the  great  lake ; 
but  it  would  be  difficult  to  follow  the  route  made  through  the  gorges  of  the  Blue 
Nile,  an  immense  semicircle  described  by  the  river  beyond  Abyssinia  into  the 
country  of  the  Ilm-Ormas  and  Bertas. 

.• '  -  ..'■■':■:":■.  Gk)NDAR.  -^ ''''i' 

One  of  the  cities  of  the  central  Abyssinian  basin  is  Goiidar,  or  rather  Gwendar, 
usually  designated  as  the  capital,  although  it  is  merely  the  chief  religious  centre. 
Gondar  is  not  of  ancient  origin,  dating  only  from  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  although  it  has  already  more  ruined  buildings  than  houses  in  good 
condition.  Most  of  the  churches  were  destroyed  by  Theodore  in  a  fit  of  rage,  and 
on  the  rounded  hill  overlooking  the  town  from  the  north  are  the  remains  of  a 
gimp,  or  "  stronghold,"  which,  in  spite  of  its  dilapidated  condition,  is  still  the  finest 
building  in  Abyssinia.  Its  reddish  sandstone  walls  with  basalt  parapets,  round 
towers,  square  keep,  and  lofty  gateways  in  the  Portuguese  style,  give  it  an  impos- 
ing appearance ;  but  it  is  being  gradually  overgrown  by  trees  and  shrubs,  while 
entire  portions  have  been  systematically  demolished.  "  Since  we  must  no  longer 
build  monuments,"  said  a  queen  in  the  middle  of  this  century,  "  why  should  we 
allow  those  of  others  to  exist  P  "  Seen  from  afar  at  the  foot  of  its  picturesque 
ruins,  commanded  by  churches,  and  dotted  with  clumps  of  trees,  Gondar  presents 
the  appearance  of  a  picturesque  European  town,  with  its  amphitheatre  of  hills,  its 
silvery  rivulets  winding  through  the  prairies  of  the  Dembea,  and  the  glittering 
surface  of  the  neighbouring  lake.  » 

Gondar  is  situated  at  a  height  variously  estimated  at  from  6,300  to  6,800  feet, 
on  the  southern  and  western  sides  of  a  gently  sloping  hill.  Its  houses  are  built, 
not  in  groups  so  as  to  form  a  town  properly  so-called,  but  in  separate  quarters, 
between  which  intervene  heaps  of  rubbish  and  waste  spaces,  where  leopards  and 

11— AF. 


i 


r 


wmmmmm 


ut 


NOETH-EAST  AFBICA. 


panthers  occasionally  venture  at  night-time.  Although  it  could  easily  accommodate 
some  10,000  families,  its  present  population  is  estimated  at  only  from  4,000  to 
7,000  Christians  and  Jews,  each  occupying  a  special  quarter.  The  houses  of  the 
rich  citizens  are  mostly  one-storied  round  towers,  with  conic  roofs  thatched  with 
reeds  ;  the  domestic  animals  occupy  the  ground-floor,  which  also  serves  as  a  store 
for  utensils  and  provisions.     Being  an  ecclesiastical  centre,  Gondar  has  no  foreign 

^  Fig.  49.— OoMDAB. 

Scale  1  :  66,000.  '  \ 


L  .  of  Greenwich     37*31' 


i7'ii' 


.  8.800TaTdi. 


.'58  t 


trade  beyond  what  is  required  for  the  local  wants.  Most  of  the  mechanics,  smiths, 
masons,  and  carpenters  are  Eamants  and  Jews.  For  five  months  in  the  year 
Gondar  would  be  completely  cut  ofE  from  the  southern  provinces,  but  for  the  bridge 
built  by  the  Portuguese  over  the  Magech,  the  chief  river  of  the  plain  of  Dembea, 
hich  has  hitherto  resisted  all  the  inundations.  South  of  Gondar  are  the  villages 
of  Fety'a  and  Jenda,  which  lie  in  a  well-cultivated  district. 


iccommodate 
)m  4,000  to 
ouses  of  the 
hatched  with 
es  as  a  store 
IS  no  foreign 


iO 


ichanics,  smiths, 
ths  in  the  year 
it  for  the  bridge 
lain  of  Dembea, 
are  the  villages 


..ara7?*«-.3ffi^iSS~jrS35 


«**» —  -^ 


1 
|i    I 


r 


\:-% .; 


* '  J 


k 


V-- 


N. 


■'Wt^"' 


^ 


CHELOA-AMBA-MARIAM—IPAO— DEBRA-TABOR. 


Cheloa — Amha-Mariam — Ifag. 


168 


Towards  ^'.  j  Tiorth- western  angle  of  the  Dombea  plain  are  the  scattered  hamlets 
forming  the  town  of  Chelga,  which,  though  less  famous  than  Gondar,  is  of  more 
commercial  importance.  Lying  neor  the  water-parting  between  the  Blue  Nile  and 
the  Atbora,  it  is  frequented  by  the  Abyssinian  merchants  ond  the  traders  from 
Qalabat  and  Oednref,  who  reach  it  from  Wohni,  the  first  station  on  the  Abyssinian 
frontier.  In  the  upper  valley  of  the  Goang,  which  flows  to  the  Atbara,  are  beds 
of  excellent  coal,  disposed  in  layers  some  two  to  three  feet  thick,  ond  very  easy  to 
work.  From  the  plateau  which  rises  west  of  the  town  to  a  height  of  over  8,800 
feet,  a  view  is  commanded  of  the  vast  circle  of  hills  and  valleys  enclosing  Lake 
Tana,  the  Tsanu  of  the  Tigr^.  At  the  foot  of  the  basalt  crag  of  Gorgora,  rising 
near  the  north-western  shore  of  the  lake,  stands  the  large  village  of  Changar, 
which  possesses  a  port  serving  as  the  outlet  for  Gondar,  Chelga,  and  other  towns  of 
the  province. 

The  only  communication  between  the  plain  of  Dembea  and  the  riverain  districts 
east  of  the  lake  is  by  a  defile,  in  which  stands  the  custom-house  of  Ferka-ber,  much 
dreaded  by  travellers.  Beyond  this  post  the  towns  and  villages  belonging  to  this 
lacustrine  regidn  are  built  away  from  the  banks  at  a  considerable  height  above  the 
bed  of  the  streams.  Auiba-Mariam,  or  the  "  Fort  of  Mary,"  with  its  famous 
church,  stands  on  a  level  and  treeless  table-land,  at  whose  base  the  villages  of  the 
district  of  Emfraa  nestle  amongst  the  tufted  vegetation,  ^fag,  or  Etfag,  forms  a 
group  of  villages  encircling  the  foot  of  a  barren  volcanic  rock  some  1,600  feet 
high,  which  commands  from  the  north  the  abrupt  plateau  of  Beghemeder. 
Situated  at  the  northern  extremity  of  a  fertile  plain  watered  by  the  copious  rivers 
Reb  and  Gumara,  and  commanding  the  narrow  passages  which  wind  round  the 
base  of  the  mountains  at  the  north-eastern  angle  of  the  lake,  Ifag  is  an  important 
commercial  emporium  with  a  central  custom-house.  The  caravans  stop  and  reform 
at  the  town  of  Darita,  farther  east.  The  plains  of  Fogara,  stretching  southwards, 
are  said  to  produce  the  finest  tobacco  in  Abyssinia,  while  also  yielding  rich 
pasturages  for  the  numerous  herds.  Like  Koarata,  farther  south,  Ifag  was 
formerly  celebrated  throughout  Abyssinia  for  the  excellence  of  its  wine,  obtained 
from  plants  introduced  by  the  Portuguese ;  but  the  vines,  which  generally  grew  to 
a  gigantic  size,  nearly  all  perished  in  1855  of  o'idium,  at  the  same  time  that  the 
European  vineyards  were  wasted  by  this  destructive  fungus. 

Debra-Tabor. 

South  of  the  plains  of  Fogara  stretches  a  ridge  running  east  and  west,  and  over- 
looked from  the  east  by  the  oloud-capped  cone  of  Mount  Guna.  This  broad  ridge, 
covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  black  earth  and  furrowed  by  the  rivulets  flowing 
from  the  marshy  sides  of  Guna,  is  the  plateau  of  Debra-Tabor,  or  "  Moimt  Tabor," 
so-called  from  a  church  formerly  a  place  of  pilgrimage,  but  which,  since  the  time 
of  Theodore,  has  become  the  chief  residence  of  the  Abyssinian  kings.     From  a 


i 


m 


ni 


imjiiiinn^n 


164 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


strategical  point  of  viow  tho  position  hns  been  admirably  chonon.  To  the  west 
stretch  tho  riverain  phiins  of  Lake  Tana,  the  most  fertile  in  tho  kingdom.  From 
the  summit,  exceeding  H,600  feet,  on  which  his  palace  is  perched,  the  sovereign 
overlooks  the  lands  which  furnish  his  amiy  with  supplies.  From  this  point  he 
can  easily  reoch  the  Upper  Tukkazeh  valley  towards  the  east,  or  the  valley  of  the 
AbaK  and  the  routes  of  8hoa  to  the  south.  The  capital  of  a  country  engaged  in 
perpetual  warfare  could  not  be  more  fortunately  situated.  But  the  royal  camping- 
ground  has  often  been  shifted  on  the  plateau  of  Debra- Tabor. 

The  village  of  Debra-Tabor,  where  the  "  king  of  kings  "  often  resides  during 
the  rainy  season,  bears  the  name  of  Samara ;  some  miles  to  the  north-west  is  the 
village  of  Gafnt,  formerly  inhabited  by  blacksmiths  who  were  reputed  sorcerers. 
Theodore  had  assigned  it  as  a  residence  for  a  numerous  colony  of  Protestant 

Fig.  60.— Dehha-Tabob. 

SmO*  1 :  3fi0,000.  " 


«MilM. 


missionaries,  employed,  not  for  the  evangelisation  of  the  inhabitants,  but  for  the 
manufacture  of  harness,  weapons,  and  materials  for  war.  Gafat  was  at  that  time 
the  arsenal  of  Abyssinia. 

The  watercourses  of  Debra-Tabor  flow  to  Lake  Tana  through  the  Reb,  which 
latter  river,  not  far  from  Gafat,  forms  a  superb  cascade  nearly  70  feet  high.  West 
of  Debra-Tabor,  on  a  lowland  promontory  of  the  plateau,  are  the  ruins  of  the  Castle 
of  Arengo,  the  "  Versailles  of  the  Negus,"  built  beneath  some  large  trees,  on  the 
edge  of  a  precipice  over  which  falls  a  cascade,  its  waters  disappearing  in  the  virg^ 
forest  below.  Thermal  springs  from  100°  to  107°  F.  abound  in  this  region. 
The  most  frequented  are  those  of  Wanziglieh  in  the  valley  of  southern  Gumara. 
The  neighbouring  village  is  the  only  place  in  Abyssinia  where  vines  have  been 
introduced.    .  ■     .  ,^'  -:.,.^,...    i.    .,-  <     ,  ,       - 

MaHPERA-MaRIAM — EOARATA. 

The  basin  of  the  Gumara,  like  that  of  the  Eeb,  has  also  a  town  famous  in  the 
local  records.     Mahdera-Mariam,  or  "  Mary's  Rest,"  stands  between  two  a£9uent8 


iHi 


iiii 


mmmtim 


Wt«WTijr*WW 


ijfejaiiiiillijafc.-.  ■ 


Slisa'*-' 


MAHDERA-MARIAM-KOARATA. 


!•• 


To  the  west 
lorn.  From 
le  sovereign 
lis  point  he 
k^uUcy  of  the 
r  engaged  in 
^ul  cumping- 

mides  during 
h-west  is  the 
«d  sorcerers. 
)f   Protestant 


its,  but  for  the 
18  at  that  time 

;he  Heb,  which 
jt  high.  West 
IB  of  the  Castle 
^  trees,  on  the 
ig  in  the  virgin 
in  this  region. 
Lthem  Gumara. 
ines  have  been 


n  famous  in  the 
)n  two  affluents 


of  the  Oumara  on  un  enormous  basalt  rock,  *'  grouping  its  gardcii-oncirclcd  hounoa 
around  the  clumps  of  juniiwrh  which  mark  the  sites  of  churchos."  Tho  t<»wn  is 
surrounded  on  three  sides  by  chasms,  but  connected  with  the  ncighlH)uring  ])lutruu 
on  the  fourth  by  a  narrow  isthmus  which  might  bo  easily  fortified.  Muhdcra- 
Mariam  is  no  longer  a  royal  residence,  but  itw  two  churches — those  of  the  "  Mother  " 
and  the  "  Son  " — are  still  much  frequented  by  pilgrims,  and  numerous  merchants 
visit  its  fair.     Two  distinct  quarters  were  till  recently  occupied  by  Mussulmans, 

Fig.  61.— Maiiucha-Mahiaii. 

SokU  1  :  20,1)00. 


SB- 

11 
50 

i^ 

* 

^H 

JKL    .;.  '•''■.■-.f.'MBi 

mmwM 

1^ 

l^r? 

^^K^^JR^ 

_^ 

^lI 

^•i-kfi  ^^S 

gj 

I^M? 

m^^ 

fi^UpN^^MI 

sp^'Ik 

^H 

^^R^«-v*^^l 

mmwSl 

w 

ir 
30' 

^^H 

P^iM^ 

^ 

II* 
50 

.   .  of  Graanwich 

■be,' 

58*00'50' 

.6S0  yard*. 


who  differ  from  the  other  Abyssinians  merely  by  their  peaceful  and  business-like 
habits.  The  hot  springs  of  Mahdera-Mariam  are  retailed  by  the  priests,  who  also 
practise  the  medical  art. 

The  most  important  commercial  town  on  the  eastern  bank  of  Lake  Tana  is 
Koarata,  situated  about  six  miles  north-east  of  the  spot  where  the  Aba'i  emerges 
from  the  lacustrine  basin,  and  near  the  mouths  of  the  Gumara  and  Reb.  Were 
Abyssinia  well  provided  with  routes,  this  town  would  form  the  converging  point 
for  the  routes  of  many  river  valleys.  A  rounded  basalt  hill  stands  in  the  middle 
of  the  plain,  its  western  spur  projecting  into  the  lake.    The  town  covers  a  eon- 


106 


NOltTIl-KAHT  AFIIICA. 


Hulpriihlo  oxtont;  tho  dwoUinf^  of  tho  iMittor  cluwwn  uro  nurroundcd  by  tiirf^ 
^urdt'tiH;  the  Htrcots  form  Hhudy  avunucn,  whcnco  uro  |N)rcoiv'o<l  tho  conio  nMifn  of 
tho  houHon  uinidfit  tho  donno  foliago  of  co<Iura,  Hycuiiioroii,  und  fruit  troea.  Konriitii, 
"  tho  pIoiiHuntoHt  town  in  AbysHiniu,"  wu»  till  rw^ontly  tho  moat  populoua.  At  tho 
time  of  D'Abbudio'a  viait  it  numborcd  aomo  12,000  inhubitimta,  which  in  1H(U 
wore  roducod  to  2,000  according  to  Ilutfruy,  und  from  ftOO  to  1,000  according  to 
Stockor,  whilst  in  18H1  uU  tho  MuaMulmana  wore  forcibly  exiled.  Novortholoaa  it 
is  atill  tho  centre  of  a  briak  trade,  and  tho  numoroua  ftinkuuM  hauled  up  on  the 
beach  attest  a  considerable  movement  between  Kouratu  and  the  towns  dotted  round 


Fig.  02.  — KOARATA  AND  HoUTHIHN   HhOKI  OF   LaXI  TaNA. 
ScaU  1  !  8U0,U00. 


I 


11  MOM. 


the  lake.  Eoarata  owes  its  importance  as  a  commercial  depdt  to  a  venerable 
church,  which  was  formerly  a  place  of  sanctuary  respected  even  by  the  sovereign. 
On  the  roads  leading  towards  the  sacred  hill,  large  trees  designate  the  boundaries 
of  safety,  into  which  the  bishop  and  the  emperor  are  the  only  persons  who  dare 
venture  on  horseback.  In  the  vicinity  of  Eoarata  are  the  red  sandstone  quarries 
which  supply  the  stone  used  for  the  palaces  and  churches  of  Gondar.  The  coffee 
of  this  town  is  exquisite,  far  superior  to  that  of  the  hilly  Zigheh  peninsula,  which 
is  visible  on  the  other  side  of  the  lake  about  6  miles  to  the  south-west,  and  which 
is  one  vast  plantation.     The  town  of  Zigheh  was  destroyed  by  Theodore. 


-^-000- 


DEHUA-MAUIAM— ISM  ALA— MOTA— DIMA  -HlMllAUA. 


197 


h1  by  lHr(^ 
nio  riMjfn  of 
Knnriitii, 
UH.  At  tho 
ch  in  IH(J4 
iicoordinf^  to 
vertholuiM  it 
up  on  the 
lotted  round 


140 


F'AS 


0  a  venerable 
the  sovereign, 
the  boundaries 
■sons  who  dare 
Istone  quarries 
,r.  The  cofiFee 
ainsula,  which 
est,  and  which 
lore. 


Dkmka-Mariau — Ihmala. 

At  the  \mnt  whore  tho  lake  narrows  to  chcuimj  throuj^li  the  rapid  (Mirront  of  the 
Abai,  two  t4»wnN  fuco  oarh  othtT — Hiha-Mariam,  or  "  Mt>untuin  of  Mury,"  oii  the 
oiiHt,  Ihhrdnr  to  tho  west.  Sovorul  \  tWa^vn,  neater  an<l  njoro  dounly  than  thowi  of 
tho  interior,  follow  in  Huceossioii  uloiig  tho  <ioutheru  nhoro  of  tho  luku.  The  iNl(>t 
of  Dek,  some  1(]  Mjuare  miles  in  exte/)*.  forma  u  >w  volcunie  rock  covered  with 
tufted  vegetation,  and  skirted  ')y  conio  liills  Here  the  pricHts  of  Kourata  have 
deinmited  their  troasuros ;  henco  I  >  explorers  have  received  penuission  to  visit 
this  island,  whilst  that  of  Dega,  consocraN'd  to  St.  Stephen,  is  holy  soil,  forbidden 
to  all  profune  visitors.  Matrahn,  another  holy  island  in  Lake  Taua,  lies  close  to  the 
north-eastern  shore,  and  viewed  from  between  branches  of  ti-oes  covered  with  tho 
■winging  nests  of  tho  weaver-bird,  presents  a  most  charming  jippearanco.  But  tho 
holiness  of  this  island  did  not  prevent  Theodore  from  shutting  up  all  its  inhabi- 
tants in  a  monastery,  which  he  then  set  on  fire.  To  the  south-oast  of  Lake  Tana,  on 
one  of  its  affluents,  lamala,  tho  capital  of  Aba/tqfer,  is  very  much  frequented  for  its 
hot  springs  and  mineral  waters. 


Moi'A — Dim  A — Bishara. 

Beyond  the  basin  of  Lake  Tana  the  Abyssinian  towns  belonging  to  the  watershed 
of  the  Abai  or  Blue  Nile  are  mostly  situated  on  the  plateau  or  on  the  broad  grassy 
terraces  of  the  extensive  plains  bordering  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  and  afford- 
ing pasturage  for  herds  of  large  cattle  and  horses.  Mota,  one  of  the  most  important 
markets  in  the  "  kingdom  "  of  Gojam,  is  situated  on  an  elevation  at  tho  extremity 
of  the  plateaux  which  bound  the  northern  base  of  the  Talba  Waha  Mountains  ;  its 
regularly  built  houses  are,  like  those  of  Mahdera-Mariam,  surrounded  by  leafy  trees, 
while  a  large  park  with  long  symmetrical  avenues  encircles  the  church.  Below  the 
terraces  of  Mota  are  the  ruins  of  a  bridge,  which  spanned  the  Abai  River  with  nine 
arches,  of  which  the  central  arch,  some  66  feet  broad,  has  been  broken ;  but  the 
merchants  have  stretched  a  rope  over  the  gap  and  manage  to  pass  themselvec  and 
their  commodities  over  this  frail  temporary  substitute.  Farther  south,  the  village 
of  Karaneo  and  a  few  neighbouring  hamlets  are  peopled  with  Francis,  or  Francs, 
that  is  to  say,  the  descendants  of  the  Portuguese  soldiers  who  arrived  in  the  six- 
teenth century  with  Christopher  do  Gama.  Martola-Mariam,  one  of  the  local 
churches,  the  sculptures  of  whose  interior  are  said  by  Beko  to  be  of  exquisite  work- 
manship, is  undoubtedly  of  Portuguese  construction,  although  the  people  invest  it 
with  much  greater  antiquity.  .;' 

Facing  the  eastern  curve  of  the  Abai  follow  in  succession  the  two  religious 
towns  of  Debra-  Werk  and  Dima,  celebratef"  the  former  for  its  seminary,  and  the 
latter  for  the  curious  paintings  in  its  church  of  St.  George.  Debra- Werk,  built  in 
amphitheatral  form  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  possesses  the  highest  and  best-built 
houses  of  any  other  Abyssinian  towns.     Bishara,  some  miles  south  of  Dima,  is  a 


•It 


'W,'|''^.yjji!'',*''^wy.it^<i'Wyw. '  I 


168 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA, 


market-towu  greatly  frequented  by  the  Gallas.  The  surrounding  district  is  the 
richest  and  best  cultivated  in  Gojam,  whilst  its  mixed  Abyssinian  and  Oalla 
population  presents  the  most  remarkable  types  of  female  beauty. 

ASHFA — GUDARA — BaSSO. 

South  of  Mount  Naba,  highest  peak  of  the  Talba  Waha  Mountains,  Dambadsha 
is  much  frequented  by  Mohammedan  caravans,  and  possesses  a  sanctuary  like  that 
of  Dima.  Close  by  to  the  south-east  stands  Monhorer,  the  fortified  residence  of  the 
King  of  Gojam,  whilst  farther  to  the  north-west  are  the  towns  of  Manktua,  Buri, 
and  Oudara,  the  last  mentioned  standing  on  a  volcanic  crag  near  an  intermittent 
lake  and  the  sources  of  the  Abai.  Ash/a,  situated  west  of  Gudara,  in  the  midst  of 
picturesque  valleys,  groves,  and  pasture  lands,  is  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Agaumeder,  which  is  peopled  with  Agau  emigrants  from  Lasta.  These  populations, 
still  half  pagans  although  each  village  has  its  chrrch,  are  the  bravest,  and  the  only 
Abyssinians  who  succeeded  in  evading  the  razzias  ordered  by  the  ruthless  Theodore; 
in  no  other  region  cf  Abyssinia  are  the  people  more  distinguished  for  courage  and 
honesty.  South  of  Gojam,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Liben  Gallas,  are  situated  in  two 
tributary  valleys  of  the  Abai,  close  to  its  southern  bend,  the  two  neighbouring  com- 
mercial towns  of  Yejibbeh  and  Basso,  where  Abyssinians  and  Ilm  Ormas  assemble 
to  barter  the  products  of  their  respective  lauds.  The  merchants  of  Damot  and 
Eaffa  bring  a  little  gold-dust  to  Basso ;  hence  the  country  where  this  precious  metal 
is  found  is  looked  upon  as  a  land  of  marvels  by  its  covetous  neighbours.  Arch- 
bishop Bermudez,  formerly  the  Catholic  Abuna  of  Abyssinia,  tells  us  that  the 
El  Dorado  of  Damot  is  also  in  the  popular  estimation  a  land  of  unicorns  and  griffins, 
where  amazons  contend  with  fabulous  monsters,  and  the  phoenix  springs  again  from 
its  ashes.  At  the  end  of  1883,  a  bridge  was  constructed  by  an  Italian  engineer 
over  the  Abai,  between  Gojam  and  Gudru. 


<    *         Magoala. 

East  of  the  Aba'i,  on  a  promontory  above  the  upper  valley  of  the  Beshilo,  stands 
the  famous  fortress  of  Magdala,  which  was,  like  Debra-Tabor,  one  of  Theodore's 
residences,  where  he  preferred  death  at  his  own  hands  whilst  still  free,  and  defying 
his  English  assailants.  The  amba  of  Magdala,  rising  to  a  height  of  9,100  feet,  or 
3,300  feet  above  the  Beshilo,  resembles  the  rock  of  Mahdera-Mariam,  although 
higher,  more  difficult  of  access,  and  of  a  more  imposing  aspect.  Apparently  insur- 
mountable, the  basalt  cliff  terminates  westwards  in  an  almost  vertical  crescent-shaped 
wall  sloping  north-westwards,  where  it  culminates  in  an  isolated  peak.  The 
portion  of  the  plateau  on  which  the  fortress  is  built  is  connected  with  the  southern 
part,  which  is  occupied  by  the  Gallas  of  the  WoUo  tribe,  merely  by  a  narrow  path, 
all  the  other  approaches  to  Magdala  being  blocked  by  fortifications.  The  upper 
platform,  some  two  square  miles  in  extent,  bears  the  arsenals,  barracks,  prisons, 
magazines  for  corn  and  other  provisions,  and  blockhouses  for  the  king's  women 


'-.lW1M^<!lH.^w.^ll^^l'.l',j^^l|.»■.c!^lJ!iHl|■. 


iiit>in|iniT,i'.'yy?»wi"^.y 


DOBAEIK— LALIBALA. 


169 


district  is  the 
liau  and  Galla 


lins,  Dambadsha 
ctuary  like  that 
residence  of  the 
Mankusa,  Burt, 
an  intermittent 
in  the  midst  of 
the  province  of 
lese  populations, 
sst,  and  the  only 
thless  Theodore; 
for  courage  and 
situated  in  two 
[ghbouring  com- 
Ormas  assemble 
of  Damot  and 
3  precious  metal 
^hbours.     Arch- 
ells  us  that  the 
arns  and  griffins, 
rings  again  from 
Italian  engineer 


and  children  ;  cisterns  and  wells  sunk  in  the  soil  supply  it  with  water,  whilst  the 
fertile  neighbouring  valleys  furnish  provisions  in  abundance.  It  was  at  Magdala 
that  Theodore  kept  for  two  years  the  English  prisoners,  for  whose  rescue  an  Anglo- 
Indian  Army  was  dispatched  in  1868.  The  fortress  of  Magdala,  destroyed  by  the 
English,  and  afterwards  conquered  by  the  King  of  Shoa  from  an  independent  chief, 
and  ceded  by  him  to  his  sovereign,  the  King  of  Abyssinia,  has  since  been  restored, 
on  account  of  its  great  strategic  importance.  It  forms  an  advanced  outpost  in  the 
Galla  country,  which  is  traversed  by  the  shortest  route  to  the  kingdom  of  Shoa. 
At  the  eastern  base  of  the  rocks  of  Magdala,  in  a  gorge  commanded  eastwards  by 

.;   ■*  k,:*-:   .-;■,■>   .,-,•;^■iJ;        Kg.  63.— Maod*la.     .y     ,".,   ;'*,'■ 

Boale  1 :  900,000. 


. 

MJ'^^;2£M 

MltfflKI^K^ 

^MHH^^I 

j^^^^Hn^Hj 

pPKJffl^g 

wgMJHpB^jB^Bff^^^RfJWIHg^^ 

w 

HP^vnSif^^^H^PB 

'\B^SBi^3HiiX^ISS^J*uiSmm 

\r 

OS' 

j^l^^^^ng 

■t  rs  ^t^^bB^^^^HMhhI 

25' 

^^^nPnl^J 

^^Bfcj^fe^jFvI-'Vj^^^^M^^ 

f^^tfl^^T'c^'     .''^^^^^HBIk 

^H^^ 

liHiSfv£u%"t1^B9^^^lai^ll^lB^^R 

BO,' 

_  ^'   ^H^^^^^^^^H^^ 

S^I^S^n 

KS^iriHBlSKliBflHil 

39*15 

E  .  of  Greenwich 

59*a5' 

.  sHnct. 


le  Beshilo,  stands 
le  of  Theodore's 
free,  and  defying 
of  9,100  feet,  or 
liariam,  although 
Apparently  insur- 
il  crescent-shaped 
ited  peak.  The 
nrith  the  southern 
)y  a  narrow  path, 
ons.  The  upper 
barracks,  prisons, 
he  king's  women 


other  basalt   promontories,  stands   the  village  of  Tanta,  or    Tenia,  peopled   by 
merchants  who  supply  the  citadel  with  provisions. 

.  DOBARIK — LaLIBALA. 

The  Abyssinian  towns  standing  on  plateaux  intersected  by  the  gorges  of  the 
Takkazeh  and  its  affluents  are,  like  those  of  the  banks  of  the  Blue  Nile,  mostly  of 
military  or  religious  origin.  Besides,  they  are  few  and  far  between,  and  some  of 
them,  after  enjoying  a  long  period  of  prosperity,  have  been  abandoned  and  now 
contain  more  ruins  than  inhabited  houses.  The  least  populous  region  of  this  slope 
is  that  whose  waters  flow  eastwards  into  the  Takkazeh  between  the  Beghemeder 
and  Simen  uplands.  This  province  of  Belessa  has  been  traversed  by  few  explorers 
on  account  of  the  lack  of  resources  and  the  unhealthiness  of  the  kwalla,  which 
must  be  crossed  amid  the  various  sections  of  the  plateau.  But  in  Simen  the  chief 
towns  of  this  mountainous  province,  Inshatkab  the  capital,  Faros- Saber  and  Dobarik, 
near  the  Lamalmon  Pass,  have  been  frequently  visited,  thanks  to  their  situation  on 


170 


NOETH-BAST  AFRICA. 


the  route  between  Gondar  and  Massawah  by  way  of  Tigr^.  Dobarik  is  the  place 
where  Theodore  caused  two  thousand  persons  to  be  massacred  in  cold  blood  in  revenge 
for  the  death  of  his  two  English  favourites,  Bell  and  Plowden.  North  of  Simen  are 
scattered  ihe  villages  of  the  province  of  "Waldebba,  one  of  the  "  holy  lands "  of 
Abyssinia,  the  personal  property  of  the  echagh^,  and  mainly  peopled  by  monks. 

Lalibala,  east  of  and  not  far  from  the  sources  of  the  Takkazeh,  is  another 
sacred  region.  This  town  stands  on  a  basalt  upland  terrace,  forming  a  spur  of 
Mount  Asheten,  whose  wooded  slopes  rise  to  the  south-west.  Seven  irregularities 
in  the  soil  serve  as  a  pretext  for  its  priests  to  boast  that,  like  Rome  and  Byzan- 
tium, their  city  is  built  on  seven  hills ;  like  Jerusalem,  it  has  its  Mount  of  Olives, 
on  which  stand  trees  with  huge  trunks,  brought  from  the  Holy  Land  many 
centuries  ago.  The  town  and  the  churches  are  surrounded  with  trees  which, 
together  with  the  perpetual  spring  of  this  temperate  region,  combine  to  make  this 
place  a  charming  and  salubrious  residence.  Still  Lalibala  is  very  sparsely  popu- 
lated; its  old  buildings  are  crumbling  away  amidst  ihe  rocks,  while  its  under- 
ground galleries  have  no  longer  any  outlets.  The  inhabitants  consist  almost 
exclusively  of  priests,  monks,  and  their  attendants.  The  churches  of  Lalibala  are 
the  most  remarkable  in  Abyssinia,  each  being  hewn  out  of  a  block  of  basalt,  with 
altars,  sculptures,  and  columns  complete.  Unfortunately  the  rock  has  been 
weathered  in  many  places,  and  of  the  monolith  peristyle  of  one  of  the  finest 
churches  nothing  survives  but  four  columns.  The  buildings  of  Lalibala  evidently 
belong  to  various  periods,  but  it  seems  certain  that  most  of  these  monuments  must 
be  attributed  to  the  king  whose  name  is  preserved  by  the  city,  the  Abyssinian 
"St.  Louis,"  who  reigned  at  the  beg^ning  of  the  thirteenth  century..  The  work- 
men who  carved  out  these  curious  subterranean  churches  are  traditionally  stated 
to  have  been  Christian  refugees  from  Egypt.    >■:  ::    xv-'' 

EOBBU — GURA — SOKOTA.  ;.    .  >     ^     /  v 

East  of  Lalibala,  the  depressions  of  numerous  passes,  running  over  the  Abyssi- 
nian border-chain  into  the  Angpot  and  Zebul  countries,  contain  the  waters  of  the 
picturesque  lakes  Ardibbo,  Haib,  and  Ashango.  In  this  region  of  altei-nate  forests 
and  pasture-lands  are  several  large  villages  wherein  the  sovereigns  of  Abyssinia 
have  often  resided.  A  convent,  formerly  one  of  the  richest  in  Abyssinia,  stands 
on  the  woody  "  Island  of  Thimder  "  in  Lake  Hal'k.  On  the  bank  of  this  lake  is 
the  village  of  Debra-Man'am,  chiefly  occupied  by  the  priests'  wives,  who  are  not 
allowed  to  visit  their  husbands  in  the  monastery.  The  waters  of  the  lake  were 
inhabited  by  a  solitary  hippopotamus  at  the  time  of  Lefebvre's  visit,  respected  by 
the  natives  and  dreaded  by  navigators.  Lower  down,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Ked  Sea,  stand  the  large  markets  of  Kobbo,  Qura,  and  Wa/dia,  frequented  alike  by 
Abyssinians  and  Gallas,  and  described  by  Lefebvre  as  veritable  towns. 

Sokota,  capital  of  the  province  of  Wag,  stands  at  a  height  of  7,600  feet,  north 
of  the  Lasta  Mountains,  on  both  banks  of  the  River  Bilbis,  which  flows  to  the 
Takkazeh  through  the  Tsellari.     Sokota  is  a  commercial  town,  as  till  recently 


":5«ssa^w^ 


ADUA. 


171 


the  place 

iu  revenge 

Simen  are 

lands"  of 

monks. 

is  another 

a  spur  of 

regularities 

nd  Byzan- 

t  of  Olives, 

and  many 

ees  which, 

3  make  this 

rsely  popu- 

its  imder- 

sist  almost 

jalibala  are 

Ntsalt,  with 

L  has  been 

E  the  finest 

a  evidently 

Lments  must 

Abyssinian 

The  work- 

mally  stated 


the  Abyssi- 
raters  of  the 
mate  forests 
>f  Abyssinia 
sinia,  stands 
this  lake  is 
who  are  not 
le  lake  were 
respected  by 
slope  of  the 
ited  alike  by 

0  feet,  north 
flows  to  the 
till  recently 


attested  by  its  Mohammedan  settlers.  The  Agau,  who  form  the  basis  of  the  local 
population,  are  not  sufficiently  enerf^etio  to  trade  or  work  the  coalfields  in  the 
neighbourhood.  The  market  of  So<cota,  which  lasts  three  days  every  week,  is 
mostly  visited  by  the  merchants  and  dealers  in  salt  which  serves  as  the  chief  small 
currency  of  southern  Abyssinia,  whereas  in  northern  Tigre  bales  of  cloth  are 
employed.  The  amoleh,  or  salt  money,  shaped  like  French  whetstones,  is  procured 
from  the  salt  lake  Alalbed.  The  mean  weight  of  each  block  is  a  pound  and  a 
quarter,  and  it  naturally  increases  in  value  as  it  penetrates  farther  into  the 
interior.  Whilst  the  Banakil  quaiTies  of  the  Taltal  tribe  supply  over  a  hundred 
of  these  amoleh  for  a  Maria-Theresa  talari,  they  are  occasionally  sold  on  the 
western  banks  of  Lake  Tana  at  tenpence  a-piece.  When  Sarzec  and  Rafiray 
crossed  this  country  in  1873,  they  were  worth  at  Sokota  about  threepence  half- 
penny ;  but  eight  years  afterwards,  at  the  time  of  Rohlf s'  visit,  their  value  had 
diminished  by  three-fourths.  When  the  means  of  communication  shall  have 
become  more  easy,  they  will  entirely  lose  their  conventional  value  in  the  barter 
trade,  and  will  be  exclusively  used  as  a  condiment.  The  Abyssinian  proverb,  "  He 
eats  salt,"  applied  to  prodigals  and  spendthrifts,  will  then  have  lost  its  point. 
The  packers  are  very  careful  to  protect  the  salt  bricks  from  moisture ;  they  lay 
them  in  parallel  rows  on  copper  plates,  made  like  cartridge  boxes,  which  are 
placed  in  layers  on  the  back  of  a  mule  and  covered  with  an  awning. 

Sokota  has  recently  been  greatly  impoverished ;  devastated  by  epidemic  fevers, 
it  has  lost  three-fourths  of  its  population,  which  from  4,000  to  5,000  in  1868  had 
fallen  to  not  more  than  1,500  at  the  time  of  Bpohlfs'  visit  in  1881.  In  the  vicinity 
of  Sokota  a  monolithic  church,  like  those  of  Lasta,  has  been  hewn  in  the  granite  ; 
its  crypt  contains  the  mimimies  of  several  kings  of  the  country.  The  roads  are 
bordered  with  dolmens  similar  to  those  of  Brittany.  One  of  the  neighbouring 
Agau  tribes  bears  the  name  of  Earn,  or  Ham,  after  whom  D'Abbadie  applies  this 
term  to  the  whole  group  of  "  Hamitio  "  languages,  of  which  the  Ham,  or  Hamtenga, 
is  regarded  as  typicaL 

AOHA. 

From  Sokota  to  the  country  of  the  Bogos  another  caravan  route,  passing  about 
60  miles  to  the  west  of  the  Abyssinian  border-range,  traverses  Ahbi-Addi,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Tembien,  on  the  route  to  Adna,  present  capital  of  the  Tigr^,  and 
next  to  Gondar  and  Basso,  the  largest  market  in  all  Abyssinia.  This  town  stands 
nearly  in  the  middle  of  the  region  of  plateaux  separating  the  two  large  curves 
described  by  the  Takkazeh  and  the  Upper  Mareb.  The  River  Assam,  a  tributary 
of  tho  Takkazeh,  winding  through  the  naked  but  fertile  plain  of  Adua,  flows 
southwards,  whilst  to  the  north  of  the  hill  on  whose  side  the  town  is  built  (6,500 
feet),  stands  the  isolated  and  precipitous  Mount  Shelota,  or  Sholoda,  9,000  feet 
high.  Eastwards,  overtopping  the  other  summits,  stands  the  lofty  Semayata, 
10,300  feet  high.  Adua,  with  its  steep  winding  streets  lined  with  small  stone 
houses  thatched  with  straw  and  encircled  by  slate  terraces,  scarcely  presents  the 


'Hly 


1^ 


'*1ik^?1^ 


172 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA, 


appearance  of  a  capital.  Small  churches  surrounded  by  thickets  stand  here  and 
there,  and  on  the  top  of  a  hill  a  cathedral,  a  huge  building  with  a  conic  roof  like 
most  of  the  civil  residences,  has  been  recently  built  by  an  Italian  architect.  In 
the  gardens  flourish  numerous  exotic  plants  imported  from  Egypt  and  Syria. 
Not  far  from  Adua  are  the  ruins  of  Fremona,  the  seminary  of  the  Jesuits  driven 
out  of  Abyssinia  in  the  seventeenth  century.  These  ruins  are  avoided  by  the 
peasantry,  who  believe  them  to  be  the  abode  of  evil  spirits.  Near  the  town  Prince 
Eassai  gained  the  decisive  battle  which  made  him  the  present  Emperor  of 
Abyssinia.  ■    ■;  ^ 


Aksum.  * 

Adua  is  heir  to  a  city  which  was  the  seat  of  an  Abyssinian  empire  at  one 
time  stretching  from  tho  bunks  of  the  Nile  to  Cape  Guardafui.     Aksum,  although 

Fig.  64. — Aoi'A  AMD  Aksvu.     f.  .■..,.,.-,    ,■'.  ;   , 

8oBlel:a70,«00. 


38M5- 


c    .  of  preenwich 


38*55 


^AMOea. 


fallen  from  its  former  state,  is  still  regarded  as  holy ;  it  is  the  city  where  the 
coronation  of  the  emperor  takes  place,  and  fugitives  here  find  a  sanctuary  more 
respected  than  most  of  the  convents.  Its  monasteries  are  inhabited  by  eight  hun- 
dred priests,  and  by  hundreds  of  youths  who  are  being  educated  for  the  same 
profession.  Aksum,  the  Aksemeh  of  the  Abyssinians,  lies  some  12  miles  from 
Adua  on  a  romantic  site  1,000  feet  more  elevated  above  the  sea.  Here  its  groups 
of  houses  and  churches,  each  surrounded  by  g^ves  and  gardens  which  clothe  the 
slope  of  the  hill  with  verdure,  are  enframed  on  one  side  by  dark  basalt  walls, 
forming  a  striking  background  to  this  charming  picture.  According  to  tradition, 
Aksum  was  founded  by  Abraham ;  a  dignitary  of  the  church,  hardly  inferior  in  rank 
to  the  echagh^  or  to  the  abuna,  here  claims  to  be  the  guardian  of  the  "  tables  of 


wwMWMiMMiiMUiMi 


wmmmmmm 


>iillMiliiiitKM.u  kum  mi'^AS^ 


here  and 
J  roof  like 
jitect.  In 
md  Syria, 
aits  driven 
ed  by  the 
iwn  Prince 
lUiperor  of 


)ire  at  one 
n,  although 


gl 


:3i 


14' 
10' 


14' 


5, 


y  where  the 
actuary  more 
)y  eight  hun- 
ter the  same 
2  miles  from 
ere  its  groups 
ich  clothe  the 
basalt  walls, 
p  to  tradition, 
ierior  in  rank 
he  "  tables  of 


■A 


1 1 


AK8UM. 


178 


the  law,"  and  of  the  holy  ark  of  the  Jews  brought  back  from  Jerusalem  by 
Menelik,  son  of  Solomon  and  the  Queen  of  Sheba.  But  Aksum  possesses  some 
genuine  antiquities,  which  the  inhabitants  watch  over  with  jealous  care.  A 
column  bears  a  Greek  inscription,  now  almost  illegible,  which  commemorates  the 
victims  of  a  certain  King  Aeizanas,  "  son  of  the  invincible  Ar^s."  Is  this 
Aeizanas  identical  with  La  San,  the  Christian  king  who  lived  in  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  century  of  the  vulgar  era,  or  did  he  belong  to  the  earlier  pagan  dynasty,  as 
might  be  supposed  from  his  claim  to  the  title  of  the  son  of  Mars  P    Howsoever  this 

Fig.  Ho. — Akhvm. 
Soale  1 :  90,000. 


>  1,100  Taida. 


be,  this  precious  inscription,  reproduced  for  the  first  time  by  the  explorer  Salt,  is  a 
proof  of  the  ancient  relations  existing  between  Abyssinia  .and  the  Greek  world. 
Another  column,  discovered  by  Ferret  and  Galinier,  is  engraven  with  Himyaritic 
characters,  also  nearly  effaced  by  time.  According  to  D'Abbadie's  reading  it  per- 
petuates the  memory  of  the  valiant  "  Halen,  king  of  Aksimi  and  of  Hamer,"  that 
is  to  say,  of  the  country  of  the  Himyarites.  South-western  Arabia  and  Ethiopia 
formerly  constituted  one  empire.  On  the  plateau  of  Aksum,  near  an  enormous 
sycamore  whose  trunk  is  50  feet  in  circumference,  stacds  another  curious  monument, 
which  has  been  appealed  to  in  proof  of  an  ancient  Egyptian  culture  in  Abyssinia. 


I 


11 


174 


NOKTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


It  is  a  monolithic  obelisk  some  83  feet  high,  but  of  a  style  entirely  different  from 
that  of  the  Egyptian  obelinks.  Its  ornamentation  consists  of  a  nine-storied  tower 
pierced  with  windows  and  surmounted  with  a  small  pyramid  with  fluted  base,  curved 
and  spherical  sides.  About  fifty  other  obelisks  are  scattered  over  the  neighbouring 
space,  some  fallen  down,  others  leaning  against  the  trunks  of  the  trees,  with  nncient 
altars  still  standing  amidst  these  ruins.  Not  far  off  unfinished  carvings  are  still  to 
be  seen  in  the  trachytic  quarry  whence  the  workmen  obtained  the  materials  for 
these  obelisks.  Amongst  its  other  buildings  Aksum  also  possesses,  in  the  enclosure 
of  its  gedem  or  sanctuary,  a  Portuguese  church  flanked  by  an  embattled  tower.  An 
aqueduct  is  cut  in  the  rook,  and  close  to  the  town  the  side  of  a  mountain  is  under- 
mined by  catacombs  which  are  said  to  be  the  tombs  of  the  kings,  and  the  place 
where  "  the  great  serpent,  the  ancient  King  of  Abyssinia,  is  concealed." 

Antalo — Senafeh.      /'  ■ 

Antalo,  the  former  capital  of  Tigr^,  is  situated  at  a  height  of  some  8,000  feet, 
on  an  amba  surrounded  by  deep  gorges,  where  rise  the  affluents  of  the  Takkazeh. 
A  higher  plateau,  crowned  by  the  natural  fortress  of  the  Aradom  amba,  rises  to  the 
west,  whilst  to  the  south  and  east  stretches  the  vast  fertile  plain  on  which  the 
English  established  their  head-quatters  during  the  expedition  of  1868.  Antalo  has 
since  been  abandoned,  and  its  quarters,  ^parated  from  each  other  by  deep  ravines, 
are  nearly  all  in  ruins  ;  its  inhabitants  have  mig^ted  to  Chalikui,  about  6  miles  to 
the  north-east,  one  of  the  most  charming  towns  in  Abyssinia,  its  houses  and 
churches  surrounded  by  gardens  and  thick  masses  of  trees.  • 

Situated  on  the  border-chain  of  eastern  Abyssinia,  at  the  very  fringe  of  the 
terrace-lands  sloping  to  the  plain  of  the  Danakils,  Antalo  and  Chalikut  are  of  some 
importance  as  depots  for  the  salt  merchants  passing  from  the  country  of  the  Taltals 
to  Sokota.  Between  this  latter  town  and  Chalikut  the  chief  marts  are  Samreh, 
situated  near  the  former  lacustrine  plain  of  Samra;  then  the  lowland  towns  of 
Atahi,  or  Absebidera,  and  Fisho.  The  new  town  of  Makaleh  has  been  built  by  the 
present  negus  on  the  very  crest  of  the  Abyssinian  chain,  and  like  Debra-Tabor, 
Adua,  and  Magdala,  occasion'ally  serves  as  a  temporary  capital  of  the  kingdom. 
Here  an  Italian  engineer  has  erected  a  palace  in  the  "  European  "  style  of  architec- 
ture. From  this  commanding  site  King  Johannes  overlooks  a  large  portion  of  the 
still  unreduced  Danakil  territory.  He  has  even  made  some  conquests  in  these  low- 
lands, and  on  one  of  the  four  terraces,  which  fall  in  a  series  of  gigantic  steppes 
down  to  the  plain,  he  has  foimded  the  market  of  Srket,  much  frequented  by  dealers 
in  salt. 

North  of  Antalo  and  Chalikut,  and  parallel  to  the  border  chain  of  Abyssinia, 
several  other  commercial  towns  follow  at  long  intervals  on  the  main  road  which 
connects  the  uplands  with  the  forts  of  Zulla  and  Massawah.  Some  of  these  miser- 
able collections  of  huts  have  acquired  a  certain  importance  in  the  history  of  Abys- 
sinian exploration  as  the  camping-grounds  and  places  of  observation  of  European 
travellers.     One  of  the  most  populous  of  these  villages  is  Hatmen,  situated  on  a 


"'T.^Simi^S'^^^ti^ma.M^iW.'aii^ 


ANTALO  -SENAPPUl. 


175 


rent  from 
ried  tower 
ise,  curved 
ghbouring 
th  jincient 
are  still  to 
terials  for 
3  enclosure 
tower.  An 
is  under- 
the  place 


8,000  feet, 

Takkazeh. 

rises  to  the 

which  the 

Antalo  has 

ep  ravines, 

6  miles  to 

louses    and 

nge  of  the 
are  of  some 
the  Taltals 
re  Samreh, 
d  towns  of 
(uilt  by  the 
ebra-Tabor, 
B  kingdom, 
of  architec- 
rtion  of  the 
I  these  low- 
itic  steppes 
1  by  dealers 


mia, 
road  which 
ihese  miser- 
•y  of  Abys- 
f  European 
uatod  on  a 


plateau  intersected  by  deep  ravines.  Farther  on  comes  Addigrai  {^AcUC  Igrnt)  or 
Attegm,  Htanding  in  a  fertile  valley  about  8,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and 
commanded  we^t  and  south-west  by  heights  rising  to  a  still  farther  elevation  of 
over  3,000  feet.  To  the  west,  on  a  sandstone  amba  whose  terminal  escarpment, 
some  100  feet  high,  can  be  scaled  only  by  means  of  ropes,  lies  the  monastery  of 
Debra-Damo,    one    of    the  most 


Fig. 


66.— KvMAiLi  Vali.it. 

BobI*  1 :  aBO,000. 


celebrated  in  Abyssinia,  Here 
uU  the  surrounding  populations 
come  to  deposit  their  wealth  on 
the  least  indication  of  war.  The 
summit  of  this  rock,  covered  with 
a  vegetable  soil  and  provided 
with  one  hundred  and  fifty  peren- 
nial wells,  although  carefully  cul- 
tivated, yields  but  an  insufiBcient 
crop,  BO  that  the  monks  have  to 
trust  to  the  generosity  of  the 
faithful  on  the  plains.  Formerly 
'he  younger  members  of  the 
reigning  house  were  banished  to 
this  amba. 

Senqfeh,  a  town  situated  still 
farther  north,  occupies  a  sheltered 
position  at  the  foot  of  precipitous 
rocks.  As  the  first  mountain  sta- 
tion on  the  route  followed  by  the 
English  army  to  rescue  the  pri- 
soners in  the  hands  of  Theodore, 
the  camp  of  Senafeh,  during  the 
campaign  of  1868,  was  one  of 
the  greatest  strategic  importance. 
When  the  English  carriage  road, 
from  Adulis  Bay  to  Senafeh 
through  the  gorges  of  Kumaili 
is  repaired,  this  village  will  pro- 
bably become  a  flourishing  city.  To 
the  west  Haldi,  or  the  "  ascent," 
which  was  till  recently  entirely 
Catholic,  and  Digm  [Digsan)  are 

the  first  upland  towns  on  either  branch  of  the  river  Hadas,  and  have  also  gained  a 
place  in  the  history  of  Abyssinian  exploration. 

The  capital  of  Tigr^  is  connected  with  the  Bed  Sea  coast  by  two  routes.  The 
shortest  runs  north-east  towards  Senafeh ;  the  other  takes  a  northern  direction, 
crossing  the  Mareb  at  an  elevation  of  about  4,000  feet,  and  thence  ascending  the 


5Q*SC' 


E   .  of  Greenwich 


S9'40- 


Depthi. 


OtoSSXtet.      SSU>64Feet, 


(MFMtaad 
upmudi. 
ISMilM. 


^'^^^^^m' 


''mm 


176 


NOfiTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


valley  of  this  river  along  the  heights  of  the  western  slope.  North  of  the  point 
whore  the  river  is  croHscd  the  oHcurpmonts  of  the  plhtcuu  un;  broken  into  buHult 
headlands,  columns,  utid  peaks  of  fantastic  shape.  On  these  detached  crags  are 
tlie  scattered  villages  belonging  to  Qundot,  a  district  famous  in  African  history. 
Hero  began  the  series  of  military  disasters  which,  combined  with  financial  loans 
and  extortions,  crushed  the  power  of  Egypt,  making  the  country  the  sport  of 
bankers  and  European  diplomatists.  At  this  period  ( 1875)  the  Khedive  of  Cairo 
was  one  of  the  great  potentates  of  the  world  so  far  as  regarded  the  extent  of  his 
dominions.  His  captains  hod  penetrated  up  the  Nile  as  far  as  Lake  Albert 
Nyanza  and  the  watershed  of  the  Congo.  Egyptian  garrisons  had  been  stationed 
at  the  ports  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  even  farther  south  had  gained  a 
firm  footing  in  the  Harrar  district  and  Soraaliland.  The  invaders  had  already 
enclosed  Abyssinia  on  the  south,  and  thought  the  time  had  come  to  take  possession 
of  the  plateau ;  but  they  were  utterly  routed  at  the  battle  of  Qudda-Quddi,  or 
Oundef.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  invading  army  perished,  together  with  itd  two 
leaders,  Arakel  Bey  and  the  Dane  Arendrup.  The  invasion,  which  was  to  have 
once  for  all  reduced  Abyssinia,  restored  its  political  unity  from  Hamassen  to  Shoa, 
and  revived  Christianity  throughout  the  whole  of  this  upland  region,  which  seemed 
already  a  prey  to  Islam.  In  1876  a  second  army,  commanded  by  Hassan,  son  of 
the  Khedive,  again  scaled  the  Hamassen  plateau  and  occupied  the  strong  strategic 
position  of  Gura,  east  of  the  Upper  Mareb.  But  the  lower  part  of  their  camp 
being  surrounded  by  enemies,  the  Egyptian  troops  were  almost  entirely  exter- 
minated. They  left  their  cannons  and  small-arms  on  the  battlefield,  and  Prince 
Hassan  only  succeeded  in  obtaining  his  liberty  by  paying  a  heavy  ransom.  Ac- 
cording to  a  report,  which  appears  however  to  have  been  groundless,  circulated 
immediately  after  the  battle,  Hassan  and  all  the  other  prisoners  were  tattooed  on 
the  arm  with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  a  symbol  of  victory  over  the  cresoont. 


•  Debaroa — Kasen — Arkilo.  "      :  '■ 

&' .  "vt&'  -''*v- 

The  most  populous  and  commercial  town  on  the  route  from  Adua  to  Massawah, 
by  way  of  the  western  slope  of  the  Upper  Mareb,  is  Kodo  Felassi  (^Oodo  Fe/as»ieh), 
capital  of  the  province  of  Seraweh.  As  a  trading  station  it  has  replaced  the  town 
of  Deharoa,  farther  to  the  north,  which,  although  now  of  little  importance,  was 
formerly  the  residence  of  the  Bahr-Nagash,  or  "  Sea  Kings,"  as  the  governors  of 
the  maritime  provinces  were  called.  Unlike  the  round  houses  of  Central  Abys- 
sinia, with  their  stone  walls  and  thatched  roofs,  those  of  Debaroa  are  partly 
subterranean,  resembling  the  dwellings  in  many  districts  of  Caucasia  and  Kurdis- 
tan. The  slope  of  the  mountain  is  cut  into  steps,  and  the  rectangular  space  thus 
obtained  is  transformed  into  ».  house  by  means  of  a  clay  roof,  which  at  the  back 
rests  on  the  ground,  and  in  front  is  supported  by  pillars ;  the  smoke  escapes  by 
means  of  an  aperture  made  in  the  roof,  which  is  closed  in  rainy  weather,  excluding 
light  and  air^  and  converting  the  dwelling  into  a  loathsome  cavern.  The  houses 
of  all  the  Hamassen  villagpes  are  constructed  in  this  fashion. 


tuautmii 


mam 


•^mmmfm'mm 


DEBAROA— KA8EN. 


177 


f  the  point 

into  bamilt 

(1  crags  aro 

can  history. 

inciiil  loans 

he  sport  of 

ive  of  Cairo 

fctent  of  his 

jake  Albert 

len  stationed 

lad  gained  a 

had  already 

e  possession 

da-Ouildi,  or 

nrith  itd  two 

was  to  have 

jsen  to  Shoa, 

rhich  seemed 

kssan,  son  of 

>ng  strategic 

:  their  camp 

tirely  exter- 

,  and  Prince 

ansom.     Ao- 

188,  circulated 

)  tattooed  on 

to  Massawah, 
do  Felassieh), 
teed  the  town 
)ortance,  was 
governors  of 
/entral  Abys- 
la  are  partly 
,  and  Eurdis- 
ar  space  thus 
1  at  the  back 
:e  escapes  by 
er,  excluding 
The  houses 


The  camp  of  the  ras,  or  chief,  who  governs  the  province  of  TigTi ,  aituftt  i  at 
Atmgn  (0,460  feet),  at  the  junction  of  the  routes  ascending  from  le  0(>  ..st  ut 
Massawah,  and  from  the  countries  of  the  Bog^s  and  Mcnsas.  A  8hort  iMtunoe  to 
the  east  stands  the  town  of  Aumara,  present  residence  of  a  shuin,  <  hief,  who 
claims  the  title  of  "  King  of  llie  Sea."  Asmara  lies  on  the  extreme  edge  of  the 
Abyssinian  plateau,  at  the  point  where  the  route  entering  on  the  Red  Sea  water- 
shed  winds  down  to  the  plain. 

Like  Asmara,  a  few  other  hamlets  serve  as  intermediary  stations  for  the  caravans 
on  their  arrival  at  the  crest  of  the  Tigr^  plateau.  Kaaen,  standing  on  the  last  spur 
of  the  Hamossen  uplands  north-west  of  Asmara,  also  commands  one  of  the  routes 
leading  to  Massawah.  This  post  is  occasionally  dimly  visible  at  a  distance  of  45 
miles  in  a  straight  line  between  the  haze  of  the  horizon  and  the  marine  vapours. 

Vig.  67.— Booos  TcBBiTouT. 
8«ai«  1  ■  iino,ixin. 


38'CC' 


E    ■  of  Greegwich 


38M0- 


•  9MUn. 


From  Easen  another  caravan  route  runs  north-west  to  the  Senhit  uplands,  and  to 
Keren,  capital  of  the  Bogos  territory.  This  place,  surrounded  by  olive-groves, 
already  lies  in  the  kwalla  zone  at  a  height  of  4,800  feet  above  the  sea.  A  fortress 
named  Senhit,  like  the  country  itself,  has  been  built  by  the  Egyptians  at  the  side 
of  the  town ;  but  in  virtue  of  the  treaty  concluded  with  the  English  it  is  to  be 
evacuated  and  surrendered  to  the  King  of  Abyssinia.  Keren  was  the  centre  of  the 
Catholic  missions  in  northern  Abyssinia,  and  its  large  seminary  supplied  numerous 
native  priests  for  the  churches  scattered  throughout  the  provinces  of  the  empire. 
Nearly  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  Bogos  and  Mensa  territories  have  abandoned 
their  Mahommedan  practices  to  re-embrace  the  Christian  religion  as  taught  in  its 
new  form  by  the  Lazarist  missionaries. 

The  route  descending  from  Asmara  to  the  Red  Sea,  encircles  on  the  north  a 
group  of  projecting  uplands,  on  one  of  which  stands  the  famous  monastery  of  Bijan 

12— AF. 


178 


N0UT11-KA8T  AFBIOA. 


or  Piaan,  founded  in  tho  fourtwnth  contury,  und  often  mentioned  by  Portufpi*"© 
authorH  under  tho  name  of  tho  convent  of  tho  "  ViHion."  It  takes  this  nuuie  from 
a  gilded  cloud  miid  to  huvo  l)oon  nocn  hovering  in  mid  uir  by  tho  truvoUor  I'oncot 
And  other  pilgriniH  in  the  year  1700.  Nourly  a  thouwiud  monk*  live  in  tho  convent 
and  the  adjacent  buihlingH. 

At  the  foot  of  tho  mountainn,  but  Roparuted  from  tho  littoral  plain  by  a  chain 
of  hillfl,  atanda  tho  village  of  Ai/rf,  in  a  lonely  valley  which  would  amply  repay 
cultivation.  In  the  ncighbourhmMl,  three  miles  further  south,  are  hot  springs 
(L')8°  F.)  sufHciently  copious  to  form  a  stream;  the  surrounding  ground  within 
a  radius  of  155  feet  from  the  oriiico  is  too  hot  to  permit  of  its  being  traversed 
barefooted.  When  descending  the  plateau  the  Abyssiniuns  are  accustomed  to 
plunge  into  the  source  of  the  river  Allot,  and  even  occasionally  to  wash  their  sheep 
in  it.  A  poisonous  beetle  lives  in  a  part  of  the  hot  spring  where  tho  temperature 
cools  down  to  118°  F.  Northwards  in  the  Samhar  district  aro  many  ancient  ruins, 
chiefly  tombs,  some  of  which  resemble  the  megalithio  monuments  of  Franco.  An 
ancient  town,  now  abandoned,  at  one  timo  covered  a  space  of  several  miles  in  oir- 
cumferenoe.  • 


Massawah. 

On  the  plain  a  few  stations  follow  along  the  route  to  the  coast  at  Massawah. 
Such  are  Saati,  or  the  "  Fens,"  ao-called  from  the  pools  of  water  which  are  usually 
found  in  the  beds  of  the  dried-up  watercourses  during  the  dry  season ;  M'Kulu, 
which  the  Europeans  of  Massawah  have  chosen  as  their  health-resort,  and  have 
surrounded  with  groves  of  tamarinds  and  other  trees  ;  Hotumlu,  headquarters  of  the 
Swedish  missionaries  and  their  schools.  To  the  south,  nestled  amidst  mimosa-trees, 
is  the  town  of  Arkilo,  a  kind  of  capital,  where  resides  the  naib,  a  descendant  of  a 
dynasty  of  chiefs  who,  since  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  have  negotiated  all 
commeroial  transactions  between  Abyssinia  and  Massawah.  The  inhabitants  of  this 
territory  owe  a  double  allegiance  to  the  traders  of  the  neighbouring  seaport  and  to 
the  Abyssinians  of  the  plateau,  whose  claim  to  the  ownership  of  the  lowlands  has 
been  maintained  from  age  to  age,  and  annually  renewed  by  raising  winter  crops  in 
the  district.  The  Turks,  having  conquered  the  uplands  and  the  coast  in  1557, 
attempted  at  first  to  govern  tho  coast  populations  directly ;  but  finding  themselves 
powerless  against  nomads  ever  on  the  move,  they  surrendered  their  authority  to  the 
chief  of  the  Belaus,  a  branch  of  the  Hababs  who  roamed  over  the  neighbouring 
plains.  Even  the  garrison  of  Massawah,  mainly  composed  of  Bosniaks,  was  gradually 
absorbed  with  the  Hababs  by  marriage.  Made  naib,  or  "  lieutenant,"  of  the  viceroys 
of  Hejaz,  the  chief  of  the  Belau  received  a  regular  subsidy  from  the  Turkish 
Government  conditionally  on  his  protecting  the  Turkish  oi*  Abyssinian  caravans 
against  the  attacks  of  the  neighbouring  tribes,  remitting  to  the  suzerain  a  portion 
of  the  taxes  paid  by  the  merchants,  and  supplying  the  island  with  the  necessary 
water.  Frequent  quarrels  arose  between  the  na'ib  and  the  Massawah  islanders ; 
the  aqueducts  were  often  cut,  and  the  naib  himself,  driven  from  Arkilo,  was  often 


"--■aaaBBaaaaasMSsMt^  - 


•mmm/^mmum 


MASHAWAII. 


170 


r  PortugiiOM) 
M  nuinu  fn>m 
^t'Uor  Poncot 
L  the  convent 

n  by  a  chain 
amply  repay 

hot  springs 
round  within 
ng  traversecl 
ccufltomed  to 
h  their  sheep 
)  temperature 
uncient  ruins, 
France.     An 

miles  in  cir- 


at  Massawah. 
ch  are  usually 
son;  M'Kulu, 
ort,  and  have 
quarters  of  the 
I  mimosa-trees, 
escendant  of  a 
negotiated  all 
abitantsof  this 
seaport  and  to 
le  lowlands  has 
gvinter  crops  in 
coast  in  1557, 
ing  themselves 
.uthority  to  the 
)  neighbouring 
1,  was  gradually 
'  of  the  viceroys 
m  the  Turkish 
sinian  caravans 
lerain  a  portion 
I  the  necessary 
iwah  islanders; 
rkilo,  was  often 


obligorl  to  take  refuge  in  the  interior.  It  also  happ««n«<l  thot  th«  AbvMinian 
Hovoroigns,  in  whoso  intorosts  it  is  cssontiul  thut  the  port  <»f  MunHntcah  should 
remain  o[K>n  to  the  outor  world,  huvo  wastoil  the  country  to  rotuliiite  on  the  Nluve- 
dealers  and  corsuirs.  By  virtue  of  recent  treaties,  tho  upprourh  to  MiwMiiwuh,  now 
an  Italian  port,  although  the  Egyptian  flag  still  flies  on  tho  woUs,  is  to  bo  mudo 

Fig.  48. — Mamawah. 

B«U  1  ;  100,000.  > 


1  - 


5e'85 


L    .  o1    GrttowicK 


•59'B7- 


Daptha. 


0  ton  Feat. 


ntoSOVeet         SOTeetmidupwai^i. 
,  »i  MilM. 


completely  free  to  the  trade  of  Abyssinia.  This  port  of  the  Red  Sea  is  therefore,  it 
not  politically  at  least  commercially,  more  than  ever  a  natural  dependency  of 
Abyssinia,  and  its  importance,  already  considerable,  cannot  fail  to  increase  rapidly 
if  peace  is  maintained  on  the  plateaux.  Detached  forts  command  the  approaches 
of  the  town  and  mark  the  limits  of  an  intrenched  camp  in  which  the  Egyptian 
governor  formerly  maintained  a  corps  of  3,000  troops. 


I 


m 


i^-jjape- 


\''jiy>'i>^>ii^'';yi'jiyj^^  '■-■  ••"■•  '  -•■■v- 


180 


NORTH-EAST  AFBICA. 


The  town  of  Massawah,  the  Arahian  Medsawa,  or  Muasawah,  and  the  Abyssinian 
Mutogna,  occupies  a  coral  islet  about  3,300  feet  long  from  east  to  west,  but  scarcely 
more  than  1,000  feet  broad  from  north  to  south.  Stone  houses  of  Arab  con- 
struction, and  branch  huts,  are  crowded  together  on  this  rock,  which  is  connected 
by  a  dyke  with  the  still  smaller  island  of  Taulud.  Taulud  itself  is  attached  to  the 
mainland  by  means  of  a  pier  about  5,000  feet  long,  over  which  is  carried  the  pipe 
by  which  the  cisterns  of  Massawah  are  supplied  with  water  from  M'Eulu.  But 
both  aqueduct  and  pier,  like  the  barracks,  fortifications,  and  other  buildings 
built  some  twenty  years  ago  under  the  direction  of  Munzinger  Pacha,  are  in  a  very 
dilapidated  condition.  As  in  their  own  country,  the  Egyptians  understand  the  art 
of  constructing,  but  neglect  the  duty  of  repairing,  their  public  buildings.  The 
Abyssinian  trade  with  the  Greek,  Banian,  and  other  foreign  merchants  settled  at 
Massawah  is  conducted  by  means  of  caravans.  These  caravans,  laden  chiefly  with 
the  valuable  products  of  the  Galla  country — cojEEee,  gold,  and  white  wax — set  out  at 
the  end  of  winter,  so  as  to  cross  the  Takkazeh  before  the  floods.  They  take  two  or 
three  months  to  accomplish  the  journey,  and  return  at  the  end  of  the  autumn, 
resuming  their  annual  journey  the  following  spring.  In  1861  the  value  of  the 
Abyssinian  exchanges,  including  slaves,  through  the  port  of  Massawah,  was 
estimated  at  £40,000,  and  twenty  years  thereafter,  in  1881,  they  had  risen  to 
£280,000.  The  chief  exports  are  skins  and  butter  for  Arabia,  and  mother-o'-pearl ; 
that  of  ivory  has  greatly  fallen  ofi.  Mtiles  of  Abyssinian  stock  are  also  exported 
to  the  plantations  of  Mayotte  and  the  Mascarenhas  Islands.  Early  in  the  year  1885 
Massawah  and  the  surrounding  district  was  occupied  by  the  Italians,  with  the 
consent  of  the  English  and  Egyptian  Governments.     ,;,      ^  .  ..  .; 

I  -       -        ,       The  Dahlak  Islands. 

The  large  coraline  islands  of  Dahlak  east  of  the  Gulf  of  Massawah,  the  chief 
of  which  are  Dahlak  and  Nora,  have  lost  nearly  all  the  commercial  importance 
they  enjoyed  before  the  Turkish  ride.  At  that  time  they  were  inhabited  by  a 
Christian  population  of  Abyssinian  origin,  whose  chapels  are  still  to  be  seen,  and 
whose  dialect,  although  in  a  corrupt  form,  is  still  current  in'  the  archipelago.  At 
present  the  people,  all  Mohammedans,  number  1,500,  whose  only  resource  is  the 
milk  and  flesh  of  their  goats,  and  the  products  of  their  fisheries.  The  Persian  and 
Indian  traders  make  yearly  voyages  to  these  islands  to  purchase  the  pearl  oysters 
from  the  fisheries  of  the  surrounding  bays ;  the  dep6t  stands  on  the  eastern  shore 
of  the  larger  island,  at  the  village  of  Domolo.  Like  the  pearl-divers  of  Bahrein, 
those  of  Dahlak  never  commence  operations  till  after  the  rains,  as  they  say  that 
the  pearly  secretion  is  formed  by  the  mixing  of  the  fresh  with  the  salt  water. 
The  natives  also  fish  for  the  turtle,  but  neglect  the  sponges  with  which  the  bed  of 
the  sea  is  here  thickly  covered.  The  people  of  Dahlak  and  the  surroimding 
archipelago  possess  large  herds  of  camels,  asses,  and  goats,  which  they  allow  to 
roam  in  a  wild  state  over  the  island,  or  else  confine  to  desert  islands.  On  one  of 
these  islets  are  even  found  a  few  cows. 


id  the  Abyssinian 
Brest,  but  scarcely 
es  of  Arab  con- 
hich  is  connected 
s  attached  to  the 

carried  the  pipe 
M'Kulu.     But 

other  buildings 
cha,  are  in  a  very 
nderstand  the  art 

buildings.  The 
rchants  settled  at 
aden  chiefly  with 
B  wax — set  out  at 
They  take  two  or 
1  of  the  autumn, 

the  value  of  the 

Massawah,  was 

hey  had  risen  to 

[  mother-o'-pearl ; 

are  also  exported 
Y  in  the  year  1886 
[talians,  with  the 


assawah,  the  chief 
leroial  importance 
re  inhabited  by  a 
ill  to  be  seen,  and 
archipelago. ,  At 
ly  resource  is  the 

The  Persian  and 
I  the  pearl  oysters 
the  eastern  shore 
divers  of  Bahrein, 
i,  as  they  say  that 
h  the  salt  water. 
1  which  the  bed  of 

the  surrounding 
ich  they  allow  to 
Ands.      On  one  of 


mi»mmf>     i. j.»iv 


-ms" 


—V—.   iK-i.i.lKplWWWilglWff 


,i^iniiiiiu»jjiiuji^  ^miiJLiiHh^tu^  J^it(l^J^^|lJ^^rt^j|p|^<li|lig^  mw'"  " 


II 


X. 


iMR 


<,MmmmmmK,mmiJm'm:mm»m  4$JlMSIIL9tKU&llltMaim^ 


ADULIS— ZULLA  -HANFlLA. 


IBl 


Adulis — Zvi.hA. — Hanvila.     

The  long  and  narrow  bay  stretching  from  the  north  southwards  some  30  miles 
inland,  which  the  Disseh  islanders  call  the  "  GuK  of  Velvet "  possibly  on  account 
of  the  calmness  of  its  well- sheltered  waters,  is  much  nearer  to  the  upland  Abys- 
sinian plateaux  than  Massawah,  and  the  commercial  exchanges  have  often  taken 
this  direction.  This  inlet  of  the  seaboard,  the  Annesley  Bay  of  the  English,  is 
more  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Adulis  Bay,  as  it  was  called  some  two 
thousand  years  ago,  when  the  fleets  ,of  the  successors  of  Alexander  rode  at  anchor 
in  its  waters.  A  Greek  inscription,  copied  in  the  sixteenth  century  by  the 
Egyptian  monk  Cosmas  Indicopleustes,  celebrates  the  great  king  Ptolemy,  son  of 
Ptolemy  and  "  Arsinoe."  A  second,  which  relates  the  glorious  expeditions  of  the 
Abyssinian  king  "  Eb  Aguda,"  is  of  the  highest  geographical  importance,  as  it 
contains  a  series  of  twenty-three  Abyssinian  names,  the  first  elements  of  the 
comparative  geography  of  the  country.  Mariette  has  proved,  by  identif3ring  many 
of  the  names  engraved  on  the  gates  of  Kamac  with  those  of  the  Adulis  inscription, 
that  Egypt  had  certainly  established  relations  with  Abyssinia  as  far  back  as  the 
time  of  Thotmes  III.,  in  the  eighteenth  century  of  the  old  era.  A  few  capitals  cut 
in  the  lava,  and  marbles  sculptured  by  the  Byzantine  artists,  ere  all  that  has  been 
brought  to  light  of  the  buildings  of  the  ancient  city,  which  now  stands  more  than 
three  miles  inland,  a  fact  probably  due  to  an  upheaval  of  the  coast,  or  else  to  the 
gradual  increase  of  the  alluvial  deposits.  Its  ancient  name  still  exists  under  the 
form  of  Zulh.  To  the  south  on  the  heights  are  the  remains  of  a  town,  which  was 
probably  the  sanitorium  of  Adulis.  During  the  second  half  of  this  century  Adulis 
has  often  been  regarded  as  a  future  French  colony,  because  the  strip  of  land  round 
the  bay,  together  with  the  island  of  Disseh,  was  conceded  to  France  in  1840  by  a 
sovereign  of  Tigr6 ;  but  this  written  concession  was  followed  by  no  act  of  occupa- 
tion, and  England  is  the  power  which,  under  cover  of  the  Egyptian  flag,  possesses 
this  comer  of  Abyssinian  territory.  In  no  other  region  has  Great  Britain  given  a 
more  striking  proof  of  her  widespread  power  than  on  this  arid  coast  of  the  Red 
Sea.  In  this  bay,  where  are  scarcely  to  be  seen  a  few  wretched  boats  or  fishing 
rafts  composed  of  three  boards  nailed  together,  some  hundreds  of  vessels  rode 
at  anchor  in  1867  and  1868.  A  landing  stage,  of  which  a  few  traces  still  remain, 
stretched  over  half  a  mile  into  the  sea;  a  railway  ran  southwards  as  far  as  the  base 
of  the  escarpments ;  and  hug^  reservoirs,  dug  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  served 
as  watering-places  for  the  elephants  and  forty  thousand  beasts  of  burden.  Zulla 
was  the  place  where  the  British  army  landed  and  re-embarked,  having  brought  to 
a  happy  conclusion  an  expedition  without  parallel  in  the  history  of  England  and 
modern  times,  not  only  for  the  justice  of  the  cause  and  mathematical  precision  of 
the  operations,  but  also  for  its  complete  success,  almost  without  bloodshed,  and  the 
disinterested  conduct  of  the  victors.  This  march  of  an  armed  European  force  over 
the  Abyssinian  plateaux  ended  without  conquest,  and  the  traces  of  the  passage  of 
the  English  were  soon  effaced  on  the  sands  of  Zulla.  Nevertheless  with  this 
passing  visit  of  the  stranger  begins  a  new  era  in  Abyssinian  history. 


'■T^ji1»  'iiMtji  W:i»j«i|>|^fiZi.»»ii'l|f,fi>wi{i|i, 


182 


NOETH-EAST  AFRICA. 


The  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  which  is  deflected  in  the  direction  of  the  south-east, 
is  here  and  there  indented  by  bays  and  creeks  where  sea-ports  might  be  established, 
were  the  caravans  unfortunately  not  compelled  to  traverse  the  burning  and  dan- 


Fig.  69. — ^Annbslbt  Bat. 
1 1 :  600,000. 


59'5n'  E    .of  Greenwich 


r.T50' 


V       ' 

V 


DepttM. 


OtoSOFect 


SOtoieOFeet. 


100  toSW  Fart. 


)  Feet  ud  niiwBida. 


gerous  Danakil  territory  before  reaching  the  valleys  of  the  Abyssinian  watershed. 
The  bay  of  Hawakil,  explored  by  the  English  at  the  time  of  the  Abyssinian 
expedition,  is  obstructed  by  volcanic  cones  surrounded  by  rocks  and  lavas  very 


ian  watershed, 
be  AbyBsinian 
md  lavas  very 


ADMINI8TBATIVE  DIVISIONS. 


183 


difficult  to  traverse.  Hanfili,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  ancient  port  of  Anti- 
phyllm,  is  useless  except  for  working  the  saline  lake  Alalbed  and  the  neighbouring 
pearl  fisheries.  The  little  harbour  of  Edd,  some  120  miles  from  the  Abyssinian 
chain,  is  also  surrounded,  like  Hawakil  Bay,  by  volcanoes  and  rugged  rocks  which 
render  the  coimtry  almost  inaccessible.  A  trading  company  of  Nantes  had 
acquired  possession  of  this  port,  but,  being  unable  to  derive  any  advantage  from 
it,  offered  it  to  the  French  Government,  which  declined  the  costly  present.  The 
company  idtimately  ceded  all  its  rights  to  the  Kbedive. 

Administrative  Divisions. 

The  political  and  administrative  divisions  of  Abyssinia  undergo  endless  changes 
according  to  the  power  of  the  vassals  and  the  caprice  of  the  sovereign.  Certain 
chiefs  rule  over  several  provinces  and  even  possess  the  title  of  king,  like  the  r&s  of 
Gojam,  who  was  crowned  in  1881,  whilst  others  are  fain  to  rest  satisfied  with  a 
simple  canton.  In  1882  the  largest  fiefs  numbered  twenty-four,  of  which  four  were 
governed  by  r&s  (chiefs)  of  the  first  rank,  five  by  those  of  the  second  rank,  and  fifteen 
administered  by  chiefs  bearing  the  title  of  shum.  But  in  spite  of  the  political  vicissi- 
tudes, most  of  the  Abyssinian  districts  have  retained  their  names  and  their  general 
contours,  as  indicated  by  the  very  relief  and  nature  of  the  geological  formations 
themselves.  Without  including  the  vassal  realm  of  Shoa,  the  tributary  states 
beyond  the  Abai,  the  Galla  districts  and  the  northern  territories  recently  annexed, 
the  Ayssinian  empire  at  present  comprises  the  four  governments  of  Amhara, 
Gojam,  Lasta,  and  Tigre,  which,  with  their  several  provinces,  fluvial  basins,  and 
chief  towns,  will  be  found  tabulated  in  the  Appendix. 


» 


»!l 


*  ' 


r 


CHAPTER  VII. 

SHOA,  COUNTRY  OF  THE  DANAKILS,  NORTHERN  OALLA  STATES.         < 

HOA  or  Shawa,  and  the  hilly  country  of  the  northern  Gallas,  form  a 
part  of  the  Abyssinian  plateaux.  From  a  political  point  of  view 
Shoa,  after  having  been  independent  for  some  length  of  time,  has 
again  become  attached  and  pays  a  regular  tribute  to  the  Abyssinian 
empire,  the  king  of  Shoa  humbling  himself  before  the  "king  of 
kings."  South  of  the  Aba'i  most  of  the  civilised  or  barbarous  tribes  have  been 
subjugated  to  Northern  Abyssinia  by  victorious  expeditions,  and  ambassadors  bring 
to  Debra-Tabor  or  Makaleh  a  yearly  tribute  of  ivory  or  other  valuable  commodities. 
On  this  side  the  whole  of  southern  Abyssinia  even  beyond  Eaffa  is  thus  bounded  by 
fluctuating  frontiers  ;  tlie  area  of  Shoa  has  been  increased  threefold,  and  the  king- 
dom of  Gojam  has  been  enlarged  in  the  same  proportion,  although  the  Aba'i 
interrupts  all  communications  between  Abyssinia  and  the  country  of  the  Ilm- 
Ormas  for  seven  or  eight  months  in  the  year. 

The  peoples  of  these  countries,  mostly  differing  in  origin,  speech,  religion,  and 
customs,  should  be  studied  apart.  The  lowland  tribes,  however,  comprised  between 
the  main  Abyssinian  range,  the  Red  Sea  coast,  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  and  the  water- 
shed south  of  the  basin  of  the  Awash,  form  a  group  clearly  defined  by  the  way  of 
life  the  soil  and  the  climate  compel  them  to  follow ;  but  as  intermediaries  of  the 
trade  between  the  plateaux  and  the  sea,  they  are  indispensable  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Shoa.  Thus,  however  different  the  two  countries  may  be,  they  form  a  part  of 
the  same  social  organization. 


The  Shoa  Highlands. 

South  of  the  Angot  and  the  Zebul  the  main  Abyssinian  range  penetrates  into 
Shoa,  here  diverging  slightly  from  the  line  of  the  meridian  towards  the  south-west, 
parallel  with  the  course  of  the  Awash.  This  part  of  the  border-chain  is  called 
Shakka,  or  Amba-Shakka,  and,  according  to  Beke,  attains  a  mean  height  of  from 
8,000  to  9,000  feet,  several  of  the  crests  even  considerably  exceeding  this  elevation. 
The  highest  mountain,  at  least  in  the  vicinity  of  Ankober,  is  Mount  Metatiteh 
(11,000  feet),  which  overlooks  the  greater  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Shoa  lying  at 


nnm>wm^«< 


'ES. 

illas,  form  a 
oint  of  Tiew 
of  time,  has 
i  Abyssinian 
te  "king  of 
8  have  been 
Isadora  bring 
commodities. 
I  bounded  by 
ind  the  king- 
|;h  the  Aba'i 
of  the  Ihn- 

religion,  and 
rised  between 
id  the  water- 
)y  the  way  of 
liaries  of  the 
e  inhabitants 
}nn  a  part  of 


enetrates  into 
le  south-west, 
liain  is  called 
eight  of  from 
this  elevation, 
int  Metatiteh 
Shoa  lying  at 


VOLCANIC  F0EMATI0N8. 


181 


its  feet,  and  the  lower  terrace-lands  sloping  towards  the  Awash  Yalloy  and  the 
affluents  of  the  Aba'i.  In  no  other  region  of  Abyssinia  is  the  land  more  cut  up 
into  distinct  sections  by  the  running  waters.  From  some  of  the  heights  on  the 
plateau  the  country  seems  at  a  distance  like  a  vast  and  almost  level  plain,  where 
the  valleys  are  scarcely  suggested  by  the  interrupted  vegetation,  but  on  a  nearer 
approach  those  valleys  develop  into  vast  chasms  of  enormous  depth.  One  of  those 
gorges,  some  36  miles  north-west  of  Ankober,  is  over  5,100  feet  in  depth,  with  a 
breadth  scarcely  exceeding  2,000  feet.  Amongst  the  abysses  occurring  in  this 
rocky  region  are  Teg^let-Wat,  near  the  ancient  capital  of  Shoa,  a  fissure  some 
600  feet  long  with  a  breadth  of  less  tl^an  3  feet.  Stones  dropped  into  this  rent 
are  never  heard  to  strike  the  bottom.  The  riven  rising  on  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  Amba-Shakka,  some  of  which  have  to  descend  from  an  altitude  of  about  6,600 
feet  on  their  way  to  the  Blue  Nile,  rush  through  these  chasms  in  a  series  of 
foaming  cascades  or  magnificent  rapids. 


mj^:-^^^  "1  .>>: 


Volcanic  Formations. 


East  of  the  main  range,  the  base  of  Amba-Shakka  is  flanked  by  a  collection  of 
rounded  hills,  while  parallel  chains,  such  as  the  Argobba,  rise  in  its  immediate 
vicinity.  Farther  on  an  undulating  plain  stretches  away  towards  the  Gulf  of 
Aden,  here  and  there  studded  with  volcanic  cones  which  have  ejected  vast 
quantities  of  lava.  One  of  these  extinct  oratera,  near  the  right  bank  of  the 
Awash  north-west  of  Ankober,  forms  a  vast  chasm  many  miles  In  circumference. 
Another  much  smaller  crater  still  emits  vapoura  from  the  summit  of  an  isolated 
crag ;  this  is  the  Dofaneh  volcano,  which  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Awash  some 
36  miles  north-east  of  Ankober.  Its  state  of  activity  may  be  compared  to  that  of 
Volcano  in  the  Lipari  Islands.  On  its  sides  are  deposited  layera  of  sulphur,  pre- 
senting every  shade  from  bright  yellow  to  reddish  brown.  The  group  of  Mintshar 
volcanoes,  in  the  southern  district  of  Fatigar,  contains  other  craters  in  which  the 
sulphur  becomes  sublimated.  One  of  these  igneous  mouths,  that  of  WiniEegur, 
forms  an  enormous  caldron,  according  to  Harris  nearly  6  miles  in  circumference, 
with  walls  rising  to  a  height  of  from  800  to  1,000  feet ;  two  breaches  in  the 
enclosure  have  fpyen  vent  to  streams  of  molten  lava  and  black  scorise  which  wind 
amid  the  surrotmding  vegetation.  The  pool  of  Burtshatta  in  the  vicinity  fills  a 
circular  bed  of  black  and  yellow  lava  surrounded  by  vertical  clifEs ;  the  rock  is 
honeycombed  with  hundreds  of  caves,  whose  entrances  are  half  concealed  by  the 
climbing  plants  growing  to  its  sides.  Through  one  of  the  extinct  craters  the 
elephants  and  rhinoceroses  have  opened  a  passage  to  the  brink  of  this  lake.  In 
the  western  district  of  Dembi,  Antinori  describes  another  volcanic  group  inter- 
spersed with  numerous  lakelets,  but  their  water  being  de8ti\,ute  of  fish  they  are 
evidently  of  recent  origin.  Farther  on  to  the  south-west  the  isolated  Zikwala 
peak,  about  10,000  feet  high,  already  mentioned  on  Fra  Mauro's  famous  map, 
encloses  a  lake  in  its  terminal  crater,  on  the  margin  of  which  stands  a  monastery 
founded  by  a  "  vanquisher  of  demons."     Many  hot  springs  rise  in  these  volcanic 


ml 
11 


il! 


'I  !> 


»i 


186 


NORTU-EAST  APEICA. 


lands  of  Shoa,  three  of  which  in  the  country  of  the  Finfini  Gallos,  close  to  the  lofty 
and  isolated  Mount  Entotto  (9,956  feet),  spout  forth  like  geysers  with  a  temperature 
of  170°  F.  To  the  action  of  these  warm  mineral  waters  are  probably  due  the 
fossilised  siliceous  trees  occurring  in  so  many  places  on  the  plateau  between  Lasta 
and  Shoa.  Like  the  "  petrified  forests "  of  Cairo,  those  of  Abyssinia  consist  of 
trees  belonging  to  the  order  of  the  sterculiaceeo. 

The  Galla  Highlands.  \ 

A  ridge  of  uplands,  curving  to  the  south-west,  and  separating  the  Abal'  from 
the  sources  of  the  Awash,  forms  the  natural  boundary  between  Abyssinia  proper 
and  Gallaland.  This  region  is  but  slightly  diversified,  presenting  no  prominences 
except  those  of  the  cliffs  fringing  both  sides  of  the  torrents ;  but  to  the  south  the 
moimtains  resume  the  appearance  of  a  regular  chain.  They  must  be  regarded, 
however,  rather  as  a  gpeneral  swelling  of  the  surface  broken  into  distinct  segments 
and  isolated  masses  by  the  rivers  flowing  northwards  towards  the  Blue  Nile,  and 
southwards  to  the  larg^  river  known  as  the  Gugsa,  Uma,  Abula,  and  by  a  thousand 
other  names.  By  the  action  of  the  erosions  which  have  broken  up  the  plateau 
into  its  present  shape,  the  axis  of  these  heights  has  been  directed  from  the  north- 
west to  the  south-east.  In  this  direction  follow  in  succession  Goro  Chen,  Belhella, 
Tulu  Amara,  Chillimo,  Diriko,  Ealo,  and  Hoggeh,  all  mountains  exceeding  10,000 
feet  in  height.  The  highest  point  at  the  eastern  ei.tremity  of  this  range  is  said 
to  be  Hamdo,  with  a  reputed  elevation  of  not  less  than  11,500  feet.  In  the  same 
direction,  but  in  the  Gurageh  district,  occurs  the  isolated  Mount  Wariro,  to  which 
Chiarini  has  assigned  an. altitude  of  13,000  feet. 

The  mountainous  masses  bounded  north  by  the  course  of  the  Upper  Gug^  are 
considerably  lower,  having  a  mean  elevation  of  scarcely  more  than  7,000  or  8,000 
feet.  Nevertheless  a  range  in  the  Inarya  district,  running  from  the  north-east  to 
the  south-west,  rises  here  and  there  to  10,000  feet,  culminating  in  Mount  Egan, 
10,300  feet  high.  In  the  KafFa  country,  another  chain,  bounded  north  by  the 
river  Gojeb,  rivals  the  Gurageh  Mountains  in  height ;  and  Mount  Hotta,  towards 
the  eastern  extremity  of  this  chain,  is  said  to  have  an  altitude  of  about  12,200 
feet.  But  the  giant  of  the  Ilm-Orma  territory  is  said  to  be  Mount  Wosho, 
situated  west  of  the  river  IJma,  in  the  hitherto  unexplored  Waratta  country. 
According  to  Antoiue  d'Abbadie,  who  saw  it  at  a  distance. of  twenty  miles,  towering 
above  the  valley  of  the  Uma,  this  mountain  exceeds  16,600  feet. 


A. 


The  Afar  Country. 


The  country  of  Afars,  east  of  the  Abyssinian  border-chvin,  usually  designated  as 
a  plain  in  opposition  to  the  plateaux,  has  however  a  very  hilly  and  even  moun- 
tainous surface  in  some  places.  In  the  volcanic  chain  which  bounds  the  depression 
of  Lake  Alalbed  stand  the  Mount  Ortoaleh  of  Munzinger,  and  another  "  Smoky 
Mountain  "  seen  by  Bianchi  diiring  his  vain  attempt  to  reach  Assab  by  descending 


THE  AWASH  BASIN. 


187 


to  the  lofty 
temperature 
bly  due  the 
iween  Lasta 
consist  of 


e  Abal'  from 
iinia  proper 
irominences 
he  south  the 
ie  regarded, 
let  segments 
ue  Nile,  and 
Y  a  thousand 
the  plateau 
L  the  north- 
en,  Belhella, 
Bding  10,000 
rang^  is  said 
In  the  same 
iro,  to  which 

ler  Gugu  are 
,000  or  8,000 
north-east  to 
tfount  Egan, 
aorth  by  the 
otta,  towards 
ibout  12,200 
)unt  Wosho, 
itta  country, 
les,  towering 


designated  as 
even  moun- 
le  depression 
iher  *•  Smoky 
Y  descending 


from  Makaleh.  South-west  of  the  Bay  of  Assab,  the  irregular  volcanic  Mussali 
Mountain  is  stated  to  attain  a  height  of  more  than  6,600  feet ;  lastly  a  border 
range,  skirting  the  north  side  of  Tajurah  Bay,  is  dominated  by  cones  from  which 
lavas  have  been  erupted.  Mount  Juda,  one  of  these  extinct  volcanoes,  attains  a 
height  of  some  3,000  feet  above  sea-level ;  it  throws  off  a  southern  spur,  whose 
reefs  have  almost  separated  into  two  parts  the  bed  of  the  gulf,  which  thus  forms 
an  inner  lake  rather  than  a  part  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  To  the  west  other  lava 
streams  have  entirely  covered  what  was  formerly  the  marine  bed,  and  have  thus 
cut  off  a  portion  of  the  bay,  which  has  become  Lake  Assal,  or  as  the  Arabs  ironi- 
cally call  it,  in  spite  of  the  saltness  of  its  waters,  "  The  Lake  of  Honey."  It  is  also 
probable  that  the  upheaval  of  the  land  has  contributed  somewhat  to  the  isolation 
of  this  sheet  of  water,  for  the  seaboard  in  the  vicinity  of  Tajurah  is  largely  com- 
posed of  calcareous  clays  containing,  to  a  height  of  from  130  to  160  feet,  fossil 
shells  similar  to  those  now  living  in  the  African  seas. 

"-<  Lake  Assal,  at  present  separated  from  Tajurah  Bay  by  a  ledge  some  12  miles 
long,  has  undergone  various  changes  analogous  to  those  of  I^ake  Alalbed.  It  has 
also  become  a  saline  reservoir,  and  the  crust  of  salt  surrounding  the  shallows  is  so 
thick  that  laden  camels  can  traverse  it  for  nearly  a  mile  from  the  bank.  Like  that 
of  Lake  Alalbed,  the  salt  of  this  lake  is  a  source  of  wealth  to  the  neighbouring 
tribes.  All  the  Afar  and  Somali  peoples  of  the  country  here  procure  the  supplies 
for  their  own  consumption  and  for  south  Abyssinia,  which  gives  them  in  exchange 
coffee,  ivory,  musk,  and  slaves.  Like  Alalbed,  this  lake  is  gradually  subsiding, 
the  waters  brought  down  by  the  wadies  being  insufBioient  to  replace  the  loss  by 
evaporation.  A  whitish  mark  some  50  feet  above  the  present  surface  of  the  lake 
indicates  a  former  water  level.  At  the  time  of  Rochet's  first  journey  to  Shoa  in 
1834  it  stood  600  feet  below  that  of  Tajurah  Bay ;  since  then  its  level  has 
been  variously  calculated  at  from  676  to  770  feet,  with  a  probable  depth  of  about 
130  feet.  According  to  Bianohi  numerous  other  depressions  are  found  in  the 
country  of  the  Afars,  some  660  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  Awash  Basin. 

South-west  of  Lake  Assal,  in  a  region  similarly  studded  with  volcanoes  and  lava 
beds,  are  other  lakes,  but  of  fluvial  origin,  belonging  to  the  basin  of  the  Awash  or 
Awasi.  Unlike  the  other  rivers  of  the  coimtry,  the  Awash  does  not  disappear  in 
de^  narrow  gorges.  Whilst  those  watercourses  sweep  away  the  fertile  soil  along 
their  banks,  the  Awash,  which  flows  towards  the  Indian  Ocean,  wa1«rs  its  valley 
like  the  Egyptian  Nile,  without,  however,  reaching  the  coast.  Like  the  Raguleh 
and  other  streams  of  the  Afar  country,  it  runs  dry,  notwithstanding  the  large 
volume  of  its  middle  course.  The  Awash  rises  south-west  of  the  Shoa  Alps,  in  the 
Finfini  district,  which  is  separated  from  the  Nilotic  basin  by  a  mountain  range.  Its 
sources  form  several  pools  communicating  with  each  other  by  several  channels 
winding  through  a  grassy  district.  Already  broad  and  deep,  the  river  sweeps  round 
the  mountains  of  Shoa,  and  after  receiving  a  part  of  their  drainage,  it  trends  north- 


188 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


I 


! 


I  'P 


wards  along  the  foot  of  the  main  Abyminian  mountain  range.  At  this  part  of  its 
course  the  stream  is  most  copious  even  during  the  dry  season,  being  everywhere 
over  160  feot  broad,  with  a  depth  of  more  than  3  feet.,  and  a  very  rapid  course. 
During  the  floods  the  \wash  overflows  for  many  miles  right  and  left  of  its  bed,  its 
level  rising  from  40  to  46,  and  even  to  60  feet,  above  the  usual  watennark.  It  might 
possibly  be  available  even  for  steam  navigation  in  this  part  of  its  course. 

At  the  point  where  it  is  deflected  from  the  mountains,  the  river  flows  north-east- 
wards towards  Taj  uroh  Bay,  and  its  volume  is  increased  by  its  affluent,  the  Oermana, 
or  Easam,  but  afterwards  g^radually  diminished,  and  at  about  60  miles  from  the  sea, 
after  having  traversed  a  distance  of  480  miles,  it  loses  itself  in  the  marshy  lake 
Bada,  or  Aussa,  also  called  Abhelbod  by  many  writers.  This  lacustrine  basin,  which 
probably  lies  below  sea-level,  rises  and  falls  with  the  alternating  rainy  and  dry 
seasons.  Its  waters  are  sweet,  and  deposit  a  fertilising  mud,  which  repays  a 
hundredfold  the  agricultural  labour  expended  upon  it  by  the  Danakils  of  Aussa. 
The  water  necessary  for  the  irrigation  of  the  fields  in  summer  is  retained  by  a  dam 
constructed  at  its  northern  end ;  but  when  the  lands  are  thoroughly  watered  the 
overflow  is  discharged  into  a  basin  called  "  Lake  Natron  "  from  the  crystallised 
chemical  substances  on  its  banks.  Other  lakes  belonging  to  the  Awash  system, 
amongst  others  that  of  Leado,  commanded  by  the  Dofaneh  volcano  and  Jebel-Eubret 
or  "  Sulphur  Mountain,"  not  far  from  the  Abyssinian  Alps,  receive  the  overflow  of 
this  river  during  the  flood  season.  Lake  Zwai,  Jilalu,  Laki  or  Dambal,  in  the 
Gurag^h  country,  probably  belongs  also  to  the  same  hydrographic  system,  and  its 
surplus  waters  are  said  to  flov^^  into  the  Awash.  Nevertheless,  the  natives  informed 
Antonelli  and  Cecchi,  that  this  basin  had  no  aLuent ;  henoe  its  Ethiopian  name  of 
Zwai,  or  the  "  Motionless."  ^ 


i:i: 


Climate,  Flora,  and  Fauna. 


The  climate  of  this  southern  portion  resembles  that  of  the  rest  of  Abyssinia,  the 
only  difference  being  that  the  air  is  more  moist.  The  Shoa  and  Galla  uplands, 
being  nearer  to  the  equator,  are  much  more  affected  by  the  rainy  zone,  which  lying 
between  the  two  trade  winds,  fluctuates  alternately  north  and  south  of  the  equator. 
Whilst  the  mean  rainfall  on  the  Abysninian  plateaux  may  be  oalcidated  at  30  inches 
annually,  it  is  said  to  be  about  40  inches  south  of  the  Aba'i  and  Awash.  Hence  the 
vegetation  is  far  more  dense  and  exuberant  in  the  southern  than  in  the  northern 
regions  of  Abyssinia.  Tvhilst  forests  are  rarely  met  in  Abyssinia  outside  of  the 
kwaUa  districts,  travellers  in  the  mountains  oi  Shoa  and  its  tributary  territories  speak 
of  the  immense  forests  of  conifers,  wild  olives,  and  other  trees,  under  the  matted 
moss-grown  branches  of  which  they  have  travelled  for  hourn.  The  vegetable 
species  of  these  countries  have  hitherto  been  studied  but  by  few  botanists ;  but  the 
climate  is  known  to  be  favourable  to  the  Abyssinian  flora,  and  many  other  plants 
flourishing  here  are  utilised  for  the  soke  of  their  leaves,  gums,  or  seeds.  This  home 
of  the  coffee-plant  could  still  supply  the  world  with  many  other  precious  shrubs  ;  it 
already  yields  to  commerce  the  so-called  oggieh,  or  korarima,  a  fruit  highly  prized 
for  its  delicate  flavour  and  aroma. 


CLIMATE,  PI.ORA,  AND  FAUNA. 


lit 


pert  of  it! 
everywhere 
apid  course. 
I  its  bed,  its 
k.  It  might 
e. 

8  north-east- 
;he  Qermana, 
:rom  the  sea, 
marshy  lake 
basin,  which 
iny  and  dry 
ich  repays  a 
[Is  of  Aussa. 
led  by  a  dam 
'  watered  the 
)  crystallised 
nrash  system, 
Jebel-Eabret 
le  overflow  of 
imbal,  in  the 
stem,  and  its 
Lves  informed 
pian  name  of 


Abyssinia,  the 
hdla  uplands, 
B,  which  lying 
f  the  equator, 
id  at  30  inches 
ii.    Hence  the 
.  the  northern 
outside  of  the 
irritories  speak 
,er  the  matted 
The  vegetable 
mists ;  but  the 
ly  other  plants 
Is.     This  home 
lous  shrubs ;  it 
i  highly  prized 


Like  the  flora,  the  fauna  of  this  Abyssinian  district  also  presonti  a  great  diver- 
sity, although  on  the  whole  the  types  are  similar.  Shoa  appears  to  bo  the  home  of 
the  colubut  guereza,  an  ape  with  a  splendid  black  and  white  fur,  which  gives  it 
a  monkish  appearance.  The  superstitious  natives  regard  these  animals  almost  as 
hrrraits,  in  consequence  of  their  shy  habits  and  the  colour  of  their  coats.  In  the 
Awash  basin  ore  also  found  oxen,  distinguished  beyond  all  others  for  the  size  of 
their  horns,  which  attain  a  length  of  some  six  feet,  with  a  thickness  of  six  inches 
at  the  base.    The  upland  prairies  are  overrun  by  a  zebra,  equut    Qrevyi,  with 

Pig.  60.— Rotrras  op  tns  Cmiip  ExptoKn*  in  tmi  Lokim  Awaib  Bioioir. 


E       of  6r«en»vich 


.  WMilM. 


extremely  curious  purple-black  stripes.  The  Galla  hcrse,  which  dies  if  taken  far 
from  its  native  mountains,  has  the  thin  legs,  delicate  head,  full  and  shapely 
crupper,  and  the  fire  and  obstinacy  foimd  amongst  the  pure  Russian  breeds. 
The  animal  most  appreciated  in  Southern  Abyssinia,  from  an  economical  point 
of  view,  is  the  civet  cat  (civetta  viverra),  whose  musky  secretion  is  monopolised 
by  many  of  the  sovereigns  of  the  country.  The  males,  who  alone  furnish  this 
essence,  are  kept  in  packs  of  from  one  to  three  hundred,  each  animal  being 
enclosed  in  a  long  cage  made  so  narrow  as  to  prevent  him  turning  round ;   the 


#'   Swi^J*; 


MMtiai 


100 


N0IITII-EA8T  AFRICA. 


encloRuros  aro  kept  at  a  unifonn  heat,  §o  an  to  huiiten  the  aecrotion,  which  amountu 
to  froMi  about  eighty  to  one  hundred  gruinmos  every  fourth  day.  The  animulH 
are  fed  on  un  oxcluHively  flesh  diet,  connisting  of  choica  morHoU  prepared  in 
buttei'.     To  ^.rcvent  the  evil  eye,  straugera  are  forbidden  to  enter  these  preserves. 

Inuaditanth  ok  Siioa. 

Like  those  of  (jioudur,  the  civilised  Christian  peoples  of  Shoa  are  mainly 
Amharinians,  but  they  are  separated  from  the  body  of  the  nation  by  lofty 
mountains.  Whilst  most  of  the  Abyssinians  live  on  the  lands  sloping  towards 
the  Blue  Nile,  those  of  Shoa  occupy  more  especially  the  watershed  of  the 
Awash,  a  tributary  of  the  Red  Sea.  Moreover,  a  larg^  part  of  the  plateau 
bounding  Shoa  towards  the  north  is  inhabit^  by  peoples  of  Oalla  origin.  Hence, 
from  an  ethnological  point  of  view,  Shoa  consists  of  a  sort  of  isolutcxl  promontory. 
The  Abyssinians,  properly  so  called,  are  hero  surrounded  by  the  Ilm-Ormas,  by  far 
the  most  numerous,  but  divided  into  several  tribes,  the  alliances  between  which 
are  broken  or  formed  according  either  to  momentous  interests  or  the  caprices  of 
the  chiefs.  The  cuHtoms  of  the  Shoa  peoples  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  Amhari- 
nians, with  this  difference,  that  the  entire  population  is  more  abjectly  subject  to  the 
king's  will.  There  are  few  slaves  properly  so  called,  and  the  Christians  are  for- 
bidden to  sell  the  Negroes,  although  they  themselves  are  little  better  than  slaves 
whose  property  and  lives  are  at  the  disposition  of  their  masters.  A  few  Felasha  or 
Fenja  communitios  are  scattered  throughout  Shoa,  and  amongst  these  Abyssinian 
Jews  is  usually  classed  the  sect  of  the  Tabiban,  which  possesses  a  monastery  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  Ankober,  in  the  midst  of  the  Emamret  forests.  They  are 
greatly  respected  and  feared  by  the  surrounv'Iing  peoples  as  wizards. 

As  in  Abyssinia  properly  so-called,  the  Shoa  Mahommedans  have  been  forcibly 
converted.  They  were  formerly  very  numerous,  and  the  name  of  Jiberti,  by 
which  they  are  known  throughout  Abyssinia,  is  a  reminiscence  of  their  holy  city 
of  Jabarta  in  Ifat,  which  has  since  disappeared.  Foreigners,  more  especially 
French  and  Italians,  are  relatively  numerous  in  Shoa,  and  aince  the  visits  of 
Rochet,  Lefebvre,  Harris,  CombeA  and  Tamisier,  Isenberg  and  Erapf,  hundreds  of 
missionaries,  artisans,  and  merchants  have  presented  themselves  in  the  nomad  court 
of  the  successors  of  Sehla  Sellosieh  ;  but  hitherto  the  natives  have  benefited  little 
by  the  European  inventions.  Powder  and  arms  manufactories  and  mills  have  not 
succeeded,  and  the  concessions  made  to  strangers  for  the  building  of  railways  is 
merely  a  proof  that  the  king  of  Shoa  is  desirous  of  entering  into  direct  relations 
with  bia  powerful  foreigpi  allies. 

Scientific  voyagcn  of  discovery  in  the  Galla  country,  interrupted  since  that  (;£  the 
missionary  Fernandez  in  the  seventeenth  century  till  the  time  of  Antoine  d' Abbodie, 
are  also  becoming  more  frequent,  thanks  to  the  extension  of  the  Abyssinian  power 
into  these  countries ;  but  it  is  still  a  dangerous  undertaking,  and  of  the  two  Italians, 
Chiarini  and  Cecchi,  who  recently  penetrated  as  far  as  Bongo,  one  succumbed  to 
fatigue,  whilst  the  other  was  with  difficulty  saved  by  the  intervention  of  the  chief  of 


"SS^ilS^^^^^^SSfSS^Sfc " 


TIIK  AFAIW. 


Itl 


W' 


ch  amountfl 
'ho  aniniulH 
jrepurwl  in 
proHorvos. 


are  mainly 

•n    by  lofty 

ing  towards 

hed   of   the 

the   plateau 

pn.     Hence, 

promontory. 

•rmas,  by  far 

tween  which 

i  caprices  of 

the  Amhari- 

ubject  to  the 

ians  are  for- 

r  than  slaves 

)w  Felasha  or 

le  Abyssinian 

Lastery  in  the 

9.      They  are 

been  forcibly 
f  Jiberti,  by 
leir  holy  city 
>rc  especially 
the  visits  of 
,  hundreds  of 
)  nomad  court 
lenefited  little 
nills  have  not 
)f  railways  is 
rect  relations 

ice  that  of  the 
ne  d' Abbadie, 
jsinian  power 
i  two  Italians, 
succumbed  to 
of  the  chief  of 


Oojum.  The  object  of  d'Abbudie's  visit  to  those  countrioH,  which  was  to  complcttdy 
■urvoy  the  course  of  the  southern  AbyMsiniuu  river,  has  not  yet  be««n  aucoinpliHhed. 
It  is  not  known  whether,  after  (h'seribing  the  lurj^o  curve  east  of  Kutfu,  the  wiit<>r- 
courso  which  fonns  a  continuation  of  the  Gugsu  und  receives  the  Gojttb  trends 
westwards  to  the  Nil©  or  is  deflet-ted  towards  the  Indian  Ocean,  but  it  probably  falls 
eastwards  as  the  upper  course  of  the  Jubu.  In  any  cuso  it  is  nut  the  Nile,  as 
d'Abbudiu  supposed. 

Thk  Afars. 

In  the  triangular  space  comprised  between  the  Abyssinian  range,  the  Red  Hea, 
and  the  course  of  tho  Awash,  the  bulk  of  the  people,  whether  nomad  or  settled, 
constitute  tho  Afar,  or  Afer,  that  is  to  say  the  "  wanderers,"  more  commonly  called 
Danukils  by  tho  Abyssinians.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  Awash  they  are  known  as  Adel, 
or  Aduil,  after  the  Ad-Ali,  one  of  their  most  powerful  tribes ;  but  the  various  clans 
differ  little  in  customs,  dialects;  and  usages.  The  Danakils  themselves  claim  to  be 
Arabs,  like  so  many  other  peoples  of  eastern  Africa,  and  this  pretension  may  be 
explained  both  by  local  crossings  as  well  as  by  their  nominal  conversion  to  Islam. 
But  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  main  body  of  the  nation  is  connected  with  the 
Oallas  of  the  west,  the  Shohos  of  the  north,  and  the  Somalis  of  the  south.  Their 
language  is  also  of  Hamitio  origin,  and  their  physical  appearance  is  of  an  analogous 
type.  They  are  still  mainly  addicted  to  fetish  practices,  in  the  sterile  region  of  Lake 
Alalbed  worshipping  a  solitary  tree,  the  ceesalpinia,  with  splendid  pink  flowers,  and 
elsewhere  presenting  their  offerings  to  the  sycamore.  The  men  are  usually 
handsome,  extremely  active  and  graceful  dancers;  while  the  women,  who  go  unveiled, 
are  distinguished  during  their  brief  youth  by  exquisite  forms.  But  their  beauty  is 
soon  blighted  by  their  laborious  life  in  this  country  of  lava  and  sand,  under  the 
hottest  climate  in  the  world.  More  scantily  clothed  than  the  Abyssinians  or  Gallas, 
the  Danakils  merely  wear  a  waistcloth  of  a  many-coloured  material,  with  a  toga  or 
shamma,  often  replaced  by  a  skin  thrown  negligently  over  the  shoulders.  The  men 
stick  a  porcupine-quill  in  their  deftly  arranged  coiffure,  and,  like  the  Oallas,  are 
extremely  proud  when  they  can  ornament  it  with  an  ostrich  feather,  emblem  of  an 
enemy  slain  in  battle.  In  the  northern  region,  the  huts  of  the  Afars  are  \ery 
tastefidly  ornamented,  the  floor  being  covered  with  yellow  mats,  embroidered  with 
red  and  violet  designs. 

The  Afars  are  an  independent  nation,  divided  into  two  main  groups,  the  Asahian 
(Asa'imara)  and  the  Adohian  (Adoimara),  and  into  upwards  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  Kabilet  (Eabail)  or  sub- tribes,  banded  together  or  divided  according  to  their 
several  interests.  They  recognise  hereditary  chiefs,  called  sultans  or  rat,  according 
to  the  importance  of  the  tribe.  These  chiefs,  however,  are  by  no  means  absolute 
masters,  but  merely  the  executors  of  the  will  of  the  people,  expressed  by  a  majority 
of  votes  in  the  general  assemblies.  All  combine  against  the  common  enemy,  and 
fight  desperately  in  defence  of  their  liberty.  The  most  powerful  sept  are  the 
Modaitos,  occupying  the  whole  of  the  region  of  the  lower  Awash,  Lake  Aussa,  and 
the  inland  pasturages  between  Edd  and  Raheita.     No  European  traverses  their 


if 


r~-' 


J 


Ki^ 


192  NORTH-EAST  AFRICA.  , 

territory  without  claiming  the  right  of  hospitality  or  the  brotherhood  of  blood ; 
the  two  newly  made  brothers  kill  an  ox  and  pour  the  blood  over  their  foreheads, 
cutting  its  skin  in  strips,  which  they  make  into  necklaces  and  bracelets.  About 
1840  the  Zeila  Arabs,  reinforced  by  immigrants  from  Yemen,  and  Persian  or  Baluch 
mercenaries,  penetrated  into  the  Danakil  country  nearly  as  far  as  Aussa,  but  not 
one  of  the  invaders  returned.  In  1875  an  enemy  more  formidable  than  the  coast 
Arabs  attempted  to  force  his  way  into  their  territory.  At  the  head  of  350  Egyptians 
armed  with  improved  rifles  and  a  train  of  artillery,  Munzinger  Pasha  endeavoured 
to  open  a  route  towards  Shoa,  his  intention  probably  being  to  reduce  this  kingdom 
under  the  sc^ereignty  of  Egypt.  But  the  same  Moda'ito  tribe  who  exterminated 
the  first  expedition  fell  upon  the  second  with  a  like  result.  Munzinger,  with  the 
bulk  of  his  troops,  was  slain  by  the  lances  of  the  Danakils,  who  say  that  "  Guns 
are  only  useful  to  frighten  cowards."  ■  v;r;; -i^^,   -  j......   .  y  t  4  :;7!  1:;>^;5 4.s"  ■ ' 

As  the  mountain  streams  are  lost  amongst  the  sands  and  lavas  before  reaching 
the  sea,  the  Danakils  are  unable  to  cultivate  their  lands,  except  along  the  banks  of 
the  Awash,  where  are  a  few  garden-plots ;  insufficient,  however,  for  the  local  wants. 
But  through  commerce  the  Danakils  are  enabled  to  procure  sufficient  supplies  from 
the  seaports  and  the  markets  of  Shoa.  It  is  the  custom  for  every  caravan  en  route 
to  pay  a  tax  on  encamping,  in  return  being  entitled  to  the  protection  of  the  tribe, 
and  thanks  to  its  guides  and  safe  conducts  they  pass  in  safety  between  the  mountains 
and  the  sea.  The  Abyssinian  sovereigns  have  often  desired  to  close  certain  trade 
routes  across  the  desert  in  order  to  open  up  others  for  their  own  advantage ;  but 
their  power  is  arrested  at  the  boundary  of  the  plains,  where  the  Danakils  indicate 
the  route  to  be  followed  with  the  points  of  their  lances.  In  the  northern  part  of 
the  desert  the  Taltal  tribe,  who,  according  to  Riippell,  g^reatly  resemble  the 
Abyssinians  in  features,  are  chiefly  employed  in  working  the  salt  in  the  bed  of  Lake 
Alalbed,  which  they  sell  to  the  Abyssinians  of  the  plateaux  in  square  bricks.  The 
Taoras  and  Saortas,  dwelling  south  of  Adulis  Bay  in  the  Buri  peninsula,  are  also 
Afars,  modified  by  crossings  with  the  Abyssinians,  and  speaking  a  Tigr4  dialect 
mixed  with  a  large  proportion  of  Arab  words.  According  to  Rohlfs  the  Taora  and 
Saorta  women  are  of  extremely  small  stature  in  comparison  with  the  men. 

The  redanto  or  chiefs  of  the  northerb  Danakils  are  magicians,  who  hold 
communication  with  the  spirit-world,  tend  are  acquainted  with  the  star  presiding 
over  the  destinies  of  each  individual.  The  rank  of  redanto  is  hereditary,  providing 
that  the  son  be  without  physical  or  moral  blemish,  for  unless  of  sound  body  and 
mind  he  would  be  incapable  of  holding  communion  with  the  spirit/S.  On  the  Red 
Sea  coast  a  few  Afar  families  live  by  fishing,  and  venture  far  seawards  in  boats 
tapering  to  a  point  at  the  prow  and  stem,  and  carrying  large  square  sails  com- 
posed of  mats.  These  boats  were  formerly  greatly  feared  by  navigators  of  the 
Bed  Sea.  As  bold  on  the  sea  as  on  the  land,  the  Danakils  often  attacked  and 
captured  large  merchant  vessels ;  but  they  have  been  compelled  to  abandon  their 
piratical  courses,  since  the  steam  gunboats  arc  able  to  chase  them  into  the  small 
creeks  and  maze  of  coral  islands  along  the  coast.  The  descendants  of  these 
corsairs  now  turn  their  attention  to  fishing,  and  are  the  only  sailors  in  the  Bed  Sea 
who  still  pursue  the  dugong  or  lamentin. 


mm&m^ 


ttherhood  of  blood; 
ver  their  foreheads, 
d  bracelets.  About 
d  Persian  or  Baluch 
IT  as  Aussa,  but  not 
lable  than  the  coast 
sad  of  350  Egyptians 
r  Pasha  endeavoured 
reduce  this  kingdom 
)e  who  exterminated 
liunzinger,  with  the 
(rho  say  that  "  Guns 

avas  before  reaching 
t  along  the  banks  of 
■,  for  the  local  wants, 
fficient  supplies  from 
trery  caravan  en  route 
'otection  of  the  tribe, 
etween  the  mountains 
x>  close  certain  trade 
own  advantage;  but 
the  Danakils  indicate 
the  northern  part  of 
jreatly  resemble  the 
alt  in  the  bed  of  Lake 
1  square  bricks.    The 
m  peninsula,  are  also 
iking  a  Tigr^  dialect 
Bohlf  s  the  Taora  and 
ith  the  men. 
magicians,  who  hold 
Ith  the  star  presiding 
hereditary,  providing 
Nss  of  sound  hod  J  and 
spirits.    On  the  Red 
far  seawards  in  boats 
rge  square  sails  com- 
by  navigators  of  the 
Is  often  attacked  and 
elled  to  abandon  their 
se  them  into  the  small 
descendants   of  these 
sailors  in  the  Bed  Sea 


^  -<?s^^>^•:•> 


< 


•< 

a 

o 


'•)i 


trnvKimH'. 


I  ,i.i.j,niiiuiwp.iiii,inii.  I  m'  nn^ffymyp 


ii|iiiiiii|ij  III  iiii'JiuWli'iiTOlU 


^ffftm 


h 


r 


i 


-.-.vsiv 


X     ''- 


LI  llllilHi  III! 'II  I  Wtfli— MUiHAHm-PH 


•^5JSB»'' 


,   ..I     iT<C^ 


THE  SOMALI. 


The  Somali. 


198 


The  Somali  race,  akin  to  the  Afars  in  features,  speech,  and  origin,  is  represented 
in  the  Awash  basin,  between  Tajurah  Bay  and  the  realm  of  Uarmr,  by  the  powerful 
tribe  of  the  Issas,  who  even  make  incursions  across  the  Awash  into  the  plains  of 
the  Banakils.  These  temporary  migrations  are  caused  by  the  irregularity  of  the 
climate,  the  rains  falling  at  different  times  on  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
Gulf  of  Aden.  Immediately  after  the  rains,  when  the  pasture-lands  are  covered 
with  rich  grass,  the  Issas  demand  hospitality  from  the  Dauakils,  who  in  turn  come 

Fig.  61.— iSoiiAu  Girl. 


over  to  the  Somali  oountry  when  their  own  pasturages  are  dried  up  and  the 
southern  lands  are  renewed  by  the  rains.  This  reciprocal  dependence  maintains 
harmony  between  these  two  powerful  and  warlike  nations.  The  Issa,  although 
nominally  tributaries  of  the  Egyptian  Government,  were  practically  independent, 
as  the  chief  of  the  tribe  had  to  be  subsidised  to  protect  the  caravans  going  between 
the  mountains  of  Harrar  and  Zeila.  The  Issa  camel-drivers  are  almost  exclusively 
engaged  in  transporting  merchandise  to  the  mountains,  where  tlieir  loads  are 
committed  to  other  drivers.  They  are  always  accompanied  by  their  wives,  who 
lead  the  camels  and  bear  on  their  backs  the  firewood  and  cooking  utensils,  and,  if 

18— AF. 


'  II 
if 


-TP- 


'  -Siti^J'^ 


•^    ef    5t^<: 


194 


NOBTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


mothers,  their  children.  The  hereditary  enemies  of  the  Issas  are  the  Gadibursis, 
eIho  a  Somali  people,  bold  mounted  marauders,  who  occasionally  seize  their  flocks 
even  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ze'ila. 

The  Gallas. 

In  numbers  and  extent  of  territory  occupied  by  them,  the  Gallas  are  one  of  the 
larp«8t  nations  in  Africa.  Some  of  their  commimities  are  even  settled  on  the 
frontiers  of  Tigre,  along  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Abyssinian  main  range.  Even  as 
far  as  the  equator,  over  a  space  of  600  miles  from  north  to  south,  are  scattered  or 
grouped  together  tribes  of  the  some  race,  whilst  Gallas  are  met  with  from  east  to 
west  throughout  the  region  which  stretches  from  the  Upper  Nile  to  the  Somali 
coast.  But  it  is  not  yet  known  where  the  national  type  is  the  best  represented,  or 
which  is  the  most  powerful  tribe,  the  country  of  the  southern  Gallas  being  one 
which  has  been  the  least  explored  by  European  travellers. 

In  this  part  of  Africa  an  area  larger  than  that  of  France  is  still  imexplored, 
and  everything  strengthens  the  belief  that  this  region,  stretching  south  of  Eaffa, 
will  be  the  last  to  be  visited  by  travellers.  The  only  Gallas  we  are  well  acquainted 
with  are  those  of  the  northern  region,  who,  since  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century, 
have  dwelt  in  and  about  the  Abyssinian  states.  It  is  therefore  natural  that  these 
races  should  be  studied  after  those  of  Abyssinia.  According  to  Beke  the  Gallas 
were  so  named  by  the  neighbouring  peoples  after  a  river  of  Gurageh  near  which 
they  fought  a  g^reat  battle ;  but  this  appellation  is  usually  interpreted  in  the  sense 
of  "  Land-himters,"  a  term  denoting  their  nomad  life  and  conquests.  They  call 
themselves  Oromo,  "Men,"  or  Ilm-Orma,  "Sons  of  Men,"  possibly  "  Brave  Men ;" 
although  according  to  D'Abbadie  this  name,  like  the  Spanish  aidalgo,  is  synonymous 
with  "  Nobles."  The  traditions  of  the  tribes  vary ;  still  the  bulk  of  the  Gallas, 
when  asked  whence  their  ancestors  came,  point  to  the  south.  Their  original  home 
is  said  to  be  towards  the  southern  uplands,  and  the  tribes  near  Mount  Kenia  are 
said  still  to  go  on  a  pilg^rimage  to  this  mountain,  bring^g  offerings  to  it  as  if  to 
their  mother.  It  appears  certain  that  towards  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century 
a  great  exodus  took  place  among  the  peoples  throughout  all  eastern  Africa,  and 
that  this  movement  continued  during  the  following  centuries ;  it  has  even  con- 
tinued tiU  recently  in  a  north-westerly  direction.  The  Abyssinian  Gallas,  the 
Wa-Humas  of  the  riverain  states  of  Nyonza,  were  to  the  north  and  west  the 
advance  guard  of  this  migration  of  the  Oromo  peoples,  which  according  to  Barth 
and  Hartmann,  was  probably  caused  by  some  great  eruption  of  Kenia  and  other 
volcanoes  of  equatorial  Africa. 

In  any  case  the  "  Sons  of  Men,"  whom  some  authors  have  termed  Semites  and 
even  "  Aryans,"  are  Nigritians,  connected  by  imperceptible  transitions  with  the 
populations  of  Central  Africa.  In  many  points  they  resemble  their  northern 
neighbours,  the  Agau,  and  their  eastern  and  irrectmcilable  enemies  the  Somalis. 
Both  speak  dialects  of  the  same  linguistic  family,  which  has  been  provisionally 
classed  in  the  "  Hamitic  "  group.     According  to  Erapf,  all  the  Gallas,  those  living 


t^lB^iltP 


THE  OALLAS. 


196 


le  Gadibursis, 
se  their  flocka 


are  one  of  the 
ettled  on  the 
age.  Even  as 
•e  scattered  or 
h  from  east  to 
to  the  Somali 
represented,  or 
Has  being  one 

11  miexplored, 
outh  of  Eafia, 
rell  acquainted 
sixth  century, 
ural  that  these 
>eke  the  G  alias 
eh  near  which 
ed  in  the  sense 
ts.  They  call 
'Brave  Men;" 
is  synonymous 

of  the  Gallas, 
*  original  home 
9unt  Eenia  are 
i;s  to  it  as  if  to 
Eteenth  century 
)m  Africa,  and 
has  even  con-  ' 
[an  Gallas,  the 

and  west  the 
)rding  to  Barth 
!enia  and  other 

led  Semites  and 
itions  with  the 
their  northern 
ies  the  Somalis. 
sn  provisionally 
las,  those  living 


in  the  vicinity  of  the  equator  as  well  as  the  Or6mos  of  Abyssinia,  speak  languages 
so  closely  related  that  they  can  easily  understand  each  other.  The  various  dialects 
may  be  reduced  to  five,  all  bearing  remote  resemblance  to  the  Semitic  tongues,  not 
in  their  vocabulary  but  in  their  phraseology,  indicating  a  similar  mental  constitu- 
tion. D'Abbadie  has  called  attention  to  a  certain  coincidence  between  a  large 
number  of  roots  and  grammatical  features  in  the  Basque  and  Galla  tongues.  The 
Gallaa  are  said  by  Bleek  to  possess  clicks  like  those  of  the  Hottentots,  but  the 
statement  has  not  been  confirmed  by  other  observers.  Ignorant  of  writing,  the 
Oromos  have  no  books  except  the  Bible,  introduced  by  the  missionaries,  and  which, 
with  a  few  dictionaries  and  a  grammar  by  Tuschek,  constitute  the  entire  Galla 


Fig.  62. 

—Routes  of 

THB  GhIBF  ExPLORBIM  IN  SoUTU  AbySSINIA. 

Suae  1 :  6,000.000. 

,tl'* 

I 

u\  i^  ^      \) 

IC 

li 

,^ 

^ 

\  5 

^V_f*^       ^nririlf      j^^"**^     *^y          V 

/ 

\ 

^^0 

r 

> 

jtf*0^ 

m 

Wi 

\  ^S'  ^ 

>*»,  \<^ 

\         ^^^'^^^^TN. 

''T^M 

"JH*^-.^^   "^ 

4S^ 

/.* 

^\y\  (\\ 

^       (f  ^-""^^ 

/• 

35* 

E, .  of  Greenwich 

40* 

Boate*  of  Antoine  d'AUndie. 

laoMilee. 


literature.  The  Ilm-Orma  country  is  also  occupied  by  peoples  of  different  stock 
speaking  another  dialect  as  yet  not  reduced  to  writing  by  the  missionaries.  They 
are  evidently  the  remains  of  conquered  peoples  forming  isolated  ethnological 
groups  amid  the  invading  hordes  of  the  Galla  nation.  In  the  open  Oromo  countrj' 
still  exist  a  few  groups  of  Amharinians  who  have  preserved  the  Abyssinian 
language.  . 

The  Gallas  are  usually  of  middle  height,  or  about  5  feet  4  inches,  although  men 
are  found  amongst  them  as  tall  as  the  Scandinavians.  They  are  broad-shouldered 
and  slender- waisted,  the  young  men  having  chests  which  would  delight  a  sculptor; 
the  legs  are  shapely,  the  feet  small  and  always  well  arched.    Strong,  active,  and 


^mm^' 


196 


N0BTH.E.V8T  AFRICA. 


slim,  they  resemble  the  Abyssinians,  and  more  especially  the  Agau,  to  whom  they 
are  probably  related ;  but  they  are  usually  of  a  more  attractive  and  open  cast  of 
countenance.  The  Gallas  are  extremely  dolichocephalous,  forehead  high  and 
rounded,  tl?e  nose  flat,  the  lips  full  but  rarely  pouting,  the  beard  thin  and  the  hair 
wavy  and  growing  in  separate  tufts.  The  finest  men  are  said  to  bo  found  amongst 
the  Limmus  and  Gudrus  on  the  banks  of  the  Aba'i,  who,  according  to  some  authors, 
may  be  token  as  types  of  the  race.     Like  the  bulk  of  the  natives  of  the  Upper 


Fig.  63.— Qalla  Gibl. 


?- 


Nile,  the  "  Sons  of  Men  "  are  very  skilful  in  dressing  their  hair  in  the  shape  of  a 
orescent,  a  halo,  or  in  long  tresses  ;  but  the  right  to  these  decorations  is.  limited  in 
many  tribes  to  those  who  have  killed  a  man,  under  penalty  of  having  it  shaved  off 
every  three  months.  The  skin  varies  greatly  in  shade ;  whilst  that  of  the  men  is  of 
a  deep  or  reddish  brown,  that  of  the  women  is  usually  very  light.  The  latter  are 
all  considered,  even  by  white  people,  to  be  very  handsome  in  their  youth.  According 
to  Beke,  the  complexion  of  the  Gallas  along  the  Abai  or  Blue  Nile  Valley  is  not 
darker  thuu  that  of  the  Andalusian  peasantry.     It  was  due  to  their  relatively  fair 


THE  OATJiAS. 


107 


to  whom  they 
open  cast  of 
u(l  high  and 
1  and  the  hair 
bund  amongst 
some  authors, 
of  the  Upper 


I  the  shape  of  a 
ns  is  limited  in 
ig  it  shaved  off 
)f  the  men  is  of 
The  latter  are 
nth.  According 
e  Valley  is  not 
I*  relatively  fair 


colour  that  the  Jesuits  derived  their  usual  name  from  the  Greek  word  gala,  that  is 
to  say,  "  milk."  The  men  and  women  are  gracefully  attired  in  the  Abyssinian 
toga,  and  the  hero  who  hos  distinguished  himself  by  some  famous  exploit  proudly 
])luntH  un  ostrich  plume  in  his  hair.  The  Gallas  are  armed  with  a  lance,  the  two- 
edged  knife,  and  a  shield  of  buffalo  or  rhinoceros  hide.  Their  dwellings,  which 
resemble  those  of  the  Abyssinians,  are  circles  of  rough  stones  conically  roofed  with 
g^ss  or  reeds.  They  are  nearly  all  built  under  the  shade  of  large  trees,  and  the 
traveller  traverses  many  villages  which  he  scarcely  perceives  through  the  dense 
forest  vegetation. 

The  northern  Ilm-Ormas,  like  their  Abyssinian  neighbours,  are  far  more  intel- 
ligent than  those  of  the  west,  and  acquire  languages  with  remarkable  facility. 
Like  the  civilised  Abyssinians,  they  till  the  land  and  breed  stock.  They  possess 
numerous  varieties  of  cereals,  good  horses,  the  best  mules  to  be  found  in  Central 
Africa,  and  two  varieties  of  oxen,  the  zebu  and  the  sanka,  with  long  horns  which 
when  sprouting  are  trained  to  grow  in  the  shape  of  a  lyre.  In  many  districts  all 
the  villages  are  occupied  with  bee-farming.  However,  the  Oallas  have  not  all 
the  peaceful  virtues  of  the  agriculturalist,  and  their  warlike  instinct  is  often 
aroused.  The  country  is  wasted  by  continual  feuds,  and  in  some  tribes  the  able 
men  have  been  reduced  by  more  than  two- thirds.  Even  in  the  family  itself,  end- 
less vendettas  are  carried  on,  unless  blood-money  has  been  accepted.  But  if  the 
Gallas  are  with  good  reason  feared  by  most  of  their  neighbours,  they  are  in  their 
turn  frequently  threatened  in  the  north  by  the  Abyssinians  of  Gojam  and  Shoa, 
and  to  the  east  by  the  Somalis,  whilst  the  slave-himters  often  make  successful 
razzias  into  their  forests.  The  children,  especially,  have  reason  to  dread  these 
marauders,  because  the  adult  Galla  will  often  starve  himself  rather  than  submit  to 
slavery,  whereas  if  taken  young  they  can  soon  be  trained  for  a  life  of  bondage. 
In  nearly  all  the  petty  Galla  states  the  trade  in  these  children  is  carried  on  to  the 
profit  of  the  chiefs  themselves,  some  of  whom  impose  a  direct  "  child-tax  "  on  each 
family,  whilst  others  accept  human  flesh  in  payment  of  imposts. 

Some  Galla  tribes  are  grouped  into  republican  federations,  but  the  bulk  of  them, 
engaged  in  interminable  wars,  have  elected  heyu  or  chiefs,  who  alone  of  aU  the 
Gallas  practise  polygamy.  Amongst  the  southern  Ilm-Ormas,  these  chiefs  are 
always  chosen  from  some  noble  family,  and  are  invested  with  power  merely  for  a 
termof  years. 

Most  of  the  Ilm-Ormas  were  converted  to  Abyssinian  Christianity  before  the 
invasion  of  Mohammed  Graiiheh,  or  the  "  Left-handed,"  who  overthrew  the  power 
of  the  ancient  Ethiopian  kings.  From  this  period  they  have  preserved  the  names 
of  a  few  saints,  the  celebration  of  Sunday  or  "  the  Great  Sabbath,"  and  some  other 
feasts  of  Christian  origin.  At  present  the  increasing  influence  of  the  Abyssinian 
sovereigns  has  compelled  several  Galla  tribes  to  re-embrace  the  monophysitio 
religion ;  some  of  the  natives  also  have  accepted  the  tenets  of  the  Protestant  and  < 
Catholic  missionaries.  The  native  priests,  originally  slaves  purchased  in  their 
youth  by  the  Capuchin  friars  from  the  parents  or  slave-dealers,  and  brought  up 
in  the  French  seminaries,  do  not  appear  to  enjoy  much  influence  with  their  fellow- 


it'  ':* 


•*W«»»rW»">iflPP»»- 


iiij*i,i      — ^ 


198 


NORTH-EAST  Ai'EICA. 


countrymen.  The  Maliommedans  have  heen  more  fortunate,  and  whole  populations 
have  fervently  embraced  the  faith  of  Islam. 

The  bulk  of  the  nation  has,  however,  remained  faithful  to  their  nature-worship. 
Nevertheless  the  Gallas  believe  in  Wak,  Waka,  or  "Wakayo,  a  supreme  god  whom 
they  confound  with  the  sky,  and  pray  to  for  rain  during  the  dry  season,  and  for 
victory  over  their  enemies.  They  have  also  other  inferior  gods,  to  judge  from 
their  names  evidently  of  foreign  origin.  Such  are  Saltan,  the  spirit  of  evil; 
Boventicha,  the  tutelar  genius  of  the  race ;  Oglieh,  the  god  of  generation,  to  whom 
sacriBces  are  offered  at  the  commencement  of  the  rainy  season;  and  Atetieh,  the 
goddess  of  fertility,  whose  feast  is  celebrated  at  harvest  time^  which  falls  at  the 
end  of  the  winter.  Moreover,  they  worship  all  living  things  and  all  formidable 
objects  of  nature,  such  as  the  forests,  rivers,  woods,  mountains,  thunder,  and  the 
winds ;  each  family  has  its  protecting  tree,  often  an  olive,  which  is  named  after 
the  Virgin,  St.  Michael  or  some  other  saint,  watered  with  the  blood  of  sacrificial 
victims  reared  on  honey  and  beer.  Of  animals  the  serpent,  "the  father  of  the 
world,"  is  the  most  worshipped,  and  many  a  cabin  has  its  domestic  snake.  The 
northern  Gallas  have  priests  and  sorcerers;  these  latter,  called  kalisha,  greatly 
dreaded  on  account  of  their  incantations,  pretend  that  they  can  dispose  of  the 
future  at  their  will,  causing  life  or  death,  and  conjuring  the  evil  spirit.  But  still 
more  terrible  are  the  buda,  or  were-wolves,  who  transform  themselves  into  wild 
beasts  and  cause  death  by  a  mere  glance.  Every  person  proved  to  be  a  "  buda  " 
is  immediately  butchered,  and,  as  in  mediasval  Europe,  it  is  the  old  women  who 
usually  fall  victims  to  these  popular  superstitions.  In  the  case  of  persons  merely 
"  possessed,"  an  incessant  drumming  and  exorcising  is  kept  up,  so  as  to  drive  out 
the  zar,  or  evil  spirit,  and  thus  effect  a  cure.  Thieves  are  scented  out  by  the  medium 
of  a  magician,  or  biba-shidi,  a  high  court  functionary,  who,  according  to  Antiuori, 
aided  by  the  terror  his  shrewdness  inspires,  rarely  fails  to  discover  the  culprit. 

The  Ilm-Ormas  seldom  practise  polygamy,  having  only  one  wife,  too  often  a  mere 
slave  (^barged  with  all  the  domestic  duties,  but  considered  unworthy  to  till  the  land, 
water  the  cattle,  or  milk  the  cows.  The  marriage  forms  are  very  numerous,  and 
that  of  abduction  is  still  honoured  amongst  certain  tribes,  the  suitor's  friends 
undertaking  the  seizure.  He  who  manages  to  seize  the  young  girl  and  carry  her 
off  in  spite  of  her  cries,  becomes  merely  by  this  act  her  brother  and  protector ;  he 
brings  her  to  the  lover's  hut,  a  cow  is  quickly  killed,  and  the  young  girl  sprinkled 
with  its  blood,  which  she  also  drinks.  The  union  is  henceforth  inviolable,  because 
the  Ilm-Ormas,  unlike  the  Somalis,  "  a  nation  of  traitors  and  perjurers,"  never 
break  their  pledg^  word.  However  this  abduction  is  often  a  mere  pretence,  the 
parents  themselves  bringing  the  sacrificial  cow  to  the  lover's  dwelling.  Sometimes 
it  is  the  young  girl  who  takes  the  initiative.  She  runs  away  from  the  paternal 
mansion  bearing  in  her  hand  a  tuft  of  fresh  grass,  with  which  she  crowns  the  head 
of  her  lover ;  then  kneeling  down  she  strikes  the  ground  to  the  right  and  to  the  left, 
as  if  to  take  possession  of  her  chosen  husband's  residence.  It  even  happens  that 
the  ugly  or  deformed  girls,  to  whom  no  young  man  would  be  tempted  to  throw  a 
necklet,  the  usual  form  of  asking  in  marriage,  are  assisted  by  their  parents  at  night 


THE  DALLAS. 


109 


ole  populations 

lature-worsbip. 

!me  god  whom 

eoson,  and  for 

to  judge  from 

spirit  of  evil; 

ation,  to  whom 

ad  Atotieh,  the 

)h  falls  at  the 

all  formidable 

mder,  and  the 

is  named  after 

d  of  sacrificial 

father  of  the 

c  snake.    The 

alisha,  greatly 

dispose  of  the 

irit.     But  still 

slves  into  wild 

bea"buda" 

id  women  who 

persons  merely 

as  to  drive  out 

by  the  medium 

ig  to  Antinori, 

be  culprit. 

00  often  a  mere 
A>  till  the  land, 
numerous,  and 
uitor's  friends 

and  carry  her 

protector;  he  ' 

girl  sprinkled 

olable,  because 

jurers,"  never 

pretence,  the 

a;.     Sometimes 

1  the  paternal 
owns  the  head 
md  to  the  left, 

happens  that 
tied  to  throw  a 
irents  at  night 


to  climb  over  the  encloeure  round  the  house  of  the  man  of  their  choice.  She  stops 
at  his  door  till  morning,  and  if  ho  does  not  succeed  in  driving  her  away  by  insults, 
she  has  conquered,  and  "as  required  by  the  laws  of  their  ancootors,"  the  young  man 
is  obliged  to  marry  her,  whether  he  desire  it  or  not.  When  a  Galla  fulls  seriously 
ill  and  there  is  no  hope  of  saving  his  To,  to  prevent  him  suffering  useless  pnin, 
his  friends  stifle  him  by  filling  his  mouth  with  clotted  milk  kept  in  place  by  a 
cloth.  In  some  tribes  the  children  and  relations  also  k  '\  their  aged  parents,  even 
when  not  ill.  The  funeral  ceremonies  are  regulated  according  to  custom.  A 
trophy  of  branches  is  placed  on  the  tomb,  indicating  the  wealth,  position,  and 
entire  history  of  the  deceased.      The  hair  of  women  floating  over  the  grave 

Fig.  64. — Population!  of  Sooth  Abyhimu. 
S«Ial:6M(m>. 


laoMiiM. 


expresses  grief  and  puts  the  evil  spirits  to  flight.  The  elder  brother  inherits  the 
wife  and  children ;  but  if  the  deceased  had  no  issue,  his  brother  or  relations  must 
adopt  or  purchase  an  heir,  who  takes  the  dead  man's  name,  and  thus  carries  on  the 
family.  Children  are  frequently  adopted  by  the  Gallas ;  the  wife  gives  the  child 
suck,  the  husband  gives  it  his  thumb  to  bite,  and  the  ties  of  relationship  are 
henceforth  inviolable. 

The  Galla  communities,  tribes  or  fractions  of  tribes,  which  hoar  a  distinct  name, 
differing  according  to  their  political  surroundings  and  their  upland  or  lowland 
place  of  habitation,  may  be  reckoned  by  the  hundred.  Some  of  the  clans  have 
become  Abyssinians  by  marriage  and  mode  of  life.  Such  are  principally  the  Mechas 
of  Gojam,  the  Jaggadas  of  Beghemeder,  all  nominally  Christians;    the  WoUo 


M 


i 


ISidn 


r^W* 


fmrn 


mmmfg^ 


200 


NOUTII-EAST  AiailOA. 


MohumincduiiH  of  the  grout  plutoiiu  bvtw(H<n  Ankol)cr  and  Magdala,  and  the 
hoath(<n  HoroniiH  of  the  Abiii  kwulla.  The  dreadod  i\HHoboH,  tho  liuyuN,  KjuH,  and 
DttwriH  on  the  pnsHos  and  euntorn  slopoN  of  tho  AI)y»Hiuiun  range,  have  for  the 
most  part  prosfrvwl  their  primitive  euHtotuH.  Tho  same  Ih  true  of  the  ind(>p<>ndent 
or  tributary  Ilm-Ormus  living  to  the  wext  of  Shoa,  towards  the  sources  of  tho 
Awash,  and  on  the  watorparting  between  the  Abai  and  the  Gugsa,  us  well  as  the 
Jillis,  Sixldos,  IIu(his,  FinHuis,  Muttas,  Nonnos,  Gudrus,  Ilorros,  Jummas,  and 
other  tribes  oecupying  tho  region  formerly  known  as  ♦'  Great  Daraot."  A  largo 
tract  of  territory  south  and  south-east  of  Shoa,  towards  Ilarrar,  is  inhabited  "by  the 
Ittus  and  Arnssis.  Lastly,  the  Sidainas,  ]>oopling  Innarya  (Dnarea),  and  Katfti,  in 
tho  Houth-westorn  region  of  Abyssinia,  are  regarded  as  a  branch  of  the  Galla  fa*nily. 
Amongst  them  Christianity  had  formerly  the  largest  number  of  adherents  and 
Abyssinian  culture  had  made  the  greatest  progress.  Their  colour  is  generally 
lighter  than  that  of  the  other  Ilm-Ormas,  and  the  Arabs  compare  the  complexion 
of  the  young  Sidama  girls  to  cinnamon.  To  tho  north  some  of  the  Sidama  speak 
Qonga,  a  tongue  related  to  the  Agau,  and  current  amongst  tho  i  )amot  Abyssiuians 
north  of  tho  Blue  Nile. 

i  .  Topography.  j 

The  political  centre  of  Shoa  occupies  the  watershed  on  the  two  slopes  of  the 
Abyssinian  range,  eastwards  towards  the  basin  of  tho  Awash,  and  westwards 
towards  that  of  the  Blue  Nile.  In  this  country,  where  tho  climate  is  temperate, 
and  where  the  soil,  better  cultivated  than  in  any  other  Abyssinian  region,  produces 
com  and  fruits  in  abundance,  are  grouped  the  civilised  popidations  of  Abyssinian 
origin,  and  here  stood  the  cities  successively  chosen  as  capitals  of  the  kingdom  of 
Shoa.  The  palaces  being  merely  large  huts,  it  is  easy  to  shift  the  site  of  the 
capitals,  and  the  residence  of  the  sovereign  has  changed  several  times  during  this 
century,  according  to  tho  strategic  advantages  or  the  royal  caprice. 

Licheh,  the  present  capital,  founded  by  King  Menelik,  and  hence  the  greatest 
market  in  the  country,  stands  on  a  terrace  at  the  western  base  of  the  mountains 
culminating  in  Mount  M^tatiteh,  between  two  ravines  forming  the  beds  of  two 
headstreams  of  the  Jemma,  an  affluent  of  the  Blue  Nile.  To  the  east  on  an  isolated 
rock  still  nearer  to  the  range,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Wat,  or  the  "  Abyss,"  are  the 
ruins  of  Tegulet,  the  "  Town  of  Wolves,"  which  became,  after  Aksum,  the  capital  of 
Abyssinia,  whilst  its  name  was  used  for  some  time  to  designate  the  whole  of  Shoa. 
The  fortress  of  Tegulet,  which  overawed  the  land,  was  taken  by  assault  and  destroyed 
in  1528  by  Mohammed  Grafiheh,  the  conqueror  of  Abyssinia.  A  few  miles  to  the 
south,  on  another  terrace,  over  which  auriferous  streams  fall  in  imposing  cascades, 
lies  Debra^Berham,  or  "  Mountain  of  Light,"  which  was  the  royal  residence  till  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  To  the  south-west,  in  the  same  river  basin  of 
the  Jemma,  two  small  wooded  heights,  surrounded  by  formidable  gorges,  bear  at  an 
elevation  of  some  9,300  fcut  the  houses  of  Angolala,  another  abandoned  capital, 
founded  in  1830  by  King  Sehla  Sellasieh.     Lastly,  there  exists  a  fiftli  capital, 


dala,  and  the 
yuH,  Ejus,  and 

huvo  for  the 
Hi  indopondcnt 
HourccH  <»f  tho 
,  U8  woU  U8  thu 

Junimas,  und 
ot."  A  lurgo 
hubitedijy  tho 
,  und  Kaifti,  in 
e  GuUa  fo-nily. 
adherents  and 
r  is  generally 
;he  complexion 

Siduinit  spouk 
ot  Abyssinians 


0  slopes  of  the 
md  westwards 
i  is  temperate, 
)gion,  produces 
of  Abyssinian 
;he  kingdom  of 
he  site  of  the 
aes  during  this 

3e  the  greatest 
the  mountains 
le  beds  of  two 
t  on  on  isolated 
ibyss,"  are  the 
I,  the  capital  of 
whole  of  Shoa. 
^  and  destroyed 
9w  miles  to  the 
losing  cascades, 
isidenco  till  the 
e  river  basin  of 
'ges,  bear  at  an 
idoned  capital, 
i  fiftn  capital, 


rm 


mmmm 
mmmm 


,'■'* 


r 


tj 


,fc. 


mpNi 


ToroUilAI'IIY. 


ioi 


hiHtorically  more  fumouH  than  the  othors,  nua  place  where  many  Kurnpean  exphtrorB 
have  ri<Mt(><l,  and  uh  the  {Mtint  of  departure  or  arrival  for  t)i(>  Ued  Sea  enruvanH. 
Ankolicr,  tho  V(>ry  name  of  whieh  phice  recallM  the  faet  that  from  the  roniotcMt  tinien 
diieH  were  here  h'vied  on  foreign  warcM,  in  alno  the  remrh'tice  of  the  higher  ee<deMiaHlieal 
funelioiiarieH.  AnkoU>r,  a  labyrinth  of  pathH  wiiidiufj^  between  the  eity  hutN,  in 
delightfully  mtiuited  on  the  ridj^t-s  of  a  nphinx-Hhaped  mountain  whieh  projeetH 
ouHtwardN  of  the  nuiin  chain,  (tr>inmanding  a  valley  whence  the  waterH  drain  Nouth- 
wanls  to  the  Awanh.  CKmjc  by  to  the  north  Ih  the  Ntatiou  of  Lvt-Mnrrfiit,  whieh 
the  Italian  explorerH  Cocchi,  Chiarini,  and  AntoneUi  choso  for  their  .,  tronomieal 
observations.  Let-Marofia  Hch  at  the  bottom  of  un  old  crater,  whence  the  lava-streamM 
were  diHcharged  to  the  Houth-wcHt.  These  lavas  and  adjacent  terrace  lands  are 
encirclwl  by  an  amphitheatre  of  hills,  two  of  which,  or  rather  two  fragments  of  the 
Abyssinian  i)lateau  connected  with  the  uplands  by  narrow  ridges  bordered  with 

Fig.  66.— CHiBr  TowNH  or  Eaw  Uhoa* 
Boalol:  eSO.OOO. 


59'40 


>  13  HUM. 


precipices,  bear  the  two  ambas  of  Emanhrei,  or  Ememret,  and  Fekereh-Qemb,  which 
are  regarded  by  the  Abyssinians  as  impregnable.  The  latter  fort  contains  in  its 
terminal  tower  the  treasures  of  King  Mcnclik  and  the  supplies  for  his  array.  To 
the  north,  in  the  valleys  of  the  spurs,  the  villages  of  Aramba,  Kokfara,  Daweh, 
Majettieh,  and  several  others  follow  in  succession  as  far  :\i:  i:he  country  of  the  Eju 
Gallas.  7  >v,       ' 

In  the  remote  future,  when  the  question  of  connecting  southern  Abyssinia 
with  ther  Red  Sea  coast  shall  be  seriously  thought  ■:,  three  natural  routes  indicated 
by  running  waters  cannot  fail  to  be  explore :  to  the  north  that  which  descends 
from  the  plateau  of  southern  Lasta  by  the  river  Golima,  and  is  lost  in  a  depression 
flooded  by  brackish  waters ;  and  far'her  south,  under  the  latitude  of  Magdala,  that 
following  the  Melleh  or  Addifuah  River  valley  as  far  as  the  confluence,  and  thence 
to  the  Awash  and  Lake  Aussa,  where  it  rejoins  the  caravan  route  towards  Tajurah 
Bay.     Another  route,  as  yet  unexplored  by  Europeans,  descends  from  the  Argobba 


. 


1^   fl 


lit 


n 


202 


NOETH-EAST  APEICA. 


towards  the  Awash  by  the  market-towns  of  Daweh  and  Mejettieh.  Abargues  de 
Sosten  claims  to  hare  explored  these  two  northern  routes  in  their  upper  part,  in 
spite  of  the  vicinity  of  the  dreaded  Dawri  tribes.  Bianchi  has  recently  attempted 
to  explore  another  and  more  northern  route,  from  Makaleh  to  the  port  of  Assab,  by 
way  of  the  country  of  the  Taltals ;  but  he  was  compelled  to  retrace  his  steps.  The 
presence  of  ferocious  peoples  on  the  spurs  prevent  traders  from  visiting  this  part 
of  the  Abyssinian  watershed,  whilst  the  caravans  coming  from  the  Red  Sea  coast 
or  Tajurah  Bay  are  compelled  to  make  a  complete  detour  from  the  direct  route  to 
reach  the  provinces  of  Shoa.  From  Tajurah  to  the  town  of  Ankober,  the  usual 
caravan  route  is  about  360  miles,  some  120  to  150  miles  longer  than  the  direct 
route  towards  the  plateau. 

At  present  the  most  frequented  route  between  Ankober  and  the  shores  of  the 
Indian  Ocean  is  that  which  passes  through  the  principality  of  Harrar,  terminating 
in  the  port  of  Zeila.  From  the  Shoa  uplands,  it  descends  at  first  to  the  town  of 
Aliu-Amba,  inhabited,  like  the  neighbouring  village  of  Abderaaul,  by  merchants, 
slave-dealers,  hotel-keepers  and  muleteers  of  all  races,  nearly  all  of  whom,  how- 
ever, are  zealous  Mussulmans.  After  pajring  the  custom-house  duties,  the  caravans 
pass  on  to  Farreh,  or  Farri,  the  last  village  of  the  province  of  Efat,  built  at  a  height 
of  5,560  feet  on  a  projecting  terrace ;  then  skirting  the  craters  and  lava-fields, 
they  reach  the  Awash,  which  they  cross  to  enter  on  the  great  plain  of  Mullii. 
Beyond  this  point  the  caravans  proceed  over  the  hills  of  a  watershed,  belonging  to 
the  country  of  the  Ittus,  thence  redescending  into  the  plain  of  Harrar.  Some  24 
miles  west  of  this  town  is  the  little  Lake  Haramoya,  near  which  the  French 
explorer  Lucereau  was  assassinated  in  1881. 

Harkar  and  Zgi'lah. 

The  town  of  Harrar,  also  called  JSarrayheh  by  the  Abyssinians,  Ada  or  Adari 
by  the  Somalia,  and  Herrer  by  the  Egyptians,  is  stated  by  travellers  to  be  exactly 
midway  between,  or  170  miles  from,  Ankober  and  Zeila.  Lying  at  an  altitude  of 
5,600  feet,  Harrar  enjoys  a  relatively  temperate  climate,  from  64'  to  59°  F.,  and 
is  surrounded  by  fertile  fields  and  groves  of  diversified  vegetation.  A  delightful 
and  well- watered  oasis  situated  on  the  border  of  the  arid  regions,  Harrar  could 
support  itself,  even  if  it  had  no  commercial  relations  with  the  neighbouring 
countries.  But  it  is  moreover  an  important  market-town,  and  its  two  ports,  Zeila 
and  Berbera  on  the  Somali  coast,  keep  up  a  brisk  trade  with  Egypt  and  Arabia. 
In  1883  it  had  an  European  settlement  of  five  persons.  Said  to  have  been  founded 
three  centmues  ago,  it  is  the  most  populous  city  in  the  whole  of  Abyssinia,  and 
even  one  of  the  largest  on  the  continent,  for  from  Cairo  to  Zanzibar,  a  distance  of 
2,400  miles,  its  only  rival  is  Khartum.  Accordingly  the  Egyptian  Gh)vernment 
took  possession  of  it  in  1875,  so  as  to  protect  this  precious  market  from  the  attacks 
of  the  surrounding  Somali  and  Galla  tribes;  but  the  garrison  of  from  four  thousand 
to  five  thousand  soldiers,  more  dangerous  than  the  nomads  in  the  vicinity,  has 
exhausted  the  country  by  oppression  and  plunder.    The  English,  who  as  they 


"^»!i|l# 


WmuT' 


"(iiMm 


I.  Abargues  de 
•  upper  part,  in 
ently  attempted 
lort  of  Aasab,  by 
his  steps.  The 
isiting  this  part 
le  Red  Sea  coast 
3  direct  route  to 
kober,  the  usual 
than  the  direct 

he  shores  of  the 
Tar,  terminating 
it  to  the  town  of 
/,  by  merchants, 
.  of  whom,  how- 
Aes,  the  caravans 
built  at  a  height 
I  and  lava-fields, 
plain  of  Mullu. 
led,  belonging  to 
irrar.  Some  24 
lich  the  French 


ns,  Ada  or  Adari 
lers  to  be  exactly 
'  at  an  altitude  of 
"■  to  69°  F.,  and 
a.  A  delightful 
ns,  Harrar  could 
he  neighbouring 
}  two  ports,  Zeila 
rypt  and  Arabia, 
ave  been  founded 
>f  Abyssinia,  and 
ibar,  a  distance  of 
itian  Government 
;;  from  the  attacks 
'om  four  thousand 
the  vicinity,  has 
ish,  who  as  they 


HABBAE  AND  ZEILAH. 


208 


possess  the  seaboard,  are  the  heirs  to  Egypt,  have  already  taken  the  necessary  steps 
to  secure  this  prize,  which  Burton  was  the  first  Englishman  to  visit,  in  1855.  On 
withdrawing  the  Egyptian  garrison  they  hoisted  the  British  flag  on  the  walls. 
The  king  of  Shoa,  who  was  also  desirous  to  obtain  this  town,  had  not  sufficient 
strength  to  struggle  against  such  rivals. 

Harrar,  whose  shape  may  be  compared  to  that  of  a  pear,  lies  on  a  granite  hill 
which  gradually  tapers  to  the  west.  To  the  south  Mount  Hakim  commands  the 
town  from  a  height  of  some  660  feet,  giving  birth  to  many  streams,  which  water 
the  gardens  of  Harrar  and  become  lost  in  the  marshes  before  reaching  the  Wabi,  a 
tributary  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  numerous  grottoes  of  Hakim  are  inhabited  by 
long-tuiled  yellow  monkeys,  with  thick  manes.  Contrasting  with  the  scattered 
dwellings  of  other  Abyssinian  cities,  the  nine  thousand  five  himdred  terraced 
dwellings  of  Harrar,  covering  a  space  of  only  120  acres,  and  built  of  calcareous  rock 
full  of  vegetable  fossils,  are  crowded  together  within  a  rampart  of  stones  flanked  by 
embattled  towers.  The  houses  have  few  openings  on  the  narrow,  winding,  steep 
lanes,  whilst  the  few  irregular  squares  usually  open  on  the  mosques ;  the  largest 
public  space,  called  the  Meidan,  occupies  the  simmut  of  the  hill.  The  Harrari, 
nearly  all  merchants,  are  fanatic  Mussulmans  of  the  Shiah  sect,  like  the  Persians 
and  several  tribes  of  Southern  Arabia.  From  these  countries  probably  came  the 
missionaries  who  converted  the  Somalis  and  Gallas  to  their  faith,  and  whose  des- 
cendants  constitute  the  present  population  of  the  city.  When  the  Harrari  meet 
together  to  chew  the  leaves  of  the  kat  {celastrua  edulis),  which  is  as  highly  prized 
by  them  as  by  the  natives  of  Yemen  as  a  stimulant,  they  begin  and  end  the  evening 
with  readings  from  the  £oran  and  acts  of  thanksgiving,  "  because  this  holy  plant 
enables  us  to  prolong  our  vigils  longer  into  the  night,  in  order  to  worship  tho 
Lord." 

The  society  of  Harrar  differs  from  the  rest  of  the  Mussulman  world  in  the 
respect  that  is  shown  to  women.  Before  the  arrival  of  the  Egyptians,  the  emir, 
alone  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  this  country,  had  more  than  one  wife,  whilst  divorces, 
so  common  in  other  Mohammedan  countries,  are  here  of  rare  occurrence.  Besides, 
the  women  are  unveiled,  and  sell  the  products  of  their  gardens  in  the  bazaar,  the- 
men  taking  on  themselves  all  the  hard  work;  and  this  town  is  also  distinguished  by 
its  love  of  letters.  According  to  Mohammed  Mukhtar,  all  the  children  read  and 
write  Arabic,  although  it  is  a  foreign  language  differing  greatly  from  their  own, 
which  is  either  of  Galla  origin,  or  according  to  Burton  and  Muller,  of  Semitic  stock. 
But  they  write  the  letters  vertically,  instead  of  from  right  to  left.  They  have  a 
certain  literature,  and  their  writers  do  not  restrict  themselves  to  mere  comments  on 
the  Koran.  One  of  the  local  industries  is  bookbinding.  Although  essentially  a 
commercial  town,  Harrar  has  scarcely  any  industries,  excepting  that  of  its  highly 
prized  potteries,  and  its  manufactories  of  togas,  the  black  robes  and  mantillas  worn  ■ 
by  the  women,  and  the  red  garments  reserved  for  the  young  girls.  Most  of  the 
other  manufactured  articles  are  imported  from  Arabia,  and  the  chaplets  worn  by  the 
Harrar  people  are  made  by  immigrants  from  Hadramaut.  Since  the  people  have 
exchanged  their  independent  state  for  the  Egyptian  rule,  they  have  lost  much  of 


■s;^i«r* 


■.■a<..|.>i,»Mfc<.tw>.p,ijitiiiiMjB.'.viL»wiff'rti^!r'''''<i<>js*>**wriijw»»^^*w 


204 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


I 


their  property,  the  population  has  diminished,  and  hysenaa  prowl  around  the  town- 
walls.  CofEee- growing  is  the  principal  occupation  of  the  region  around  Harrar  and 
in  the  plains  tilled  by  the  Gallas ;  the  berry,  which  is  of  a  superior  quality,  is 
exported  from  Hodeidah  and  Aden,  under  the  name  of  "  Mocha."  Like  the  Yemen 
Arabs,  the  Ilarrari  do  not  infuse  the  coffee,  although  they  drink  decoctions  of  bark 
and  dried  leaves.  Tobacco,  the  opium  poppy,  bananas,  oranges,  and  grapes  are 
also  produced  on  the  plains  of  Harrar ;  the  potato  has  recently  been  introduced, 
and  all  the  vegetables  imported  from  Europe  have  thrived  welL    In  ita  forests 

-■.,,<.     ;;.      ;,,;      Fig.  66. — Habbar.  ,;4'    c-,^-^       .'t^-'      'M  ■;.- :.>.i ^• 

Beait  1 :  9,600. 


>>■".  OU*.  .■''.'i 


L  .  t<f  u'eewvicJ" 


4I*45'50' 


4C44 


Cemetsriet. 


.iXm 


,  1,000  feet. 


Giuletti  has  discoverc'd  the  coj/hr,  or  musical  acacia,  which  Schweinfurth  describes 
on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Sobat. 

Two  routes,  often  blocked  by  the  inroads  of  plund  ang  hordes,  lead  from 
Harrar  to  Zeila.  One  crosses  a  ridge  to  the  north  of  the  tuvvn,  thence  redescending 
into  the  basin  of  the  Awash  by  the  G  dessa  Pass  and  valley,  and  from  this  point 
running  tow  trds  the  sea  through  the  Issa  territory,  which  is  crossed  by  a  chain  of 
trachytic  rocks  trending  southwards.  The  other  and  moro  direct  but  more  rugged 
route  ascends  north-eastwards  towards  the  Darmi  Pass,  crossing  the  country  of  the 
Gadibursis  or  Gudabursis.  The  town  of  Zeila  lies  south  of  a  small  archipelago  of 
islets  and  reefs  on  a  point  of  the  coast  where  it  is  hemmed  in  by  the  Gadibursi 
tribe.  It  has  two  ports,  one  frequented  by  boats  but  impracticable  for  ships, 
whilst  the  other,  not  far  south  of  the  town,  although  very  narrow,  is  from  26  to  33 


r  ?■ 


TAJURAH— OBOK— ASSAB. 


205 


nd  the  town- 
i  Harrur  and 
or  quality,  is 
ie  the  Yemen 
tiona  of  bark 
i  grapes  are 
1  introduced, 
n  its  forests 


^ 

•.•>« 

•'  ■,'^. 

.•.o».-. 

;.'i! 

t^ 

9- 

K-'V 

IH 

X' 

30- 

r^ 

^f^ 

S-* 

■^■•1 

1^ 

it*' 

Sj? 

V-'    \ 

J  .V- 

i  .  )• 

;-uV 

9- 

■ . . 

18 

'A- 

10 

^.e- 

^■'^• 

\ 

*                1 

feet  deep,  and  affords  safe  shelter  to  large  craft.  According  to  Rochet  d'llericourt, 
it  is  not  of  sufficient  size  to  accommodate  more  than  eight  or  nine  vessels  of  from 
three  to  four  hundred  tons.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  town  lies  a  large  saline  plain, 
whence  the  Issa  camel-drivers  obtain  the  salt  which  they  sell  to  the  Harrari  at  a 
high  price.  Zei'la  has  no  springs ;  hence  every  morning  a  long  string  of  camels  is 
dispatched  to  seek  the  n*--  "ary  water  in  the  wadi  of  Tacosha,  Three-fourths  of 
the  population  consists  oi  J'-sa  Gallas,  and  every  evening  the  village  resounds  with 

Fig.  67.— Zbila. 

SoalP  1  r  400,000. 


otoie 


Depth*. 


tetoas 

Fe«t. 


83  to  80 

feet. 


80  Feet  and 
upwards. 


■    ? 


urth  describes 


Reefli. 


.SMiln. 


)B,  lead  from 
redescending 
om  this  point 
by  a  chain  of 
I  more  rugged 
ountry  of  the 
ircbipelago  of 
;he  Gadibursi 
[>le  for  ships, 
from  26  to  33 


their  warlike  or  other  national  songs.  A  small  English  garrison  from  Aden  now 
occupies  the  town,  so  that  there  is  some  hope  that  the  slave-trade  may  at  last  bo 
suppressed,  of  which  Zeila  has  hitherto  been  one  of  the  principal  centres. 

Tajurah,  Obok,  Assab. 

The  route  between  Shoa  and  Tajurah  Bay  does  not  enjoy,  like  that  of  Zc'ila,  the 
advantage  of  a  midway  station  such  as  the  city  of  Harrar;  still  the  principal  town 
of  the  Anssa  district,  situated  near  the  southern  bank  of  a  fresh- water  lake,  which 
receives  the  waters  of  the  Awash,  may  be  regarded  as  a  veritable  town.     It  is  a 


IJ 


j'«!iiH)iHm»'a*'Wi>w>Mi—'iiiini  ]  i!»niMnii"i^iiiw  ■■'«ywwwwffi?mw 


206 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


collection  of  more  than  a  thousand  huts  where  are  settled  the  merchants  and  camel- 
drivers  of  the  Moda'ito  Danakil  tribe,  and  was  once  the  capital  of  the  Mussulman 
kingdom  of  Adel.  From  Aussa  to  Tajurah  Bay  follow  in  succession  several  other 
groups  of  cabins  also  belonging  to  the  Afar  tribes,  and  the  northern  shore  of  the 
bay  is  bordered  by  widely  scattered  hamlets  and  villages.  Amongst  others  is  that  of 
Sangalo,  which  served  till  recently  as  the  port  whence  the  Galla  slaves  were  shipped 
to  Arabia,  and  which  was  annexed  to  France  in  1882  by  the  French  explorer 


Fig.   38.— COUBSB  op  TRB  LOWBB  AWABH. 
Scia*  1 :  3.700,000. 


■•■  m. 


,  aOUUes. 


Solelliet.  Still  farther  east  the  hamlet  of  Ambabo  stands  on  a  beach  whence  slaves 
have  also  been  frequently  shipped  in  spite  of  the  French  or  Enf.ush  cruisers  which 
are  stationed  on  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  Beyond  Ambabo  stunds  the  town  of 
Tqj'urah,  which  has  given  its  name  to  the  great  bay  reaching  some  36  miles  into 
the  interior.  Like  Sangalo,  this  village  has  been  ceded  to  France  by  the  chief  of 
the  Ad-Ali  tribe,  but  neither  of  ';hese  hamjets  were  formally  taken  possession  of 
till  the  year  1884.     The  beach  of  Tajurah  is  unfortunately  almost  level;  the  port  is 


ni^i|iiii^i>ii^(iii 


TAJUEAH— OBOK— A8SAB. 


207 


its  and  camel- 
6  Mussulman 
several  other 
1  shore  of  the 
hers  is  that  of 
i  were  shipped 
)nch  explorer 


whence  slaves 
cruisers  which 
ids  the  town  of 
36  miles  into 
by  the  chief  of 
.  possession  of 
el;  the  port  is 


badly  sheltered,  and  not  of  sufficient  depth  to  admit  vessels  of  small  tonnage.  The 
only  part  of  the  coast  whore  the  French  have  at  last  founded  a  permanent  station, 
after  having  ignored  the  deed  of  concession,  which  was  signed  in  1862,  for  over 
twenty  years,  is  on  the  eastern  peninsula  of  the  Danakil  country,  between  the  Bay 
of  Tajurah  and  the  mouth  of  the  Bed  Sea.  The  hamlet  of  Ohok,  in  the  immediate 
vicinity,  has  given  its  name  to  the  whole  of  the  annexed  territory,  and  here  in  1881 
the  first  commercial  house  was  opened  by  Amoux,  a  merchant  who  later  on 
perished  in  a  tribal  feud. 

Obok  offers  great  advantages  as  a  port  of  call  for  steamers.     Situated  near  the 

I  fig-  69.— Tajukah  Bat  amd  Lakb  Assal.    x 

Scale  1 :  900,00a 


.  af  Greenwich 


•42M0 


otoieo 

Feet. 


Depth. 


160to8S0 
feet. 


890  Feet 
nnd  upwards. 

IS  Miles. 


Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  it  commands  the  passage  to  much  greater  advantage  than 
the  town  of  Aden,  and  transports  could  here  put  in  for  coal  without  altering  their 
course.  Although  this  port  cannot  be  compared  to  that  of  Aden,  yet  it  possesses  a 
good  anchorage,  which  might  be  completely  sheltered  at  small  cost.  It  is  separated 
from  the  high  sea  by  coral  reefs,  in  which  are  openings  accessible  to  large  ships ; 
the  north  and  north-easterly  winds,  so  feared  by  sailors,  are  deflected  from  the 
harbour  by  Rds-el-Bir,  or  "  The  Promontory  of  Wells,"  which  projects  into  the 
sea  north  of  Obok.  The  gradually  widening  valley,  where  the  buildings  of  the 
growing  village  are  beginning  to  replace  the  thickets  of  acacias  and  other  trees,  is 
commanded  by  a  coraline  cliff  about  60  feet  high,  the  ravines  by  which  it  is 


Mm 


208 


NORTH-EAST  Ai'KICA. 


intersected  servinj?  as  channels  for  the  floods  during  the  rare  rainfalls.  The 
upper  terrace  is  itself  separated  from  the  plain  of  the  Danakils  by  a  second 
somewhat  less  elevated  cliff.  Although  the  station  of  Obok  suifors  greatly  from 
drought,  the  district  might  be  reclaimed,  and  travellers,  comparing  the  vegetation 
of  Obok  with  the  naked  and  burning  rocks  of  Aden,  describe  this  new  station  as 
an  oasis.  On  sinking  wells  in  the  valley  water  is  everywhere  found  at  a  depth  of 
from  3  to  5  feet,  a  little  brackish  near  the  shore,  but  perfectly  sweet  farther  inland. 
King  Mcnelik  has  granted  a  formal  concession  to  a  French  explorer  to  build  a 
narrow-gauge  railway  between  Ankober  and  Obok.    Many  of  the  caravans  coming 

Fig.  70.— Obok. 

Scale  1 :  64.000. 


BaaAa  ezpoaed 
at  low  water. 


OtoSS 

Feet. 


rcpttiB. 


satoso 

I^eet. 


80  to  160 

Feci 

,  S,2C0  Taidi. 


100  Feet  and 
upwards. 


from  Shoa  have  already  commenced  trading  with  this  settlement.  The  extent  of 
the  lands  on  the  northern  shore  of  Tajurah  Bay  that  have  been  conceded  to 
France  is  estimated  at  1,200  square  miles. 

The  commercial  rivalry  existing  between  the  Europ  >an  nations,  which  has 
made  Zeila  an  English  city,  and  which  now  creates  the  French  town  of  Obok  on 
this  coraline  African  coast,  also  caused  an  Italian  colony  to  spring  up  on  the  same 
seaboard  in  1870.  Southern  Abyssinia,  till  recently  almost  cut  o£E  from  the  world, 
will  thus  possess  for  the  exportation  of  its  commodities  three  maritime  ports 
belonging  to  as  many  different  foreign  powers.  No  serious  attempts  to  utilise  the 
town  of  AKsab  were  made  till  1882.  The  new  town,  which  already  possesses 
several  buildings  in  the  European  style,  lies  72  miles  directly  north  of  Obok,  and 


'^!^ 


tnfttllH.  The 
by  a  second 

greatly  from 
ho  vegetation 
lew  station  as 

at  a  depth  of 
urther  inland, 
per  to  build  a 
'avons  coming 


Feet  and 
iwarda. 


The  extent  of 
in  conceded  to 

)ns,  which  has 
nm  of  Obok  on 
ip  on  the  same 
Tom  the  world, 
maritime  ports 
ts  to  utilise  the 
ready  possesses 
1  of  Obok,  and 


1^ 


-:^*i;i^L, --:*>' 


'< 


\m\ 


mummmasm 


^^^■■: 


TAJURAH— OBOK— A88AB. 


36  milos  from  Bub-cl-Mundob,  north  of  a  long  littorul  indentation.  NunicrouA 
isluts  acatturcd  ut  tho  entrance  of  the  hurbour  shut  out  the  seu,  exc«>])ting  to  the 
north-east,  and  are  continued  by  reefs  which  the  suud,  mud,  seaweed  und  coral  are 
gradually  causing  to  encruuch  on  the  buy,  so  that  these  ishinds  must  sooner  or 
later  become  u  peninsula  of  the  mainland.      Tho  well-protected  port,  situated  on 

Fiff.  71.— Ah8ab. 
Boole  1 :  SItW/WO. 


4e°45' 


E    .    of    Greenwich 


42°55 


Depths. 


^ 


0tfl»8 

!,2to64 

e4to<« 

80  Feet 

Feci. 

Teet. 

Feet. 

andapwaida 
.6MUn. 

the  beach  of  Bou'ia,  about  half  a  mile  south  of  Assab,  affords  anchorage  to  the 
largest  vessels  within  600  feet  of  the  coast.  The  territory  of  Assab  is  a  shifting 
dune  or  hard  rock  nearly  destitute  of  vegetation.  Near  the  neighbouring  village 
of  Margahleh  are  a  few  pools  of  water  fringed  with  verdure  ;  here  and  there  the 
Afar  huts  are  shaded  by  some  clumps  of  palms,  while  along  the  intermittent 
streams  the  brushwood  is  matted  together  by  a  network  of  creeping  plants.  The 
14 — AF.  '"'' '     -.'..'.,       ■■.       '  "       '"  '  ■'■'     "■■      y  v'"'":'--^'''  ■'-''  /   '  ' 


■fWfll* 


iJ 


'  n 


.t  i 


21U 


NOUTU-EA8T  AFRICA. 


town  of  AnHab,  huving  to  f'btain  pure  wutor  by  distillation,  and  poHseming  no 
arublo  lunds  or  ngricultumi  industries,  cannot  exiwct  u  grout  comniorcial  future ; 
its  only  product  is  suit,  and  oven  this  cunnot  be  worked  in  siifoty.  JJut  the  few 
Italians  in  Assub,  round  whom  are  grouped  some  five  hundred  Arabs,  Afars,  and 
Somulis,  aro  making  grout  efforts  to  establish  permanent  relations  between  their 
station  and  the  towns  of  8hoa.  Although  at  a  grout  distance  from  the  rich 
CfU.iiries  of  the  interior,  b<ung  at  least  twenty-two  and  usually  twenty-five  days' 
march  from  Ankober,  Assub  bus  begun  to  import  some  merchandise,  such  as  coffee, 
hides,  and  other  prcxlucts,  thanks  to  the  efforts  of  Antonelli,  Dianchi,  and  other 
travellers.  But  this  slight  traffic  can  only  be  carried  on  under  the  guidance  and 
protection  of  the  natives.  The  explorer  Giuletti  and  several  companions,  hoping 
to  |)us8  through  under  the  safe  conduct  of  the  neighbouring  tribes,  were  assassinated 
ot  seven  or  eight  days'  march  into  the  interior.  Nearly  all  the  trade  carried  on 
with  Aden  and  Hodeidah,  is  conducted  by  means  of  aambucs  ranging  from  seven  to 
ten  tons  burden,  and  the  annual  movement  which  takes  place  in  the  port  numbers 
some  four  hundred  vessels.  The  town  of  Raheita,  situated  farther  south,  is  the 
residence  of  u  sultan,  who  is  also  a  wealthy  dealer  in  mother-o'-poarl,  ostrich- 
feathers,  incense,  myrrh,  and  other  products  of  this  coast  region.  The  littoral 
town  of  Bdibul,  to  the  north,  is  the  residence  of  another  sultan  under  the  protection 
of  the  Italian  Government. 

Dehra-Libanos,  Rooeh,  Dildilla. 

In  the  western  region  of  Shoa,  the  most  important  place  is  the  commercial  town 
of  Ficheh,  built  at  the  angle  of  a  plateau,  between  deep  kwallas.  Near  here  stands 
the  famous  monastery  of  Debra-Libunos,  or  Mount  Liban,  built  on  a  trachytic 
terrace  from  which  runs  a  little  rivulet,  looked  upon  as  holy  by  Christians,  Pagans, 
and  Mussulmans  alike.  Pilgrims  come  from  all  parts  to  bathe  in  these  miraculous 
and  healing  waters,  which  were  created  by  the  voice  of  Tekla-Haimanot,  the 
legendary  saint  of  the  Abyssinians.  At  the  time  of  the  voyage  of  Combes  and 
Tamisier,  the  monastery  was  occupied  by  three  thousand  monks,  two-thirds  of  whom 
were  old  soldiers  mutilated  during  their  expeditions  into  the  Galla  country.  No 
other  place  of  refuge  is  more  respected  than  Debra-Libanos.  Before  crossing  the 
escarpments  of  the  sacred  mountain  the  pilgrims  must  cleanse  themselves  from  their 
sins  in  the  waters  of  the  Ziga  Wodiem — that  is,  "  flesh  and  blood  " — which  flows 
through  a  deep  gorge.  On  a  neighbouring  height,  whence  a  view  over  the  valley 
of  the  Aba'i  can  be  had  of  the  Gojam  and  Damot  mountains,  stands  an  ancient 
fortress  which  served  as  a  place  of  refuge  for  one  of  the  ancestors  of  Menelik,  at 
the  time  of  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the  "Left-handed."  Zena-Markos, 
another  monastery  situated  north-west  of  Ficheh,  on  a  plateau  surrounded  by 
ravines,  is  almost  as  opulent  and  as  much  frequented  as  that  of  Debra-Libanos.  To 
the  north  the  plateaux,  as  far  as  Magdala  and  the  sources  of  the  Takkazeh,  are 
occupied  by  the  WoUos  and  other  Galla  peoples.  The  "Wollos,  who  are  divided  into 
seven  tribes,  are  immigrants  come  from  the  south  in  the  sixteenth  century,  at  the 


MM 


ilULillljJi. 


posseming  no 
orcittl  future ; 

J  Jut  the  few 
>8,  Afurs,  uiul 
between  thoir 
rom  the  rich 
mty-five  duys' 
such  as  coffee, 
chi,  and  other 
guidance  and 
unions,  hoping 
ire  a88a88inut«}d 
ade  carried  on 
from  seven  to 
)  port  numbers 
r  south,  is  the 
pearl,  ostrich- 

The  littoral 
the  proteotioa 


>mmercial  town 
[ear  here  stands 
on  a  trachytic 
istians.  Pagans, 
[lese  miraculous 
■Haimanot,  the 
of  Combes  and 
•thirds  of  whom 
a  country.  No 
)re  crossing  the , 
©Ives  from  their 
" — ^which  flows 
over  the  valley 
mds  an  ancient 
1  of  Menelik,  at 
.   Zena-Markos, 

surrounded  by 
ra-Libanos.  To 
5  Takkazeh,  are 
are  divided  into 

century,  at  the 


DKBIlA-LIBANOH—UOaKlI-  1)11,1)11, LA. 


til 


time  of  the  invaHion  of  (irunhoh.  liut  on  Hcttling  down  they  adopted  iiutny  of  the 
cuHtoms  of  the  AtnhuriniunH,  whom  they  hud  (liHiM>HHeHN)<d  ;  ubuiKloniii^  tlnir  iKunad 
life  they  became  ugriculturiNtN  und  adopted  the  toga,  altlioii^h  they  retained  their 
Muhummedun  faith.  In  the  northern  jmrt  of  VVollohiiul,  ou  a  ntck  |M)NHt'HMiiig 
excellent  natural  (h'fences,  the  King  of  Shou  has  founded  the  Htrongliold  of  IVnrvilla, 
near  the  confines  of  AbyHHinia  projH'rly  so  culled.  TIuh  phiee  bun  become  u  very 
important  market  for  exehungcH  between  the  two  realms,  and  hero  the  Emperor 
Johannes  UHuuUy  gives  receptions  to  his  vassals. 

All  the  territory  south-nost  und  west  of  Hhoa  belongs  also  to  the  Ilm-Oniius, 
and  possesses  largo  collections  of  buildings  almost  worthy  the  name  of  towns.  Tho 
barren  northern  slopes  of  Mount  Ilierer,  or  Jerrer,  are  covered  with  the  huts  of  the 
large  Mussulman  village  of  Itogrh,  or  liogieh,  which,  situated  on  one  of  the  affluents 
of  the  Awash  on  the  confines  of  Guragch,  in  ihe  territory  of  tho  Qulla  tribe  of  tho 
Galen,  has  a  large  trade  in  coffee,  and  is  still  the  chief  slave-market  in  southern 
Abyssinia.  This  traffic  is  officially  forbidden  in  tho  possessions  of  King  Menelik, 
and  the  captives  are  not  publicly  exposed,  but  they  are  secretly  sold  and  sent  to  tho 
sea-ports,  whence  they  are  exported  to  Arabia  or  Egypt.  In  1878,  the  explorers 
Chiarini  and  Cecchi  found  tho  "  current  price  "  of  tho  Galla  slave  to  vary  from 
thirty  or  forty  Maria-Theresa  crowu-piuces  for  a  j'oung  and  good-looking  girl,  to 
four  for  an  old  woman.  All  tho  inhabitants  of  Rogeh,  numbering  some  10,000, 
claim  to  be  of  Tigr^  stock,  and  are  said  to  descend  from  two  Mohammedans  who 
immigrated  some  centuries  ago.  The  plain  of  Finfini  to  the  west,  near  the  sources 
of  the  Awash,  and  at  the  mouth  of  a  formidable  gorge,  is  frequently  selected  by 
the  sovereigns  of  Shoa  as  the  rallying-point  where  the  armies  assemble  for 
expeditions  into  the  Galla  country.  Hot  springs,  at  which  the  cattle  drink,  spout 
forth  in  the  plain,  and  the  neighbouring  -mountains  furaish  an  iron  ore  from  which 
nearly  all  the  Shoa  hardware  is  manufactured.  The  rocks  in  the  vicinity  are 
honeycombed  with  grottoes,  one  of  which  has  several  naves  with  elliptical  vaults, 
separated  from  each  other  by  square  pillars  which  grow  thinner  towards  the  middlo. 
These  works  of  art,  in  a  country  now  occupied  by  the  miserable  dwellings  of  the 
Katelo  Gallas,  are  a  standard  by  which  the  decadence  of  civilisation  can  be  measured. 
On  the  solitary  Mount  Endotto,  west  of  the  plain  of  Finfini,  formerly  stood  a  capital 
of  the  kingdom  of  Shoa,  and  heve  the  tombs  of  its  ancient  kings  are  still  to  be  seen. 
It  is  now  the  residence  of  a  r&s,  or  chief.  In  this  region,  one  of  the  most  fertile  in 
Abyssinia,  the  French  explorer,  Amoux,  obtained  from  Menelik  a  grant  of  260,000 
acres  of  land,  on  which  he  intended  to  establish  a  European  colony.  When  easy 
routes  through  the  valley  of  the  Awash  are  opened  between  it  and  Tajurah  Bay, 
this  region  will  doubtless  become  one  of  the  most  productive  in  Africa.  Meanwhile 
the  graftings  of  wild  olives  and  the  chinchona  plantations  are  preparing  the  future 
wealth  of  the  country.  The  King  of  Shoa  has  recently  chosen  as  his  residence  tho 
village  of  Dildilla,  west  of  Finfini ;  it  is  one  of  the  temporary  capitals  of  the  kingdom, 
and  is  moreover  placed  in  an  excellent  strategic  position  to  watch  over  the  Galla 
populations. 

Beyond  the  Awash  stretch  the  Galla   republican  confederations  and   small 


:i! 


tmmi''^m 


As. 


■\  - 

HUM 


212 


NOUTIIKAST  AFRICA. 


II 

J' 


iii 


111! 


monarchical  statcn,  with  unc<»rtain  frontiorii,  mo«tly  (livi(l(><l  from  otioh  other  by 
doHtirt  trttctd,  or  "  horncH,"  an  D'Abbodio  cullii  them  on  liis  map.  (iuruf^oh,  on  tho 
upper  affluonta  of  thu  VVuihu  and  Wubi,  is  ono  of  thoHit  HtutoN,  an  upland  region 
BoparatcMl  from  the  Awa8h  and  tlm  kingdom  of  Shoa  by  tho  S<xldo  countr^'  T''M 
state  is  looketl  up<m  aH  holy  by  tho  AbysitinianH,  because,  acconling  to  u  ,*  ".'d, 
the  five  isletH  in  Lake  Zwiii  are  said  to  bo  tho  only  Christian  land  which  w.  -t 
unconquered  by  tho  terrible  Oranheh,  whoso  soldiers  wore  afraid  to  venture  on  the 
rafts  built  to  tranH|K)rt  them  to  the  archipelago.  On  these  islets  are  convents  in 
whicli  some  ancient  M8S.  arc  preserved.  All  tho  people  of  Qurogeh  still  claim 
to  bo  Christians,  although  they  have  neither  priests,  churches,  nor  religious  tenets. 
They  content  themselves  with  repeating  the  names  of  a  few  saints,  and  cursing  the 
Pagans  and  Mohammedans.  Although  relapsed  into  barbarism,  the  people  of 
Uuragoh  have  still  preserved  the  art  of  building  far  more  elegant  dwellings  than 
those  of  all  other  Abyssinians,  excepting  those  of  Gondar.  In  order  to  protect 
themselves  against  the  Soddos  and  other  nomad  Gallas,  the  people  of  Guragpeh 
have  excavated  pits  here  and  there  in  which  they  conceal  themselves  on  tho 
approach  of  the  enemy,  whose  passage  they  watch,  often  attacking  them  unawares, 
and  oven  occasionally  cutting  off  their  retreat  when  in  sufficient  numbers.  Qorieno 
is  the  capital  of  the  country,  and  Ohebmo  its  chief  market,  although  a  less  im- 
portant place  than  Mogar,  which  lies  farther  westwards  in  the  Kabena  country. 
Gurageh  and  Kabena,  often  held  as  belonging  to  the  same  political  g^oup,  differ 
entirely  in  manners,  religion,  and  speech.  The  Eabena  are  fanatical  Mussulmans, 
and  were  the  King  of  Shoa  not  to  keep  g^ood  order,  they  would  be  continually 
warring  against  their  Christian  neighbours  ;  they  are  the  chief  slave-hunters  for 
the  markets  of  Rogeh  and  Abderaaul.  The  Eabena  country  produces  the  best 
tobacco  in  all  southern  Abyssinia. 

The  Galla  region,  where  the  Awash  rises,  and  which  separates  the  two  great 
curves  of  the  Blue  Nile  and  the  Gugsa,  is  mainly  occupied  by  Liben  communities. 
Farther  west  the  valleys  overlooked  by  the  lofty  Jimma-Lagamara  Alps  are 
peopled  by  republican  tribes,  as  are  also  the  plains  of  Gudru,  tributaries  of  the 
Blue  Nile.  Beyond  this  point,  towards  the  region  of  the  Bertaa,  follow  in  succes- 
sion the  Alatus,  Wobos,  Washitis,  and  Wasas,  all  tribes  of  Ordmo  origin,  concern- 
ing whom  travellers  have  hitherto  collected  the  most  contradictory  accoimts. 
The  Italian  Cecchi  is  as  yet  the  only  traveller  who  has  succeeded  in  crossing  at 
this  point  the  large  river  Ghibeh,  a  northern  affluent  of  the  Gugsa.  This  formid- 
able watercourse,  some  4,000  feet  broad  after  the  rains,  is  crossed  in  narrow  canoes 
hollowed  out  of  tree-trunks.  The  portion  of  the  coimtry  stretching  westwards  to 
the  mountains  of  Jimma-Lagamara  towards  the  sources  of  the  Jabus,  is  covered 
with  vast  forests. 

To  the  south  the  two  kingdoms  of  Guma  and  Limmu  &re  still  mainly  in  the 
basin  of  the  Orghesa  or  Didesa,  one  of  the  largest  but  one  of  the  least  known 
rivers  in  the  Abal'  system.  The  town  of  Chora,  capital  of  Guma,  is  situated  on  an 
affluent  of  this  watercourse ;  whilst  8aka,  the  great  market  of  Limmu,  stands  on  a 
rivulet  flowing  to  the  Indian  Ocean.     Similarly  situated  are  the  towns  in  Innarya 


MBBUSa 


■mifim 


«m*m'mmi'i 


-fr 


INNAUYA. 


811 


Pttch  other  by 
[uriij?«h,  on  tho 
upland  region 
countrv.     T'r.M 
g  to  u  ,•  -".'d, 
which  w       ^t 
venture  on  the 
ire  convents  in 
igeh  still  claim 
roligiouH  tenets, 
ind  cursing  the 
the  people  of 
dwellings  than 
rder  to  protect  , 
)le  of  Gurageh 
mselves  on  the 
them  unawares, 
nbers.     Ooneno 
lugh  a  less  im> 
!abena  country, 
jal  group,  differ 
;al  Mussulmans, 
be  continually 
lave-hunters  for 
oduces  the  best 

I  the  two  great 
en  communities, 
mara  Alps  are 
[butanes  of  the 
'oUow  in  succes- 
origin,  concem- 
ictory  accounts. 
1  in  crossing  at 
.  This  formid- 
n  narrow  canoes 
ng  westwards  to 
Fabus,  is  covered 

1  mainly  in  the 
the  least  known 
is  situated  on  an 
imu,  stands  on  a 
owns  in  Innarya 


or  Ennurou,  and  uU  the  other  southern  Oullu  stuhw,  Jininia-Kaku,  or  "  Kitigdcun  of 
Abbu-Jifur,"  (Jem,  Yunguro,  Hiduinu,  Kullo,  Ghiiniru,  and  tlio  gn-iit  Htat(>  of  Kiillii, 
the  largest  country  peoplwl  by  (iallas  which  rcMiogniww  tlio  nuz»  niiiit\  ,,t  Abys- 
ffinia.  Like  tho  provinces  of  Abyssinia  properly  ho  callinl,  all  these  states  are 
variously  divided  into  degas,  voKna-degas,  and  kwullas  ;  but  on  tho  whole  tho 
intermediary  zone  is  tho  most  imiwrtunt,  for  in  it  are  centred  all  the  chief  towns 
and  market-places.  In  Jimraa  and  Guma  the  lands  Iwlong  mainly  to  tho  zone  of 
the  upland  plateaux,  and  barley  is  here  chiefly  cultivated  ;  the  lowlands  occupy  a 
larger  extent  in  Innarya,  Limmu,  and  Kaffa. 


Innarya. 

The  name  of  Innarya  was  formerly  applied  to  a  far  more  extensive  region  than 
that  which  has  preserved  this  appellation.  Like  Abyssinia  it  was  u  Christian 
kingdom,  and  for  centuries  its  Sidama  inhabitants  successfully  resisted  the  sur- 
rounding Pagans  and  Mohammedans.  But  the  Limmu-Gallus,  occupying  tho 
upper  basin  of  the  Orghesa,  at  last  seized  the  country  and,  when  they  embraced 
Islam,  forced  their  new  religion  upon  the  conquered  Sidumas.  The  people  of 
Innarya,  now  governed  by  a  queen,  are  Mussulmans,  although  the  name  of  Sidama, 
which  has  no  longer  any  definite  meaning,  is  still  used  as  a  general  term  for  the 
Christians  of  the  Abyssinian  countries  bounded  north  by  the  course  of  the  Abui. 
Innarya,  properly  so  called,  no  longer  comprises  more  than  the  upper  valley  of  the 
Gugsa,  where  this  river  still  flows  northwards.  The  lowlands  and  slopes  of  this 
valley  are  pre-eminently  fitted  for  coffee  culture,  the  shrubs  being  far  finer  than 
those  of  Kaffa,  from  which  country  tho  plant  has  received  its  name.  Coffee-plants 
are  said  to  be  found  in  Innarya  some  8  to  10  feet  in  circumference.  Coffee  is 
monopolised  by  the  king,  and  his  slaves  alone  have  the  right  to  gather  and  sell 
it  for  him  in  the  market  of  Saka.  The  gold-dust,  which  was  formerly  the  chief 
wealth  of  Innarya,  is  no  longer  found  in  sufficient  quantities  for  exportation. 

Although  they  have  lost  their  ancient  civilisation,  the  people  of  Innarya  are 
still  said  to  be  the  most  civilised  nation  of  southern  Abyssinia,  and  to  excel  oven 
the  Abyssinians  as  artisans.  The  market  of  Gondar  can  show  nothing  superior  to 
their  embroideries,  or  to  their  weapons  with  carved  silver-mounted  hilts.  They 
manufacture  iron  instruments,  which  are  exported  even  as  far  as  the  tribes 
occupying  the  basin  of  the  Sobat.  A  fortified  custom-house  defends  from  the  north 
the  approaches  to  Limmu  from  Abyssinia.  Many  of  these  upland  states  are  almost 
entirely  enclosed  by  a  belt  of  double  walls,  moats,  and  drawbridges ;  moreover  a 
large  moor,  on  which  no  one  has  the  right  to  settle,  spreads  round  the  country, 
protecting  it  like  the  moat  of  a  stronghold.  Each  kingdom  resembles  a  besieged 
fortress.  As  can  be  well  understood,  communications  in  this  country  are  a  matter 
of  great  difficulty.  Whilst  a  pedestrian  could  traverse  in  four  days  the  forty  miles 
between  the  great  market  of  Basso,  in  Gojam,  and  that  of  Saka  in  Innarya,  the 
caravans  have  even  taken  two  years  to  accomplish  this  journey. 


I 


:i 


:*>,,;,  ^■^^i,»^^.\i^„iifm^^i^^^.^ji.i^^)  j$0i^ii^'^t'ji)^l^'^ji^0i^y^^xv 


214 


NORTH-EAST  AFBICA. 


Yangaro. 

Yangaro  (Janjero,  Zinjoro),  south-east  of  Innarya  and  east  of  Gimma-Kaka, 
comprises  a  portion  of  the  hilly  slopes  draining  to  the  Gugsa.  In  no  other  country 
are  the  "rights"  of  the  reigning  house  better  safeguarded  by  legal  guarantees. 
Excepting  the  king,  his  children,  and  the  low-caste  peoples  who  are  too  much 
despised  to  be  feared,  Beke  was  unanimously  informed  that  all  the  males  were 
partially  mutilated,  so  as  to  incapacitate  them  for  the  throne.  One  of  the  king's 
thousand  privileges  is  the  use  of  certain  medicines  which  are  forbidden  to  his  subjects. 
The  people  having  no  other  animal  food  than  beef,  all  suffer  from  tape-worm  like 
the  northern  Abyssinians ;  but  the  king  destroys  this  parasite  bv  the  use  of  a 
decoction  of  kusso,  while  the  common  people,  not  daring  to  touch  the  "king's 
medicine,"  have  to  content  themselves  with  bitter  herbs.  Amongst  ether  strange 
stories  told  of  this  mysterious  Yangaro  country,  the  missionaries  Isenberg,  Krapf 
and  Massaya,  relate  that  human  sacrifices  are  very  common,  a  new-born  child  being 
frequently  inunolated  to  their  divinities.  Immediately  after  their  birth  the  males 
are  said  to  have  their  breasts  cut  ofE,  so  that  the  future  warriors  may  in  no  way 
resemble  the  "  soft  sex."  When  the  slave  merchants  take  captives  of  this  country 
they  never  fail  to  throw  the  most  beautiful  into  a  lake,  so  as  to  render  fate  favour- 
able to  their  voyage;  but  they  rarely  succeed  in  capturipg  males,  who  usually 
commit  suicide  rather  than  accept  slavery.  The  name  of  Yangaro  has  often  been 
ironically  confounded  with  that  of  Zinjero,  which  signifies  "monkeys"  in  Amhari- 
nian ;  hence  the  reports  often  he^rd  of  a  race  of  enslaved  monkeys  existing  in 
Africa.  Jimma-Kaka,  or  Kingdom  of  Abba-Jifar,  is  one  of  the  regions  which 
supply  most  slaves  to  the  merchants  or  jibberti.  According  to  Beke,  nearly  all  the 
slaves  brought  from  the  northern  and  eastern  Galla  territories  are  made  eunuchs' by 
dealers  settled  in  the  town  of  Folia. 

Kaffaland. 

The  country  of  Kaffa  is  one  of  those  whose  people  still  claim  to  be  Christians, 
although  a  long  isolation  has  effected  a  marked  change  between  their  practices  and 
these  of  the  Abyssinians.  There  are  said  to  be  only  six  or  eight  churches  in  the 
country,  centres  of  widely  extended  parishes  and  sanctuaries  for  the  criminals  and 
oppressed  classes  ;  the  kings  are  buried  under' one  of  these  sanctuaries.  According 
to  Massaya,  the  Kaffa  Christians  are  ignorant  even  of  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ,  and 
worship  the  three  saints,  George,  Michael,  and  Gabriel.  Exceedingly  scrupulous 
in  the  observance  of  their  customs,  which  chiefly  apply  to  the  nature  of  their  food, 
the  people  of  Kaffa  never  eat  com  of  any  description,  and  to  call  them  "  gramini- 
vorous "  is  considered  an  insult.  Their  only  vegetable  food  consists  of  the  stalk  of 
the  ensete  banana,  which  is  cultivated  around  all  their  villages.  The  ordinary 
grains,  such  as  wheat,  barley,  and  haricots,  are  used  merely  as  food  for  cattle  and 
the  brewing  of  beer.  They  are  no  less  exclusive  as  to  meat-eating,  the  ox  being 
the  only  quadruped  whose  flesh  they  are  aUowed  tc  eat.     But  the  men,  more 


KAFFALAND. 


216 


fortunate  than  those  of  Yangaro  and  other  neighbouring  states,  are  also  allowed  to 
eat  poultry.  According  to  custom,  if  the  women  eat  this  latter  food  they  loose  their 
libtrty  and  are  immediately  sold  as  slaves,  the  traiRc  in  human  flesh  not  being  for- 
bidden to  the  Christians  oi  KaSa,  as  it  is  to  those  of  northern  Abyssinia.  Their 
clothing  is  also  rigorously  regulated,  skins,  tanned  or  untanned,  being  forbidden ; 
their  garments  are  made  of  cotton  tissues  or  coarse  stuffs  woven  from  the  fibres  of 
the  ensete.  Although  Bonga,  the  capital  of  Kaffa,  may  be  "the  largest  town  exist- 
ing in  Abyssinia,"  and  an  active  market,  money  was  hardly  known  there  in  the 
middle  of  this  century.  The  only  mediimis  of  exchange  were  glass  beads  and  the 
salt  imported  from  Sokota.  To  the  south-west,  in  the  Sheka  or  Siaka  country,  the 
natives  collect  gold-dust  from  the  sands  of  the  rivers.  The  sovereigns  of  !Kaffa 
maintain  a  ceremonious  etiquette  nearly  as  rigorous  as  ihat  of  the  kings  of  Yan- 
garo. According  to  Soleillet,  who  has  recently  penetrated  into  this  country,  the 
ministers  and  grandees  of  the  kingdom  cannot  speak  to  their  master  unless  covered 
with  fetters  like  slaves,  although  they  are  separated  from  the  royal  presence  by  a 
curtain.  To  shun  recognition  the  king  himself  goes  out  shabbily  clothed  and 
mounted  on  a  miserable  horse ;  but  his  escort  is  observed  from  afar,  and  everyone 
hides  so  as  to  escape  the  consequences  of  meeting  him.  In  this  coimtry  of  etiquette 
the  formula  of  salutation  is,  "I  hide  myself  under  the  earth."  When  the 
Christian  priests  still  resided  in  the  country,  the  faithful  were  boimd  never  to  let 
them  touch  the  ground  between  the  mission-house  and  the  church,  so  they  were 
carried  on  the  shoulders  of  strong  men.  It  is  related  that  these  priests  being 
unable  to  go  to  Gondar  to  receive  consecration  from  the  abuna,  had  brought  to 
them  by  caravan  a  precious  box  which  the  "  father "  had  filled  with  his  sacred 
breath. 

South  of  Eaffa,  on  the  watershed  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  stretch  the  forests  peopled 
by  the  mysterious  Dokos,  that  is  to  say,  in  Galla,  the  "  Ignorant,"  or  the  "  Savages." 
According  to  Erapf ,  Isenberg,  and  most  other  explorers,  the  Dokos  are  dwarfs,  like 
the  Akkas  of  the  "Welle  Eiver,  whilst  D'Abbadie  asserts  they  are  in  no  way  different 
from  their  neighbours,  the  Swaheli.     *         ■    . 

The  King  of  Shoa,  absolute  in  his  kingdom,  exercises  only  an  indirect  influence 
over  the  small  tributary  Galla  states,  and  the  southern  kingdoms  have  been  induced 
to  accept  the  suzerainty  of  the  "  king  of  kings,"  less  through  his  influence  than 
that  of  the  r&s  of  Gojam,  who  controls  the  trade  routes  leading  from  Gondar  and 
Sokota  to  Kaffa.  However,  the  material  power  of  the  King  of  Shoa  over  the  sur- 
rounding countries  has  greatly  increased  during  the  last  few  years,  thanks  to  the 
organisation  of  his  army,  which  already  comprises  a  body  of  permanent  troops 
amounting  to  a  thoujiand  riflemen.  In  time  of  war,  when  the  great  nagarit,  or 
war-drum,  is  beaten,  this  corps  is  followed  by  ci-owds  of  warriors  and  plunderers. 
According  to  Chiarini,  the  armed  rabble  occasionally  amounts  to  nearly  a 
hundred  thousand  persons.  The  tribute  paid  to  the  negus  by  the  kings  of  Shoa 
and  Gojam  is  very  considerable.  Besides  a  present  of  Muria-Theresa  crown-pieces, 
the  sovereign  of  Shoa  is  said  to  be  obliged  to  supply  his  master  with  a  hundred 
thousand  oxen,  two  thousand  horses,  and  two  hundred  leopard  skins. 


'ni 


i 


^''^""'ifjf;'*!f'i*^V'jj)t(j!iH''ft- 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


UPPER  NUBIA. 


HE  whole  of  the  northern  and  western  watershed  of  Ahyssinia,  with 
the  exception  of  the  basin  watered  by  the  Barka,  is  known  by  its 
hydrography  to  belong  to  the  Nilotic  system.  The  region  watered 
by  the  Blue  Nile  and  the  Atbara,  with  their  affluents,  is  geogra- 
phically sharply  defined  westwards  by  the  Bahr-el-Abiad,  or  Great 
Nile,  and  eastwards  by  the  advanced  promontories  of  the  Abyssinian  plateau.  To 
the  south  the  water-parting  between  the  Tumat,  a  tributary  of  the  Blue  Nile,  and 
the  Sobat,  one  of  the  main  branches  of  the  White  Nile,  is  partly  composed  of 
mountains  or  high  hills  which  have  not  yet  been  crossed  by  European,  explorers. 
An  unknown  land,  with  an  area  equal  to  that  of  Belgium  and  Holland  together, 
stretches  beyond  these  limits,  and  here  the  frontiers  are  more  e£Fectually  guarded 
by  its  savage,  warlike,  or  wandering  peoples  than  by  a  line  of  fortresses  and 
custom-houses.  The  zone  of  separation  between  TTpper  and  Lower  Nubia  is 
formed  by  the  relatively  small  region  which  separates  the  Nile  at  its  junction 
with  the  Atbara  from  the  waters  flowing  to  the  Red  Sea.  With  these  boundaries 
the  whole  of  the  plains  between  the  Nile  and  Abyssinia  constitute  the  region  of 
Nubia,  usually  designated  under  the  name  of  Eastern  Sudan,  although  the  term  of 
Beled-es-Sudan,  or  "  Land  of  the  Blacks,"  should  be  restricted  to  lands  inhabited 
by  Negroes.  The  total  superficial  area  of  this  region  may  be  approximately 
estimated  at  224,000  square  miles  ;  the  population  of  the  whole  territory, 
extremely  dense  in  the  basins  of  the  Tumat  and  Jabus,  may  perhaps  number 

3,000,000.  -  ;  =wu  _  ^     ,:;- ^1 ,:  ^::,f^ 


i« 


Phtsicai-  and  Political  Fkatubes. 


■'i-m, 


Forming  a  distinct  domain  to  which  the  general  slope  of  the  soil  gives  a  certain 
geographical  imity,  eastern  Sudan  consieis  of  distinct  basins  verging  slightly  north- 
west-viirds  along  the  Blue  Nile  and  Atbara,  and  diverging  northwards  along  the 
Mareb  and  Barka.  It  is  cut  up  by  isolated  masses  on  the  plains,  by  chains  of  hills 
and  desert  spaces,  into  natural  provinces  which  the  tril)e8  engaged  in  war  have 
converted  into  so  many  petty  states,  whose  frontiers  are  changed  according  to  the 
fortune  of  war  and  the  constant  inroads  of  the  nomad  peoples.     The  more  scanty 


:ji..i|i* 


1.',         '  '  ' 


'i 


A 


,1 


PHYSICAL  AND  POLITICAL  FEATURES. 


217 


.byssinia,  with 
1  known  by  its 
•egion  watered 
its,  is  geogra- 
.biad,  or  Great 
1  plateau.  To 
Blue  Nile,  and 
■f  composed  of 
lean.  explorers, 
land  together, 
tually  guarded 

fortresses  and 
)wer  Nubia  is 
it  its  junction 
lese  boundaries 

the  region  of 
gh  the  term  of 
mds  inhabited 

approximately 
hole  territory, 
srhaps  number 


gives  a  certain 
slightly  north- 
wards along  the 
f  chains  of  hills 
3d  in.  war  have 
iccording  to  the 
'he  more  scanty 


the  population,  the  more  they  break  up  into  independent  groups,  never  communi- 
cating with  each  other  except  through  the  medium  of  occasional  traders.  Never- 
theless native  states,  become  powerful  by  agriculture  and  commerce,  have  sprung 
up  in  this  region,  gradually  extending  the  sphere  of  their  influence  over  the 
surrounding  peoples.  Thus  was  formerly  founded,  under  the  influence  of  the 
Egyptian  civilisation,  the  kingdom  of  Mero^,  which  comprised  not  only  "  the 
island "  bounded  by  the  Astapus  and  Astaboras,  but  also  the  neighbouring 
countries.  After  the  introduction  of  Mohammedanism  the  kingdom  of  Senaar 
was  developed,  which  also  exceeded  the  limits  of  its  "island"  or  peninsula,  between 
the  White  and  Blue  Niles.     But  the  position  of  Upper  Nubia  between  the  plateaux 

Fig.  72.— BuuTBs  OF  THK  Chief  Explokers  in  Tak4  and  Nbiohboukino  Distuicta. 

Soale  1 :  8,000,<X)0. 


Itl&erariM. 


Caravnn  Bonteg. 


Telegraph  Lines. 


B.  Burklundt,  1814. 

Bl.  Buppell,  1832. 

K.  Kntte,  1836. 

Ab.  D'/bbadie.  1838-48. 

F.  and  O.  Ferret  and  Oalinler. 

W.  Weme,  1840. 

Le.  Le&bTie,  184S. 


Sa.  Supeto.  18S1. 

Hd.  Hamilton,  18M. 

H.  Monziuger,  1866-61-76. 

C.  Courvid,  186T. 

Hg.  Henglin,  1867-61-63-64-76. 

Be.  Beumuuui,  186>63. 

HI.  Hansol,  1861. 


Bk,  Bokpr,  1861. 

St.  Stendner,  ISei-ai 

E.  Brnst  de  Cobourg,  1862. 

I,,  liejeaa,  1864. 

K.  Krookow,  1866. 

8.  Sohweinfortii,  1865-68. 

Ha.  HBl(!vy,  1888. 

_  120  Hilos. 


Bp.  Beil,  1868. 

H.  Bokeby,  1870-71. 

P.  Front,  1872. 

H.  Hildebrandt,  1872 

J.  Junker,  1876. 

Mi.  Mittchell,  1877. 

Mil.  MuUer,  1880. 


of  Abyssinia  and  the  banks  of  the  Nile  belonging  to  Egypt  makes  it  a  natural 
battlefield  for  the  sovereigns  of  these  two  countries.  For  more  than  half  a  century 
the  Egyptians  have  occupied  the  intermediary  zone,  and  in  spite  of  their  disastrous 
conflicts  with  the  Abyssinians,  they  appeared  to  have  definitely  conquered  the 
Sudan.  But  a  formidable  revolt,  brought  on  by  their  exactions,  has  left  them  only 
a  few  places  in  the  country  recently  annexed  to  their  vast  domains,  and  they  have 
now  been  supplanted  by  the  English  on  the  coast.  By  the  construction  of  routes 
and  railways  the  whole  country  will  doubtless  soon  be  restored  to  civilisation.  In 
virtue  of  the  oflSicial  proclamations  addressed  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  country 
by  the  late  General  Gordon  "  in  the  name  of  the  most  high  Khedive  and  the  all- 


M 


i 


^ 


-■,: 


.  (■dUA.-, 


I/!' 11*^1'"'  .tt^^'^iij.y 


4^ 


218 


NOETH-EAST  AFllICA. 


powerful  Britannia,  Sudan  is  henceforth  to  enjoy  full  independence,  and  regulate 
its  own  affairs,  without  the  undue  interference  of  any  foreign  Government." 

At  present  t.  ?  Mussulman  states  in  this  region  of  Sudan  are  entirely  destitute 
of  strategical  routes,  ulthough  at  first  sight  the  country  seems  to  be  completely  open 
to  the  Abyssinians  occupying  the  plateaux.  They  could  easily  descend  by  their 
riverain  valleys,  but  as  they  cannot  long  breathe  a  mephitic  atmosphere,  the  climate 
of  the  lowlands  is  a  far  more  formidable  enemy  to  them  than  the  natives ;  such 
conquests  as  they  do  effect  are  transitory,  and  by  the  very  force  of  circimistances 
are  again  soon  lost.  On  the  other  hand,  if  they  are  prevented  by  nature  itself  from 
seizing  these  lowlands,  they  would  still  be  a  great  obstacle  to  invaders  of  Upper 
Nubia  wishing  to  penetrate  along  the  route  over  the  fertile  slopes  to  Massawah  and 
the  countries  of  the  Mensas  and  Bogos.  The  Egyptians  learnt  to  their  cost  the 
dangers  of  venturing  on  this  route,  exposed,  as  they  were,  to  the  attacks  on  their 
flanks  from  the  Abyssinian  warriors.  Farther  north,  from  Suakin  to  the  Nile, 
the  water  in  the  wells  is  barely  sufficient  for  the  nomad  tribes,  and  owing  to  this 
cause  the  operations  of  the  British  troops  in  this  region  were  greatly  impeded  during 
the  campaigns  of  1884  and  1885.  Ponding  the  opening  of  the  railway  from  Suakin 
to  Berber  begun  in  1885,  the  plains  of  the  Blue  Nile  and  Atbara  can  be  reached 
only  by  the  three  traditional  northern  routes — that  which  follows  the  Nile  from 
cataract  to  cataract ;  and  those  avoiding  the  great  curves  of  the  Nile  by  running 
across  the  desert  of  Bayuda,  between  Debbeh  and  Khartum  on  the  west;  and 
through  the  Nubian  wilderness  between  Korosko  and  Abu-Hamed  on  the  east. 
These  three  routes  were  closed  to  the  Egyptians  by  the  late  Mussulman  insurrec- 
tion, and  re-opened  by  the  English  under  General  Wolseley  in  1884-5. 


Thk  GiMu,  Berta,  and  Lega  Mountains. 

Beyond  the  Abyssinian  plateaux  the  East  Sudanese  provmces  have  also  their 
ip'.Iated  mountain  masses,  forming  veritable  archipelagos  in  the  midst  of  the  plain. 
Many  of  these  lofty  hills  which  are  delineated  on  the  maps  as  forming  part  of  the 
orographic  system  of  Abyssinia,  are,  in  reality,  separated  from  it  by  plains.  Such 
are  the  Giunu  Mo  stains,  commanding  to  the  east  the  valley  in  which  the  Abai,  or 
Blue  Nile,  in  its  upper  course  completes  its  semicircular  bend  before  reaching  the 
plain.  A  few  escarpments  close  to  the  river  form,  together  with  the  projecting 
promontories  of  the  opposite  watershed,  the  last  gorge  of  the  Abyssinian  Nile. 
Farther  up  the  river,  and  near  its  confluence  with  the  Jabus,  stands  an  isolated 
i-ock,  the  Abu-Daiiab  of  the  Arabs,  the  Tulu-Soghida  of  the  Gallas,  which  is  the 
"Mountain  of  Salt,"  whose  abundant  resources  have  not  yet  been  analysed  by 
Europeans.  Beyond  this  point  to  the  south-west  the  Tumat  and  Jabus,  two  large 
affluents  of  the  Blue  Nile,  skirt  the  eastern  base  of  other  mountains  or  of  an  ancitat 
plateau,  which  running  waters  have  completely  furrowed  in  overy  direction.  These 
are  the  Berta  Mountains,  famous  for  their  gold  v/ashings,  which  determined  the 
Egyptian  invasion. 


■r*jT?nii&B^*BiitiVffiy5W!B8tT^  "^ 


THE  GUMU,  BEETA,  AND  LEGA  MOUNTAINS. 


219 


and  regulate 
lent." 

•ely  destitute 
ipletely  open 
end  by  their 
),  the  climate 
atives ;  such 
ircumstanceB 
re  itself  from 
jrs  of  Upper 
[assawah  and 
lieir  cost  the 
icks  on  their 

to  the  Nile, 
)wing  to  this 
peded  during 

from  Suakin 
m  be  reached 
le  Nile  from 
e  by  running 
le  west;  and 

on  the  east, 
nan  insurreo- 
>. 


ve  also  their 

of  the  plain. 

5  part  of  the 

lains.     Such 

the  Abai,  or 

reaching  the 

le  projecting 

ssinian  Nile. 

an  isolated 

which  is  the 

analysed  by 

us,  two  large 

of  an  ancitat 

jtion.    Th^ise 

termined  the 


The  Berta  Mountains,  followed  by  those  of  the  Lega,  whose  highest  tulu  or 
summits  exceed  10,000  feet,  although  their  mean  height  is  said  to  be  scarcely  6,000 
feet,  stretch  southwards  towards  the  sources  of  the  Sobat  affluents,  rejoining  the 
KaSa  plateau  by  intermediary  ranges  which  have  not  yet  been  explored  by 
European  travellers.  But  to  the  north  the  heights  gradually  lessen ;  the  inter- 
mediary plains  broaden  out  and  unite,  and  the  ranges  are  merely  indicated  by 
isolated  rocks  cropping  out  above  the  lowlands  in  continually  decreasing  numbers. 
West  of  the  Fazogl  country  one  of  these  isolated  heights,  the  lofty  Jebol-Tabi, 
partly  covered  with  forests,  attains  a  height  of  over  4,330  feet.  Still  farther  on 
the  red  granite  cone  of  Jebel-Guleh,  that  is  to  say,  "  Mount  of  Woods,"  or  "  Mount 
of  Ghouls,"  according  to  Manjo,  which  the  Funj  designate  as  the  cradle  of  their 
race,  attains  a  height  of  2,820  feet.  Still  more  to  the  west  is  a  chain  of  rocks  in 
the  midst  of  the  steppes  which  border  the  right  bonk  of  the  White  Nile.  The 
highest  is  that  of  Defafang,  .which  was  till  recently  an  ethnical  limit  between  the 
coimtry  of  the  Denka  Negroes  and  that  of  the  Abu-Rof  Arabs.  The  two  riverain 
zones  of  the  White  and  Blue  Nile,  on  each  side  of  the  Mesopotamia  of  Senaar,  are 
extremely  fertile,  thanks  to  the  rainfall  and  the  alluvia  brought  down  by  these 
rivers.  But  the  intermediary  region,  which  forms  the  base  of  the  scattered  rocks, 
presents  in  many  places  the  appearance  of  a  steppe.  The  land  is  covered  with  tall 
grasses,  from  the  midst  of  which  spring  mimosas  with  their  slight  and  delicate 
foliage.  The  populations,  sedentary  on  the  river  bank,  are  nearly  all  nomad  in  the 
grassy  plains  surrounding  the  moimtains  of  the  peninsula. 

East  of  the  lower  valley  of  the  Blue  Nile  the  plains  are  analogous  in  character. 
Wooded  and  fertile  along  the  river  banks,  they  become  bleak  and  barren  away  from 
the  watercourses.  In  the  level  region  of  Gedaref,  between  the  Rahad  and  the 
Atbara,  trees  are  rarely  seen.  The  most  remarkable  of  the  isolated  masses 
scattered  amongst  the  steppes  east  of  the  Blue  Nile  is  that  of  Abu-Ramleh,  or 
"  Father  of  the  Sands,"  scarcely  1,660  feet  high,  but  flanked  by  superb  towcs 
piled  up  in  enormous  masMoii.  From  the  ir^terstices  of  these  rocks  spring  baobabs, 
their  branches  waviag  over  the  abysw,  whilst  here  and  there  some  hut,  to  which 
distance  gives  the  appearance  of  a  bee-Inve,  ucRtlet:'  between  the  cliffs  at  the  base  of 
the  gigant',  tower.  In  the  northern  t^teppe,  Jebel-Arang,  the  most  advanced 
mountain,  which  attains  an  absolute  height  of  but  2,000  icet  not  far  from  the  right 
bank  of  the  lower  Rahad,  is  mainly  covered  by  forests  containing  baobabs,  which 
here  reach  their  northern  limit.  On  the  eastern  side  the  Jebel-Arang  is  followed 
by  the  Jebel- Abash ;  then  to  the  south  the  plain  i^  studded  with  other  heights, 
solitary  or  grouped,  some  of  granite  but  neaily  all  of  vo'canic  origin ;  some  are 
even  topped  by  basalt  columns  affecting  the  divers  forms  of  peristyles,  pyres,  or 
diverging  facets.  These  heights  in  the  midst  of  the  steppes  receive  considerably 
more  rain  than  the  plains,  and  the  water  running  rapidly  over  the  slopes  is  absorbed 
by  the  sand  and  gravel  surrounding  the  rocky  escarpment.  In  order  to  obtain 
water  during  the  dry  season,  the  natives  pierce  the  earth  at  the  mouth  of  the 
ravines,  and  the  pools  thus  formed,  usually  surrounded  by  trees,  are  named  kharif 
from  the  rainy  season  which  filli  thorn.     In  the  dried-up  river  beds  the  crocodiles 


■| 


•^— '— ■  t~  -■"■  '}^t.'m.^f9»ah'f'-' 


""{'■ih.jJW'RI*''" 


220 


NOBTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


and  certain  species  of  fisli,  notably  the  siluroid  iinodontm,  lie  torpid  till  reanimated 
by  the  returning  waters  of  the  rainy  season. 

The  water-parting  between  the  Nile  basin  and  the  slope  of  the  Red  Sea  consists 
of  irregular  cliffs  of  various  heights,  but  none  lower  than  3,30l)  feet.  Primitive  rocks 
and  volcanic  formations  alternate  in  this  mountainous  region,  which  in  many 
places  presents  the  appearance  of  a  plateau  scored  with  ravines.  At  the  mouth  of 
the  valleys  sloping  from  the  Abyssinian  uplands,  notably  on  the  northern  declivity 
of  the  Nakfa  Mountains,  are  seen  piles  of  debris,  which  Heuglin  felt  inclined  to 
regard  as  the  moraines  of  ancient  glaciers,  similar  to  those  foimd  by  Fraas  in  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai.  The  granite  rooks  on  both  sides  of  the  Red  Sea,  their  slopes 
completely  barren  of  vegetation  and  glittering  with  the  many  colours  of  their 
crystalline  strata,  resemble  each  other  by  their  bold  outlines  and  brilliant  colours. 
One  of  the  finest  on  the  western  side  is  the  isolated  Mount  Shaba,  rising  above  the 
marshy  depression  in  which  the  waters  of  the  Barka  run  dry.  The  vast  peninsula 
of  alluvial  lands  which  at  this  point  projects  into  the  Red  Sea  basin  shows  that  the 
river  was  foi  'iicrly  much  more  abundant  than  it  is  now. 

Climate,  Flora,  Fauna. 

I'tir  tl-mat!:  >{  Fpper  Nubia  occupies  a  middle  position  between  the  humid  zone 
of  fae  (Xjaatoriai  lands  and  that  of  the  slight  rainfall  where  the  Nubian  desert 


begi 


S,;ni 


.•:iC 


c  is  no  part  of  the  country  which  does  not  possess  a  rainy  season, 


more  or  lesti  ..ia  nJaut.  At  Khartum,  situated  about  che  middle  of  Upper  Nubia, 
the  kharif  occasionally  commences  in  May,  more  frequently  in  June  or  July, 
terminating  in  September.  Rain  is  brought  down  by  the  easterly  or  south-easterly 
winds — that  is  to  say,  the  southern  trade  winds  of  the  Indian  Ocean ;  but  after  the 
rains  the  dry  north  winds  return,  lasting  till  March,  the  period  of  the  equinox. 
During  this  season  the  temperature  occasionally  falls  to  50°  F.,  and  at  this  time  of 
the  ye  ^  the  mornings  and  evenings  are  so  cold  as  to  require  warm  clothing ;  the 
daily  oscillations  of  temperature  average  60°  F.  During  the  kharif  it  is  dangerous 
to  remain  on  the  frequently  flooded  river  banks  on  account  of  the  prevalent  marsh 
fevers,  and  numerous  tribes  then  withdraw  to  the  uplan*  i  regions  of  the  interior. 
The  black  and  the  white  il's,  very  common  in  the  valley  of  tlio  Blue  Nile  during 
the  season,  also  disappear  belbre  the  rains,  "  for  fear  of  the  malaria,"  as  the  natives 

Upper  Nubia  is  raturally  divided  inf -^  an  apiiicultural  and  a  grazing  country, 
according  to  the  abundance  of  the  rains  an  .1  running  wa<^^f  rs,  the  nawure  and  eleva- 
tion of  the  land.  In  the  Fazogl  count  -y  and  on  the  bu.v^s  of  the  Upper  Jabus 
the  arborescent  vegetation  is  almost  as  leaiy  as  in  tiic  verdant  volleys  surrounding 
the  great  lakes.  Beyond  the  forest  zone,  which  encircles  the  Abyssinian  plateaux 
throughout  mosi,  of  their  extent  and  which  is  continued  along  the  river  bunks, 
the  mouths  of  the  valleys  and  the  hills  are  pre-eminently  adapted  for  agriculture. 
Thanks  to  their  fertile  alluvia  and  splendid  climate,  these  lands  may  one  day  become 
one  of  the  richest  cotton  and  tobacco  producing  countries  in  the  world.     The  steppe, 


[  reanimated 

Sea  consists 
imitive  rooks 
jh  in  many 
,he  mouth  of 
m  declivity 

inclined  to 
Froas  in  the 

their  slopes 
iirs  of  their 
iant  colours, 
ig  above  the 
ist  peninsula 
ows  that  the 


humid  zone 
ubian  desert 
rainy  season, 
Fpper  Nubia, 
:ne  or  July, 
juth-easterly 
but  after  the 
the  equinox. 

this  time  of 
lothing;  the 
is  dangerous 
valent  marsh 
the  interior. 

Nile  during 
8  the  natives 

ing  country, 
[•c  and  eleva- 
Upper  Jabus 
surrounding 
lian  plateaux 
river  bunks, 
■  agriculture. 
B  day  become 
The  steppe, 


§ 


% 


m 
o 


0. 


,1 

I 


:l«*;l 


r^^^^yvi-y-. 


Mii|.  I  JWfiJtjMmi  Lt-AW'^/iui  .iP^'MpjJiji/i'iiiLiI  ill.Jiy 


4::*fm^i. 


W 


CLIMATE— FLORA— FAUNA. 


991 


or  hhalah,  in  which  the  waters  are  lost,  could  hardly  be  utilised  except  as  a  pusture- 
land.  But  there  are  many  extensive  tracts  covered  with  baobabH,  dura  palms, 
tamarinds,  and  mimosas,  whence  a  gum  is  obtained  known  as  talc,  far  inferior 
to  the  gums  of  Kordofan.  In  Senaar,  as  in  Kordofan  and  For,  on  the  borders  of 
the  regions  where  water  is  scarce,  the  hollow  baobab  trunks,  some  of  which  are  86 
feet  in  circumference,  are  frequently  utilised  as  natural  cistenis.  They  are  filled 
with  water  during  the  rainy  season,  some  of  the  trunks  containing  a  reserve  of 
some  2,800  to  3,000  cubic  feet  of  water ;  the  natives  climb  up  and  draw  off  the 
precious  liquid  from  the  tree  by  means  of  waterskins.  In  the  northern  part  of 
Sudan  some  of  the  plains  are  veritable  deserts,  the  sandhills  undulating  all 
around,  wearing  away  the  base  of  the  njcks.  On  the  route  from  Berber  to  Suakin, 
Abu-Odfa,  an  isolated  granite  block,  has  thus  been  eaten  away  all  round  its  base, 
and  sooner  or  later  the  heavy  rock  will  snap  its  slender  pedestal  and  fall  on  the 
sand.  All  the  cliffs  and  rocky  slopes  of  this  desert  region  of  Upper  Nubia  are 
miiformly  covered  with  a  kind  of  blackish  varnish,  whose  origin  is  unknown. 
These  gloomy  walls  impart  an  aspect  to  the  landscape  more  forbidding  and  solemn 
than  that  of  other  regions  whose  mountains  are  higher  and  escarpments  more 
abrupt. 

The  forests  of  the  advanced  chains,  as  well  as  the  tall  grass  of  the  prairies,  in 
certain  spots  rising  to  from  13  to  16  feet  after  the  rainy  season,  are  inhabited  by 
monkeys,  lions,  leopards,  buffaloes,  giraffes,  rhinoceroses,  and  elephants.  Mostly 
nomads,  the  huge  pachyderms  from  one  season  to  another  roam  over  regions  of  many 
hundreds  of  miles  in  extent.  Like  the  Somali  Gadibursi  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Abyssinian  Mountains,  the  hunters  of  the  Hamran  tribes,  in  Taka,  attack  these 
enormous  animals  in  the  boldest  manner.  Mounted  on  swift  horses  they  fly  before 
the  elephant ;  then,  suddenly  wheeling  round,  they  spring  to  the  ground  behind 
the  animal  and  hamstring  it.  The  huge  beast  falls  on  the  ground,  and  the  hunter 
awaits  an  opportunity  to  give  the  second  and  usually  mortal  blow.  Since  1859, 
Taka  and  the  conterminous  provinces  have  been  regularly  visited  by  hunters, 
mainly  Italians  and  Germans,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  the  ivory,  consisting  usually 
of  tusks  much  smaller  than  those  of  the  Central  African  elephants,  but  also  to 
capture  wild  animals  for  the  European  menageries.  One  of  these  hunters  recently 
brought  to  the  port  of  Hamburg  thirty-three  giraffes,  ten  elephants,  eight 
rhinoceroses,  four  lions,  and  several  other  animals  of  less  value.  At  the  time  of 
the  long  siege  which  the  Egyptian  garrison  had  to  sustain  in  Kassala,  during  the 
years  1884-86,  their  provisions  were  drawn  largely  ivom  parks  of  wild  animals. 
The  Bejas  and  Abyssinians  also  hunt  the  large  animals  on  the  borderlands  of  their 
respective  territories,  but  when  they  meet  they  turn  from  the  pursuit  of  the  quarry 
and  attack  each  other  as  hereditary  enemies.  The  poisonous  doboan,  or  surrfita  fly, 
swarms  in  the  valley  of  the  Mareb.  Its  bite,  although  it  does  not  affect  the  wild 
fauna,  kills  camels,  donkeys,  oxen,  and  other  domestic  animals  in  a  few  weeks. 
Hunting  is  therefore  a  dangerous  pursuit  in  these  infested  regions,  where  the  men 
have  to  penetrate  on  foot  into  the  gorges  or  high  grass.  The  origin  of  this  fly  is 
unknown ;  it  may  be  either  the  Central  African  taitsi  or  the  tzatzaHa,  which  Bruce 


51 


iLI^: 


'222 


NOIITII-EAST  AFRICA. 


speaks  of  ns  "  the  most  dreaded  of  all  animals,"  or  it  may  be  that  insect  whifh  the 
ancients  declurcd  could  put  the  lion  to  flifj;ht.  East  of  the  Uluo  Nile,  in  t'lo  Ku'fi 
country,  another  species  of  fly,  smaller  than  the  doboan,  is  fatal  only  to  the  uss, 
horse,  dog,  and  camel.  But  the  cause  of  the  mortality  of  these  animals  may  pos- 
sibly b(!  due,  not  so  much  to  the  sting  of  one  single  insect,  as  to  the  thousands  of 
wounds  inflicted  daily  by  the  swarms  of  gadflies  which  absolutely  worry  the  animals 
to  death.  The  live  stock  can  be  protected  only  by  keeping  them  in  the  stables 
during  the  day,  and  letting  them  out  at  night,  or  else  by  burning  pungent  herbs. 
However,  there  are  spots  where  these  pests  cannot  enter,  consequently  the  air  joid- 
tural  populations  have  there  collected  into  compact  groups,  such  as  the  .Ala- 
llamleh  uplands  south-east  of  Eosert^s,  which  is  a  region  of  this  description. 

Inhahitants. — The  Shanoallah  and  Lkoas. 

The  contrast  between  the  Abyssinian  mountains  and  the  hilly  plains  sloping 
towards  the  Nile  consists  not  only  in  the  relief,  climate  and  agricultural  produce, 
but  also  in  the  populations.  The  tribes,  dialects,  manners,  and  religions,  all  differ, 
and  are  bounded  by  an  irregular  zone,  which  encircles  the  side  of  the  mountains. 
In  many  places,  those  regions  are  separated  by  tracts  either  deserted,  or  else  peopled 
by  savage  tribes,  always  on  the  watch  for  prey.  All  these  communities  are  known 
by  the  collective  name  of  Shangallas,  which,  however,  is  of  no  definite  ethnological 
value,  as  all  the  non-Arab  or  non- Abyssinian  blacks  are  indifferently  called  Shan- 
gallas by  the  people  of  the  plateaux. 

The  Upper  Jabus  Valley  and  the  moimtains  commanded  by  the  double  peak  of 
Tulu-Wallel  (10,666  feet),  whose  southern  face  overlooks  the  Sobat  basin,  are  peopled 
by  the  Logas,  the  most  westerly  of  all  the  Galla  peoples,  unless  the  Latukas  and 
"Wa-Humas  may  also  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  same  race,  from  which  they 
are  now  rieparated  by  so  many  different  nations.  The  type  of  the  Legas  is  very 
pure  and  quite  distinct  from  that  of  tue  Negroes,  although  they  are  surrounded  by 
the  latter  on  the  south,  west,  and  north.  Their  complexion  is  very  light,  even  more 
80  than  that  of  Europeans  bronzed  by  the  tropical  sun.  Tall  and  usually  thin,  they 
have  the  "  nrms  and  legs  of  Yankees,"  a  long  and  thin  neck,  narrow  hollow-cheeked 
face,  but  with  strong  features  and  expressive  eyes,  a  small  head,  and  a  high,  narrow, 
and  conic  forehead.  The  women  are  in  proportion  much  shorter  than  the  men, 
and  also  present  a  much  greater  contrast  than  is  usually  remarked  between  the 
sexes,  being  as  plump  as  the  latter  are  tliin  and  scraggy,  whilst  their  hands  and 
feet  are  extremely  small.  The  royal  family,  and  those  of  the  Lega  chiefs,  are  of 
far  less  pure  extraction  than  the  bulk  of  the  nation.  They  have  received  a  strain 
of  Negro  blood ;  but  although  the  complexion  is  darker,  the  features  are  usually 
finer,  and  the  body  more  fleshy.  These  mulattos  are  also  of  a  livelier  disposition, 
and  have  not  the  melancholy  appearance  of  the  other  Legas,  who  are  usually  seen 
leaning  on  their  lances  with  the  head  resting  pensively  on  the  right  shoulder ;  from 
this  circumstance  Schuver  compared  them  to  cranes.  The  Legas  are  one  of  the 
most  numerous  nations  of  the  plateaux,  comprising  at  least  a  hundred  thousand 


INHAIUTANTH— TIIK  SHANdALLAS  AND  I,F,(JAH. 


t  whifh  the 
11  t'.ic  Ku'a 
r  to  the  u«8, 

U  may  po»- 
ihouHuiids  of 
tho  unimuU 
the  stables 
igent  herbs, 
the  ap-  ioul- 
s  tho  -Ala- 
)tion. 


lains  sloping 
iral  produce, 
ns,  all  differ, 
e  mountains. 
•  else  peopled 
)s  are  known 
!  ethnological 
called  Shan- 

Duble  peak  of 
1,  are  peopled 
Latukas  and 
n  which  they 
legas  is  very 
urrounded  by 
ht,  even  more 
Uy  thin,  they 
)llow-cheeked 
high,  narrow, 
ban  the  men, 

between  the 
eir  hands  and 

chiefs,  are  of 
leived  a  strain 
es  are  usually 
3r  disposition, 
e  usually  seen 
loulder;  from 
xre  one  of  the 
Ired  thousand 


yjorsons.  Although  their  king  can  put  twenty  thousand  warriors  on  tho  biil  tlotiold, 
without  counting  tln>  Negro  troopH  of  his  vaHsalM,  ho  never  abusps  Ium  pow<T  to  make 
conquests.  A  kind  and  poact'ful  people,  the  Logas  allow  tho  woniou  grout  liberty, 
uiid  permit  their  slaves  to  work  in  their  own  way.  Tlioy  themselveH  are  lalK)rious 
and  enthuHiiiHtic  agri(!ultHri»tR ;  they  till  tho  rod  soil  of  their  fertile  valleys,  and 
in  tho  evening  sit  before  their  huts  smoking  narghilehs,  whoso  globe  consists  of  a 

Fig.  73. — Thm  Leoa  Countky. 
Boole  I :  I«),000. 


54-°  35' 


5b'  E  .  of  Greenwich 


.  ISMilM. 


pumpkin,  or  else  chewing  coffee  berries,  roasted  with  salt,  butter,  and  onions.  They 
pay  no  taxes  to  the  king,  but  the  tribes  alternately  ciiltivate  and  reap  the  fields  set 
apart  for  the  support  of  the  royal  family.  The  king  decides  upon  the  fines,  when 
his  subjects  do  not  prefer  to  settle  their  disputes  by  the  law  of  retaliation.  The 
nation  also  recognises  a  high  priest,  who  celebrates  the  sacred  mysteries  in  a 
ku.issa,  a  local  name  apparently  derived  from  the  term  "kilissa,"  or  church,  used 
by  the  Christian  populations  of  the  eastern  plateaux.  The  sacrificer,  on  killing  an 
animal,  always  bathes  his  forehead  in  the  blood,  and  allows  it  to  dry  on  his  cheeks 
in  blackish  clots.     But  their  ancient  religion  seems  to  be  on  the  decline,  and  the 


MICWWWI 


^>><t^immm»ti*imit(0> 


SM 


NOIITII-KAHT  AFRICA. 


Eoaloufl  M())iiininif><lnn  itiiHNioniirioH  ur«  inukin^  hucIi  great  progroM  that  in  a  Kv/ 
ycurH  all  tlit<  hegiiH  will  prohuhly  hiivu  iMiibructMl  IhIuiii.  In  tho  iiiidHt  >  >  tho 
Logufl  livu  u  few  thoUHuiid  DeiikiiH,  who  huvu  mmght  protection  uniongNt  ti'im  and 
work  as  their  HlavoH.  Iliiving  no  other  iiiounii  of  eiicuping  tho  Hluve-doult.d  in  tho 
wiiHtod  plainH  of  tlie  Sobat  and  Zul,  which  thoy  formerly  inhabited,  they  have  b<H)n 
ol)lig(Hl  to  Moek  refuge  in  tho  mountainN,  offering  themMolvos  to  tho  tribes  an  porters 
and  merceiiarie«.  Thew)  DcnkaH  are  diHtingiUHhed  from  tho  other  tribes  by  two  or 
throe  horizontal  inarkH,  wlii(;h  they  have  niudo  on  the  forehead  by  moans  of  stalks 
of  cereal  plantH,  bound  tightly  round  the  head  for  several  weeks.  Thoy  do  not 
marry  the  women  of  the  oo'  .iry.  and  hence  are  obliged  to  practise  polyandry, 
which  huH  l)ecomo  an  instituti(m  regulated  by  coromonies.  The  capital  of  tho  licga 
country  is  the  town  of  Quinbali,  situated  at  u  height  of  6,600  f  y^t  on  one  of  the 
upper  affluents  of  tho  Jabus.  Qobo,  tho  residence  of  their  high  p:. i*.8t,  lies  further 
south  at  uu  elevation  of  7,530  feet. 


h  II 


iri:- 


The  Bertas. 

The  advanced  chains  west  of  the  Damot  Mountains  are  occupied  by  numerous 
Shangalla  peoples ;  but  the  most  powerful  nation  is  that  inhabiting  the  two 
valleys  of  the  Jabua  and  Turaat,  tributaries  of  the  Blue  Nile,  and  the  parting  ranges 
between  the  two  watersheds  of  the  Bahr-el-Azraq  and  Bahi  r^l-Abiad.  These 
Bertas,  of  Negro  stock,  who  are  said  to  number  about  80,000,  and  whom  the 
Arabs  usually  term  Jebalain,  yv  "  moimtaineers,"  a  name  also  applied  to  other 
peoples,  have  kinky  hair,  pouting  lips,  and  the  tace  flat,  although  less  so  than  that 
of  their  West  African  congeners.  However,  the  figure  is  well-proportioned,  the 
limbs  supple  and  strong;  and  the  Perta  wrnior,  rraed  with  lance  and  shield, 
presents  a  commanding  appearance.  Tb'  -,"  ie'.j  ^'^m  the  face  by  passing  a 
silver  or  copper  ring  through  the  nostrils,  av--  n  uou  one  through  the  upper  lobe 
of  the  left  ear.  Tho  young  m :  i  fasten  tlui  <■■  jiw  of  boars  to  their  temples  or  necks, 
and  on  grand  occasions  both  men  and  « '  men  paint  the  body  red,  like  the  B&ri 
warriors.  The  women  of  some  tri'.  's  tattoo  the  face  in  such  a  fashion  as  to  produce 
numerous  little  pustules  like  those  of  small-pox.  The  warriors  of  other  tribes 
expose  tho  epidermis  so  as  to  produce  very  elegant  arabesque  designs ;  but  their 
customs  allow  those  warriors  alone  who  have  cut  off  one  or  more  heads  to  tattoo 
themselves  in  this  way.  The  Bertas,  like  all  the  other  Negro  peoples  of  the  Blue 
Nile,  consist  exclusively  of  agriculturists,  which  is  the  principal  cause  of  their 
contrast  with  the  Negroes  of  the  White  Nile,  who  are  all  cattle-breeders.  The 
language  of  tho  Bertas  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  that  of  the  Shiluks,  Nfiers, 
and  Denkas ;  but  since  their  country  has  been  brought  within  the  Mohammedan 
circle  of  attraction,  first  by  the  Egyptian  conquest  and  then  by  the  general 
development  of  the  Nilotic  populations,  Arabic  has  become  the  cultivated  language. 
The  villages  are  administered,  and  the  chief  of  the  tribe  chosen,  by  the  Arabs. 
In  each  independent  village  resides  an  Arab  merchant  acting  as  a  consul  for  the 
protection  of  his  fellow-countrymen,  and  thanks  to  him  the  stranger  is  received 


lut  in  a  'v.w 
iiiulHt  '  L  the 
fMt  t  'in  and 
loult.d  in  tho 
oy  huvo  be«n 
Hjs  a«  portorH 
jes  by  two  or 
lunH  of  stulks 

Thoy  do  not 
e  polyandry, 
1  of  the  Lo^^a 
m  one  of  tho 
t,  lioH  farther 


by  numerous 
ting  the  two 
)arting  ranges 
biad.  These 
ad  whom  the 
)lied  to  other 
s  so  than  that 
portioned,  the 
le  and  shield, 
by  passing  a 
the  upper  lobe 
iples  or  necks, 

like  the  B&ri 

as  to  produce 
f  other  tribes 
fns;  but  their 
beads  to  tattoo 
8  of  the  Blue 
cause  of  their 
ireeders.  The 
Ihiluks,  Niiers, 

Mohammedan 
y  the  general 
ated  language. 

by  the  Arabs. 

consul  for  the 
ger  is  received 


■Ift^r  _..«... 


J 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0     ^Kili£ 


u^  I&2   12.2 


4" 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporalion 


23  WIST  MAIN  STttiT 

WIBSTIR.N.Y.  14SM 

(716)172^503 


■ijeiiik 


^ 


4r 


«'; 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

BeYies. 


CIHIVI/ICiVIH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  fMicroraproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  da  microraproductions  historiquas 


■^ 


THE  BEETAS. 


226 


like  a  brother.  A  sheep  or  goat  is  killed  and  the  blood  received  in  a  calabash,  in 
which  all  the  assistants  dip  their  hands  and  then  embrace.  Henceforth  the  stranger 
is  safe  from  all  attack.  The  Bertas  are  great  orators,  and  often  hold  councils, 
where  each  one  addresses  the  assembly  in  turn,  seconded  by  an  applauder,  who 
stands  at  his  side.  But  he  is  never  interrupted,  as,  more  polite  than  the  Westerns, 
the  Bertas  always  await  the  end  of  a  speech  before  replying  to  the  argument. 
Excepting  the  northern  districts,  where  all  natives  claim  to  be  Mohammedans,  the 
religion  of  the  Bertas  is  still  mainly  Animistic.  At  the  period  of  the  new  moon 
they  dance  by  the  light  of  the  stars,  and  terminate  these  feasts  with  orgies.  Their 
amulets  consist  of  certain  roots,  flowers,  and  the  scarabeus,  a  species  of  beetle, 
probably  the  ateuchus  ^gyptorum.  Thus  Egyptian  influence,  after  more  than  two 
thousand  years,  still  survives  amongst  these  obscure  peoples  of  the  Upper  Nile  basin. 
Like  the  Buruns  and  other  tribes  assimilated  to  the  Arabs,  they  have  also  the 
taramlmh,  a  curved  wooden  "  knuckle-duster,"  very  similar  in  shape  to  the 
boomerang.  According  to  some  authors  they  do  not  throw  this  weapon,  like  the 
Australians,  but  carry  it  in  the  hand,  using  it  when  scaling  the  mountains  to  hook 
on  to  the  branches  of  the  trees  or  projections  in  the  rock.  But  the  explorer  Mamo, 
who  has  traversed  these  countries,  states  that  he  has  seen  the  natives  use  as  a 
throwing-stick  both  the  tarambish  and  the  culdeba,  a  still  more  formidable  iron 
weapon,  curved  in  the  form  of  a  sickle.  Schuver  confirms  this  statement,  but 
says  that  the  Bertas  cannot  make  the  weapon  return  to  the  exact  point  whence  it 
was  thrown. 

There  are  no  towns  properly  so-called  in  the  Berta  country ;  but  their  most 
important  village  is  Kirin,  situated  on  the  western  slope  of  the  mountains  in  a 
basin  of  the  Yavash  or  Yal,  and  consisting  of  large  huts  scattered  among  enormous 
g^nite  blocks.  No  other  national  assembly  presents  a  more  picturesque  appear- 
ance than  that  of  Kirin — each  rock  has  its  own  group  of  men  in  the  most  varied 
attitudes,  upright,  lying  down,  sitting,  or  holding  on  to  the  crags.  Many  of  the 
Berta  tribes  have  chiefs,  who  bear  the  title  of  king  or  mek,  but  their  power  is  very 
precarious.  Directly  the  mek  no  longer  pleases  his  subjects,  the  men  and  women 
all  collect  together  and  tell  him  that  they  hate  him,  and  that  it  is  time  for  him  to 
die  ;  then  they  hang  him  to  the  nearest  tree.  If  the  king  is  prevented  by  sick- 
ness from  holding  his  daily  court  of  justice,  his  influence  becomes  ill-omened 
instead  of  being  favourable,  and  the  gallows  rids  the  people  of  him.  A  wife  when 
imfaithful  is  always  punished  with  death. 

To  the  north  and  north-west  of  the  Bertas,  the  "  no-man's-land "  which 
separates  the  Blue  Nile  from  the  Abyssinian  plateaux  of  Agaumeder,  is  occupied 
by  numerous  tribes  of  divers  orig^,  and  here  are  spoken  five  distinct  languages, 
without  including  Arabic  and  Abyssinian.  A  sheikh  residing  at  Kuba  or  Monkuis, 
a  village  perched  on  a  mountain,  is  apparently  a  sovereign;  but  the  people  of 
Kuba,  the  Gumus,  the  Sienetjos,  the  Kadolos,  and  the  Berta  immigrants,  govern 
themselves  and  are  frequently  at  war  with  each  other.  Some  of  the  Gumus  live  in 
email  independent  or  isolated  groups,  a  space  of  a  mile  intervening  between  the 
dwelling  of  each  family.    On  grand  occasions  they  all  carry  parasols  of  honour  of 

16— AF. 


yw>'jj'W'"V"fWJ?'"'*'.'.'i/'Myii»!' 


226 


NOETH-EAST  AFBICA. 


the  form  and  size  of  umbrellas.  In  their  eyes  this  emblem  is  the  proof  of  the  degree 
of  civilisation  that  they  have  attained.  The  Eadalos,  whose  villages  are  built  on 
impregnable  rocks,  ornamented  with  tufts  of  foliage  in  honour  of  the  genius  of  the 
winds,  boast  that  they  are  the  true  aborigines.    Ai  ording  to  Schuver,  they  resemble 


Iv.- 


Fig.  74. — Inhabitants  op  thb  Blue  Nilb. 
Soale  1 :  4,800,000. 


fc 


.laoMilBB. 


*■  *■  ■■■,-  ■ 


the  Negroes  of  the  White  Nile  much  more  than  the  Gumus  and  Bertas ;  they  have 
large  eyes,  which  distinguishes  them  more  especially  from  the  Gumus,  whose  eyes 
are  small,  "like  those  of  pigs."  •< 

The  Sienetjos,  who  pass  for  the  remnant  of  a  people  formerly  in  possession  of 
the  country,  and  were  almost  entirely  exterminated  by  the  Negroes,  are  probably 
akin  to  other  Sienetjos  who  live  farther  east  amongpst  the  populations  of  Damot  and 
Gojam.  The  Sienetjos  are  not  blacks,  having  a  yellow  skin,  perceptibly  clearer 
than  that  of  Europeans  who  are  exposed  to  climatic  influences.    The  face  is  nearly 


^ 


THE  FUNJ  RACE. 


227 


the  degree 
e  built  on 
aius  of  the 
y  resemble 


lA- 


is;  they  have 
18,  whose  eyes 

possession  of 

are  probably 

of  Damot  and 

jptibly  clearer 

I  face  is  nearly 


square,  the  forehead  very  broad,  and  the  skull  regular.  Very  careful  of  the  purity 
of  their  race,  they  never  allow  their  daughters  to  intermarry  with  the  Arabs  or 
Negroes.  Having  good  reasons  to  fear  strangers,  they  live  on  inaccessible  rocks, 
natural  fortresses  which  the  women  scale  daily,  so  as  to  provision  the  village ;  but 
the  path  is  carefully  forbidden  to  people  of  other  tribes.  The  Sierietjos  are  the 
only  weavers  and  smiths  of  the  country,  and  it  is  due  to  this  fact  that  they  have 
hitherto  managed  to  preserve  their  existence  in  the  midst  of  so  many  enemies. 
They  are  also  skilful  jewellers,  making  extremely  elegant  copper  ornaments,  which 
they  do  not  sell.  These  trinkets  are  reserved  by  them  for  their  own  women,  who 
are  very  fond  of  finery,  and  who  wear  several  rows  of  glass  bead  necklaces  round 
their  necks. 

East  of  the  Gumus,  the  plains  covered  with  low  hills  which  stretch  towards 
the  offshoots  of  Damot  and  Agaumeder,  are  beginning  to  be  peopled  by  Agau 
immigrants,  who,  arriving  in  the  country  in  isolated  families,  settle  down  in  the 
clearings,  at  a  few  miles  distance  from  each  other.  They  do  not  fear  the  hostility 
of  the  natives,  as  they  know  they  are  protected  by  the  prestige  of  the  great  military 
Empire  of  Abyssinia,  by  which  any  wrong  done  to  them  would  soon  be  revenged 
by  a  war  of  extermination.  Thus,  the  boundaries  of  Abyssinia  are  being  yearly 
enlarged  by  the  immigration  of  new  colonies;  from  an  independent  nation,  the 
Qiimus  have  almost  changed  into  a  tributary  people.  The  Ginjar,  who  occupy  the 
region  of  the  Abyssinian  spurs  farther  north  as  far  as  the  frontiers  of  Galabat, 
have  to  pay  tribute,  often  even  in  slaves.  They  are  blacks  mixed  with  Arabs  and 
Bejas,  probably  refugees  in  their  territory.  They  call  themselves  Mohammedans, 
and  speak  a  corrupt  form  of  Arabic.  All  their  pride  is  centered  in  their  hair,  which 
is  plaited  like  that  of  the  Abyssinians,  and  greased  with  butter. 

•  "'^^ ■'-■'■'■■  ^    ■■^"'^--     The  FuNJ  Race.     '-"'' 

The  mountains  of  the  region  between  the  two  Niles  are  peopled  by  more  or  less 
mixed  branches  of  the  ancient  Funj,  or  Fung,  nation,  which  formerly  ruled  over  all 
the  country  of  Senaar.  The  Funj  nearly  all  laid  aside  their  national  language  on 
their  conversion  to  Islam ;  still  some  tribes  have  special  dialects,  greatly  intermixed 
with  Arabic  words,  and  said  to  be  connected  with  the  group  of  Nuba  languages. 
Mohammedanism  has  not  yet  completely  supplanted  the  ancient  religion.  On  the 
Jebel-Guleh,  which  the  Funj  consider  as  their  sacred  mountain,  the  explorer 
Pruyssenaere  has  seen  them  still  celebrate  phallic  rites  around  a  clay  altar  on 
which  stands  a  wooden  statue  representing  a  god.  According  to  Beltrame,  their 
conversion  to  Islam  is  so  very  superficial  that  the  majority  of  them  have  not  even 
been  circumcised.  Hartmann,  taking  up  the  hypothesis  of  Bruce,  believes  that  the 
Funj  are  allied  to  the  Shilluks,  and  that  all  the  region  comprised  between  their 
territory  and  that  of  the  Bertas  is  peopled  by  tribes  of  the  same  stock.  The 
Hammej,  who  are  now  greatly  mixed  with  the  Arabs ;  the  Burun,  who  are  still 
cannibals,  according  to  Marno ;  and  the  haughty  Ingassana,  who  occupy  the  valleys 
of  Mount  Tabi,  and  have  valiantly  repulsed  the  assaults  of  the  "  Turks,"  are  all 


I 


S88 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


i.' 


said  to  belong  to  the  Funj  race.  This  very  name,  equivalent  in  meaning  to 
"citizen,"  would  indicate  that  the  Funj  considrr  themselves  as  civilised  in  a  super- 
lative degree,  in  comparison  with  their  still  barlAiroua  kindred.  However  this  may 
be,  the  Funj  were  till  recently  one  of  the  most  powerful  African  peoples.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century  they  destroyed  the  kingdom  of  Aloa,  whose 
centre  stood  near  the  confluence  of  the  two  Niles,  and  founded  another  State,  that 
of  Senaar,  which  existed  till  the  beginning  of  this  century,  exercising  control  over 
all  the  neighbouring  peoples  of  Sudan,  Nubia,  and  even  Kordofan,  and  holding  in 
check  the  Abyssinian  armies  which  occasionally  attempted  to  descend  from  their 
plateaux.  But  the  Arab  viziers  by  degrees  obtained  the  power,  leaving  an  empty 
show  of  authority  to  the  Funj  sovereigns ;  rivalries  and  revolutions  disorganised 
the  State,  and  when  the  troops  of  Mohammed  Ali  penetrated  into  Senaar  in  1821, 
they  had  an  easy  triumph,  thanks  to  their  discipline  and  superior  weapons.  The 
conquest  was  not  to  the  advantage  of  the  Funj,  who  soon  became  subjected  to 
methodical  slave-hunts,  fusillades,  the  punishment  of  impaling,  and  other  "benefits" 
of  civilisation  introduced  by  the  Egyptians. 

At  present  the  Funj,  specially  classed  under  this  name,  are  not  numerous,  and 
even  round  Mount  Guleh  very  few  are  met  with  who  can  be  considered  as  typical 
representatives  of  the  race;  the  numerous  crossings  caused  by  war  and  slavery 
have  so  corrupted  the  population  that  it  is  a  matter  of  great  difficulty  to  trace  the 
predominating  elements.  Every  Arab  or  semi- Arab  tribe,  especially  the  Baggftra 
immigrants  and  the  industrious  Barbarins,  come  to  seek  a  fortune  in  this  country, 
and  the  Zordofan  Nubas  settled  in  military  colonies  around  the  towns,  have  all 
contributed  to  modify  the  Senaar  populations.  The  Egyptians  alone,  whether 
Mussulman  soldiers  or  Coptic  scribes,  have  had  but  little  influence  on  the  race, 
nearly  all  hoving  quickly  succumbed  to  the  climate.  The  variety  of  their  origin 
and  physical  appearance  is  so  great  that  the  inhabitants  of  Senanr  are  usually 
classed  according  to  their  colour  as  "  white,  red,  yellow,  blue,  green,  and  black." 
Nevertheless  the  fundamental  ethnical  element  appears  to  be  that  of  the  Fimj. 
According  to  most  authors  they  form  an  intermediate  type  between  those  of  the 
Nubians,  Negroes,  and  Gallas.  The  head  is  long,  the  face  orthognathous,  the 
features  regular,  the  cheek-bones  slightly  prominent,  the  body  slim  and  graceful, 
and  like  most  other  natives  they  spend  much  time  in  arranging  their  hair.  They 
are  affable,  cheerful,  and  hospitable,  and  all  the  Senaar  Egyptians  prefer  to  dwell 
in  Jebel-Guleh,  in  the  Funj  country,  than  in  any  other  district.  Infirm  persons  are 
almost  unknown  amongst  the  Funj,  and  their  women  retain  their  beauty  and 
bodily  elegance  far  beyond  the  period  usually  allotted  to  the  women  of  other 
African  tribes.  The  delka,  which  consists  of  rubbing  the  body,  fumigating  it  with 
perfumes,  and  anointing  it  with  grease,  is  a  practice  much  in  use  amongst  the  Funj 
and  the  other  civilised  inhabitants  of  Upper  Nubia.  The  people  of  Senaar  are 
skilful  surgeons,  and  many  of  them  travel  to  the  basin  of  the  Nile  in  the  exercise 
of  their  talents.  They  are  known  even  in  Egypt,  and  the  fellahin  give  the  name 
of  Senaari  to  the  persons  who  vaccinate,  treat  fractured  limbs,  or  operate  on  those 
Biiffering  from  ophthalmic  complaints. 


THE  TAKRUm— THE  KUNAMA  AND  BABEA. 


220 


neaning  to 
in  a  super- 
er  this  may 
es.     At  the 
Aloa,  whose 
r  State,  that 
control  over 
1  holding  in 
from  their 
ag  an  empty 
disorganised 
laar  in  1821, 
tapons.     The 
subjected  to 
er"  benefits" 

araerous,  and 
red  as  typical 
•  and  slavery 
y  to  trace  the 
-  the  Baggllra 
this  country, 
iwns,  have  all 
lone,  whether 
)  on  the  race, 
of  their  origin 
XT  are  usually 
n,  and  black." 
;  of  the  Funj. 
n  those  of  the 
ognathous,  the 
i  and  graceful, 
lir  hair.     They 
prefer  to  dwell 
rm  persons  are 
3ir  beauty  and 
omen  of  other 
ligating  it  with 
ongst  the  Funj 
I  of  Senaar  are 
t  in  the  exercise 
I  give  the  name 
tperate  on  those 


The  Takruri. 

To  the  north  and  north-west  of  the  Ginjar,  the  zone  of  the  spurs  which 
separate  the  Abyssinian  plateaux  from  the  Nubian  steppes  is  occupied  by  other 
immigrants,  collectively  known  as  Takruri,  or  Takarir,  originally  come  from  Dar- 
For,  Wadai,  and  the  countries  of  Western  Africa.  Mostly  pilgrims  returned  from 
Mecca,  they  have  preferred  to  stop  and  settle  down  in  a  country  where  they  found 
lands  to  cultivate  and  a  relative  independence,  rather  than  return  to  their  own 
territory,  where  they  were  certain  to  meet  with  oppression.  Perfectly  accli- 
matised to  these  lowlands,  where  most  of  the  Abyssinians  and  European  travellers 
succumb,  they  now  occupy  all  Gal&bat  and  many  of  the  valleys  of  the  Kwarra,  in 
Abyssinia.  Having  become  free,  they  have,  at  the  same  time,  acquired  great 
prosperity  as  farmers  and  merchants;  but  they  have  not  always  peacefully 
enjoyed  their  conquests,  and  civil  war  often  broke  out  between  the  Takrur  of 
Wadai,  those  of  Dar-Fdr,  and  th6  descendants  of  the  immigrants  long  settled  in 
the  country.  A  large  number  of  Jiberti  Mussulmans,  expelled  from  Abyssinia 
because  they  have  refused  to  abjure  their  faith,  have  recently  increased  the 
population  of  the  Takarir  oommunitiee  and  of  the  Dabaina  Arabs. 


The  Kunama  and  Barea.' 


.  :v  ■■.•/• 


The  Eunama,  Bazen,  or  Baza,  who  people  the  valleys  of  the  Mareb  and 
Takkazeh  and  the  intermediary  plateaux  at  the  mouth  of  the  Abyssinian  kwallas 
to  the  number  of  some  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand,  are  "  Shangallas,"  who 
have  successfully  kept  aloof  from  intermingling  with  the  Arabs.  They  do  not  as 
yet  speak  the  language  of  the  northern  invaders,  and,  except  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
borderlands,  have  not  adopted  the  Mohammedan  religion ;  but  if  they  have  suc- 
ceeded in  maintaining  their  national  independence,  it  is  only  due  to  their  continual 
and  pitiless  wars.  An  implacable  struggle  exists  between  them  and  the  nomads 
of  the  north,  and  the  frontier  populations  are  always  on  the  alert  to  avoid  surprise, 
and  the  massacre  which  would  inevitably  follow.  The  Eunama  have  also  to  defend 
themselves  on  the  south  from  the  attacks  of  the  Abyssinian  highlanders.  Like 
their  neighbours,  the  Barea,  ten  .times  less  numerous,  who  live  to  the  north-west 
in  the  rocky  region  of  the  water-parting  between  the  Mareb  and  the  Barka,  they 
are  continually  in  danger  of  being  crushed  by  the  enemies  who  harass  them  on 
both  sides.  In  one  direction  the  Arabs  assail  them  from  the  lowlands,  on  the  other 
the  Abyssinians  swoop  down  from  their  plateaux,  whence  Munzinger  compares  them 
to  the  com,  ground  between  two  millstones.  Nevertheless,  these  populations  so 
threatened  are  amongst  the  most  interesting  by  their  customs,  the  most  sympathetic 
by  their  qualities,  and  the  most  worthy  of  imitation ;  peace  exists  between  their 
different  communities,  and  labour  is  respected  by  them. 

Although  resembling  each  other  in  their  political  and  social  institutions,  the 
Eunama  and  the  Barea  are  different  in  origin  and  physical  type.  The  Eunama, 
established  in  the  country  since  time  immemorial,  claim  to  be  immigrants  of  Aby»* 


f 


-"— y 


280 


NORTU-EAST  AFRICA. 


sinian  origin,  and  the  Abyssinians  themselves  look  upon  them  an  deftcondantn  of 
the  ancient  Aksumites.  They  are  generally  of  a  dark  complexion,  and  individuals 
are  often  found  amongst  them  nearly  as  black  as  the  Nijjritians  of  western  Africa. 
Well-proportioned,  tall,  strong,  and  broad-shouldered,  the  Kunama  are  one  of  the 
healthiest  and  most  vigorous  peoples  of  the  continent.  Sickly  persons  are  un- 
known, and  the  disgraceful  diseases  so  common  amongst  the  Abyssinian  highlanders 
and  the  Arab  lowlanders  have  not  yet  contaminated  their  race.  Like  the  Nuers 
and  Denkas  of  the  Upper  Nile,  they  often  rest  standing  on  one  foot.  They  rarely 
su£Fer  from  the  fevers  so  dangerous  to  strangers,  and  many  of  them  attain  an 
advanced  age.  However,  they  have  a  certain  tendency  to  stoutness,  and  in  this 
respect  present  a  singular  contrast  to  their  neighbours,  the  Barea,  and  especially 
to  the  Arabs.  The  Eunama  attribute  their  good,  health  to  the  scars  with  which 
they  cover  the  face  and  body — and  which  they  look  upon  as  signs  of  beauty — as 
well  as  a  sacred  writing  proclaiming  their  origin.  The  Barea  are  not  of  such 
light  complexion  as  the  Eunama,  and  are  usually  weaker  and  less  shapely ; 
many  blind  persons  are  found  in  their  tribes,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
marshy  shallows  of  the  river  Barka.  Whilst  nearly  all  the  Eunama  have  a 
family  likeness,  the  Barea  present  a  g^eat  diversity  of  types,  and,  excepting  the 
women,  have  rarely  regular  features.  The  languages  of  the  two  peoples  are  also 
different,  although  both  may  be  classed  provisionally  in  the  "Hamitic"  group, 
while  in  some  respects  they  appear  to  be  allied  with  the  Nuba  idiom.  It  will  be 
possible  to  fix  their  position  definitely  when  all  the  dialects  of  North-East  Africa 
have  been  as  carefully  studied  as  the  Bazena  of  the  Eunama,  and  the  Nerebena  of 
the  Barea,  have  been  by  Munzinger,  Edlund,  Halevy,  and  Reinisch.  The  speech 
of  the  Eunama  is  unaccentuated,  and  without  harsh  consonants ;  uniform  and  soft, 
it  corresponds  perfectly  with  the  peaceful  character  of  the  nation.  Very  few  of 
the  Eunama  speak  any  language  than  their  own,  whilst  nearly  all  the  Barea  under- 
stand the  Tigr4  of  their  Abyssinian  neighbours.  There  is  a  rich  treasure  in  the 
popular  songs  and  melodies  of  the  Eunama,  which  have  not  yet  been  collected  by 
European  explorers.  ^       "    ■-■      -'  •   '.     '  >vwk    f  •■; 

The  Eimama  and  Barea  are  pre-eminently  agriculturists,  all  cultivating  the 
land  without  distinction  of  sex,  position,  or  fortune.  During  the  rainy  season  the 
plough  never  rests,  and,  unlike  their  neighbours,  they  have  no  idle  days  consecrated 
to  religious  feasts.  All  the  domestic  animals  are  used  for  work ;  the  camels,  asses, 
and  homed  cattle  are  harnessed  to  the  plough,  and  if  these  cannot  bo  had,  the  men 
or  women  take  their  place.  Everyone  has  his  farm,  and  plots  of  land  are  set  apart 
even  for  the  slaves,  who  are  allowed  sufficient  time  for  its  cultivation.  The  public 
domain,  at  the  disposition  of  all,  is  of  sufficient  size  to  enable  the  labourer  to  select 
another  piece  of  land,  and  thus  replace  the  field  exhausted  by  a  long  term  of  culti- 
vation ;  but  the  rotation  of  these  allotments  is  usually  made  in  a  regular  order 
around  the  scattered  huts  in  which  the  families  reside.  Wherever  the  hills  have 
a  decided  slope,  they  are  cultivated  in  terraces  sustained  by  stone  walls.  The  Bazen 
are  never  daunted  by  any  kind  of  work.  Peaceful  labourers  engaged  exclusively 
in  tilling  the  land,  neither  the  Bazen  nor  the  Barea  are  grouped  in  villages,  as  they 


I- 


'|i!ii^.<||Wn;i-i<H.yw" 


pcondants  of 
individuals 
Item  Africa, 
one  of  the 
lona  are  un- 
highlanders 
|e  the  Nuers 
ley  rarely 
attain  an 
and  in  this 
Id  especially 
with  which 
beauty — as 
not  of  such 
!8S  shapely ; 
inity  of  the 
uraa  have  a 
ccepting  the 
pies  are  also 
itic"  group, 
It  will  be 
■East  Africa 
Nerebena  of 
The  speech 
)rm  and  soft, 
Very  few  of 
Barea  under- 
asure  in  the 
collected  by 

tivating  the 

Y  season  the 

I  consecrated 

amels,  asses, 

lad,  the  men 

ire  set  apart 

The  public 

irer  to  select 

)rm  of  culti- 

igular  order 

e  hills  have 

The  Bazen 

exclusively 

ges,  as  they 


THE  KUNAMA  AND  BAEE^V. 


281 


have  no  need  to  defend  themselves,  except  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Abys- 
sinians  or  Arabs.  But  there  they  often  take  the  offensive.  Collect  in  j^  together  in 
small  bands,  they  set  off  to  plunder  distant  villages,  disappearing  before  time  has 
been  given  to  signal  their  attack,  and  enable  the  neighbouring  tribes  to  pursue  or 
cut  off  their  retreat.  The  Abyssinians  and  Bejas  speak  of  the  Buzen  and  Barea 
with  terror,  and  usually  depict  them  as  tribes  of  brigands.  This  reputation  has 
been  earned  for  them  by  the  tactics  these  agricultural  peoples  have  adopted  ;  they 
attack  in  order  to  protect  themselves  more  effectually.  Nevertheless,  it  appears 
positive  that  curtain  Barea  mountaineers  have  very  cruel  customs.  In  some  districts 
a  young  man  cannot  honourably  marry  until  he  has  cut  off  a  man's  or  woman's  head 
in  combat  or  by  surprise. 

Although  so  much  dreaded  by  their  neighbours,  the  two  peoples  have  nevertheless 
no  organised  government ;  they  are  divided  into  as  many  independent  groups  as 
the  country  offers  natural  divisions.  Their  astonishing  power  of  resistance,  which 
has  been  their  safeguard  for  so  many  centuries,  comes  from  their  spirit  of  solidarity ; 
the  various  communes  all  look  upon  each  other  as  brothers,  but  without  ever 
recognising  superiors.  Amongst  the  Bazen  especially,  who  have  been  less  encroached 
upon  than  the  Bareas  by  the  interference  of  strangers,  the  sentiment  of  equality  is 
a  prevailing  feature ;  in  this  respect  they  are  perhaps  not  equalled  by  any  other 
people  in  the  world.  The  name  of  Barea,  which  the  Abyssinians  have  given  to  the 
two  groups  of  the  N^r^  and  Mogoreb,  originally  signified  "  slaves,"  yet  this  con- 
temptuous name  has  been  quietly  and  even  haughtily  accepted  by  them.  The  Bazen 
and  Barea  consider  themselves  as  "  servants  "  of  the  community,  no  one  amongst 
them  aspiring  to  the  title  of  "  master."  In  the  communes  no  one  exercises  the 
functions  of  a  chief.  The  legislative  and  executive  power  belong  equally  to  the 
assembly  of  the  inhabitants,  whatever  their  origin  may  be.  From  the  moment  a 
stranger  settles  amongst  them  he  becomes  the  equal  of  the  natives.  The  old  men 
are  listened  to  with  the  greatest  respect,  and  their  advice  is  that  which  is  generally 
followed.  Violent  outbursts  of  anger,  unmannerly  interruptions,  and  personal 
remarks  are  unknown  in  these  communal  meetings,  politeness  being  pre-eminently 
the  rule.  They  soon  agree  to  the  matters  in  hand,  and  when  the  decision  has  been 
arrived  at  it  is  immediately  put  into  force.  In  the  eyes  of  the  commune  a  family 
has  no  other  rights  than  those  of  the  persons  who  compose  it.  They  have  no 
process  to  sustain  or  fends  to  avenge,  every  debate  being  at  once  referred  to  the 
decision  of  the  elders  of  the  tribe.  Marriage  is  not  a  family  feast,  but  a  common 
ceremony,  in  which  everyone  takes  part.  Equality  is  the  rule  in  the  household  as 
well  as  in  the  commune,  although  in  certain  districts  the  bride  lies  down  at  the 
threshold  of  the  hut,  and  the  bridegroom  steps  over  her,  slightly  touching  her  cheek 
with  his  foot,  as  a  sign  that  she  must  henceforth  be  prepared  to  submit  to  any 
hardships.  The  morals  of  the  Bazens  are  pure,  but  the  public  opinion  is  not  severe. 
Children  bom  out  of  wedlock  are  received  into  the  tribes  with  the  same  rejoicings 
as  legitimate  infants,  and  like  them  inherit  from  their  maternal  imcle.  The  reason 
of  this  is  that  in  this  country  the  matriarchal  government  prevails,  which  sets  aside 
the  real  or  putative  father  in  favour  of  the  xmcle,  who  is  the  undoubted  representative 


i-j  w  :*& 


"ssBsstssra,'*'- 


^  i-^m-j^  ^fummmfff 


imimiuiuiMn»iiinuti|i  Jill.-     Jimyi 


'f^pmiM'VRaMHnqiM^aMn 


N0RTTI-EA8T  AFBICA. 


of  the  linoago.  In  the  communo  of  the  Kunamaa  there  ure  very  few  acts  which 
call  down  a  general  puiiiHlunont ;  a  thief  even  oHcapes  cenHure,  being  simply  coin- 
pcUod  to  rcHtoro  what  he  has  taken,  junt  as  if  it  had  been  uorrowed.  The  only 
puniHhment  imposed  by  the  community  is  exile.  This  sentence  is  carried  out  by 
young  men  who  mount  on  the  roof  of  the  criminal's  hut  and  scatter  the  thatch  to 
the  winds.  This  is  the  signal  for  the  exile  to  depart,  and  he  never  can  return 
to  hia  native  place. 

Munzinger  has  vainly  sought  in  the  Eunama  country  for  traces  of  Christianity, 
such  as  those  found  to  the  east  amongst  the  Bogos,  and  westwards  in  Senaar. 

Fig.  76.— Inhauitants  op  Taka  amd  Nbioubovhino  DuTuicn.  i 

Boftla  1 :  T,500.nr)n. 


laoHflMk 


There  are  seen  no  ruined  churches,  and  the  current  religious  ideas  show  no  traces 
of  the  influence  of  the  Christian  or  Jewish,  dogmas.  The  religion  of  the  Eunama 
consists  in  a  belief  in  the  evil  eye,  fear  of  sorcerers,  wearing  of  amulets,  veneration 
of  the  alfai,  or  "  makers  of  rain,"  respect  for  old  men,  and  especially  the  blind. 
They  likewise  have  a  great  veneration  for  the  dead,  and  bury  them  carefully,  which 
seems  to  imply  a  belief  in  immortality.  Nevertheless,  a  slow  religious  propaganda 
has  already  made  considerable  progress  amongst  the  Bazen  and  Barea  republics. 
Half  of  the  Barea  already  call  themselves  Mohammedans,  although  they  hard'ij 
follow  out  the  precepts  of  the  Eoran.  On  the  other  hand,  on  the  Abyssinian  frontier 
a  number  of  Bazen  are  reputed  to  belong  to  the  Christian  Church. 


i 


acts  which 
niply  com- 
The  only 
ied  out  by 
e  thatch  to 
can  return 

iristianity, 
in  Senaar. 


39' 


r  no  traces 
e  Eunama 
veneration 
the  blind, 
ally,  which 
•ropaganda 
republics, 
ley  hardl; 
on  frontier 


THE  UOTEM,  ZABALAT,  AND  JAIJN  TlUUIiS.  iM 

NotwithHtonding  the  efforts  of  the  nation  to  avoid  trudors  and  fori'ignorH,  who 
are  only  ullowud  to  penetrate  into  the  country  under  th«!  jKirHonul  roHjMiuHibility  of 
a  citizen,  their  customs  are  becoming  nxKlititHi,  and  thoy  are  on  tlio  «'ve  of  groat 
social  and  {mliticul  changes.  The  skin  aprons  are  uln'iidy  Inung  replaced  by  the 
Abyssiiiiun  toga  ond  the  Arabian  shirt.  Slovcry  oven  bus  bt«en  intnKlucod  into  the 
Bazen  country,  although  under  a  very  mild  form.  If  the  slave  either  marries  or 
runs  away  he  becomes  free  by  right.  Undoubt«<lly  the  communities  of  tho  March 
and  of  the  Takkazeh  will  soon  have  lost  the  independence  of  which  thoy  are  justly 
so  jealous,  and  a  new  destiny  will  then  commence  for  theiri.  Their  initiation  will 
doubtless  be  a  hard  one,  and  these  populations,  who  woi'i-  ( ill  recently  tho  happiest 
in  Africa,  will  have  to  traverse  a  sea  of  blood  before  they  can  unite  with  their 
neighbours,  and  thus  constitute  a  g^oat  nation.  The  descriptions  that  James  and 
other  hunters  give  of  the  Kunama  already  differ  greatly  from  those  of  Munzinger; 
but  far  from  civilising  them,  their  neighbours  have  so  far  rendered  these  tribes  more 
savage. 

>..  The  Hotem,  Zabalat,  and  Jaltn  Tribes. 

Side  by  side  with  the  Bazen,  and  other  "  Shangallas,"  live  other  peoples  possibly 
of  kindred  origin,  although  even  those  whose  physical  type  shows  unmistakable  signs 
of  the  predominance  of  Negpro  blood  call  themselves  Wold-el-Arab,  or  "Sons  of 
Arabs."  If  only  the  chiefs,  the  descendants  of  conquering  families  from  the 
Arabian  peninsula,  succeed  in  preserving  their  genealogy  and  their  language,  the 
tribes,  although  of  native  origin,  claim  Arab  descent  and  are  frequently  taken  for 
Arabs.  Besides,  there  are  undoubtedly  populations  living  west  of  the  Red  Sea  who 
have  come  from  the  east,  and  who  are  known  to  have  crossed  the  Rod  Sea  within 
historic  or  recent  times.  Thus  in  the  vicinity  of  Akiq,  the  Hotem  Mohammedans, 
a  tribe  armed  with  guns,  are  of  pure  Arab  blood.  So  recently  as  1865  their  numbers 
were  largpely  increased  by  fresh  immigrants  from  the  coast  of  Yemen.  The  voyage 
from  coast  to  coast  presents  little  difficulty,  and  if  the  English  vessels  did  not 
carefully  watch  all  the  ports,  the  relations  between  Arabia  and  the  Sudan  would  be 
ntffioiently  frequent  to  rapidly  modify  the  political  equilibrium  of  these  regions. 

Amongst  the  true  Arab  tribes  of  the  Sudan,  the  missionary  Beltrame  mentions 
the  Zabalat  pastors,  the  "  Handful  of  Men,"  or,  as  they  are  also  called,  the  Abu- Jerid, 
or  "  Fathers  of  the  Palms,"  who  live  between  the  Dender  and  the  Blue  Nile,  above 
Senaar.  They  are  said  to  have  come  from  Yemen  before  the  conversion  of  their 
kinsmen  to  Islam,  for  they  am  not  Mohammedans,  and  no  traces  of  the  Mussidman 
practices  are  to  be  found  in  their  cult.  They  are  fire-worshippers,  as  were  so  many 
South  Arabian  tribes  before  the  advent  of  Mohammed,  and  as  were  also  the  Blem- 
myes,  who,  according  to  Procopius,  were  in  the  habit  of  sacrificing  men  to  the  sun. 
Their  complexion  is  lighter  than  that  of  the  neighbouring  populations,  and  betrays 
a  reddish  hue ;  according  to  Lejean,  they  have  blue  eyes  and  light  smooth  hair. 
The  gum  obtained  from  the  aunt  acacias  enters  largely  into  their  diet.  They 
jealously  preserve  the  purity  of  their  race,  and  they  claim  never  to  have  intermarried 
with  foreign  tribes.    They  do  not  tolerate  slavery,  because  the  introduction  of  servants 


mrmmmmmru 


■»^ 


ii" 


284 


NOHTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


into  thn  family  cin'l<<  would  havo  the  fatal  ronult  of  contaminating  thuir  hluod. 
n<>in^  an  "olocted"  race,  thoir  chief  ambition  is  to  maintain  tli(>ir  iiidupomliMtuo, 
and  to  Hvo  in  poaco.  On  this  account  their  forofathorn  withdrew  from  the  outer 
world,  iind  they  thom»elvoH  hocIc  to  live  iHoluted,  protected  from  the  niuruuding  trilws 
by  doM»rt  zonoH.  They  rocogniMo  the  cxiNtnnco  of  one  God  ulono,  who  niunifcHts 
himwlf  in  the  ntarH,  the  Hun,  and  (ire.  When  they  pray  they  look  townrdH  the  HtarH, 
or  t\irn  towards  the  rimng  or  setting  nun,  or  oIhc  light  a  great  fire  and  watch  the 
tongucH  of  flame  flanhing  up  in  the  wind.  Fire  ih  to  them  a  great  purifler ;  on 
burying  their  dead,  the  head  turned  towurdH  the  rising  sun,  they  light  u  funeral 
pyre  on  the  grave,  as  if  to  draw  the  soul  of  the  departed  into  the  Hery  vortex.  They 
also  believe  in  the  existence  of  a  supremo  demon,  the  god  of  darkness,  uud  have 
recourse  to  sacrificcH  in  order  to  conjure  this  dangerous  enemy. 

The  Zalabats  are  monogamists,  but  should  a  young  girl  fail  to  find  a  husband,  or 
become  a  widow  soon  after  marriage,  it  is  the  custom  for  her  nearest  relation  to 
wed  her ;  thus  it  occasionally  happens  that  a  brother  becomes  the  husband  of  his 
own  sister.  The  government  of  the  tribe  is  entirely  regulated  by  their  customs, 
which  are  interpreted  by  the  elders ;  by  them  also  the  chief  is  chosen,  now  in  one 
family,  now  in  another,  no  other  obligation  being  imposed  upon  them  than  to 
choose  the  "best." 

The  Julina  or  Agalin^  of  Senaar  and  the  Atbara  Valley  are  also  looked  upon  as 
Arabs,  and  in  this  country  no  one  doubts  their  noble  descent ;  the  Arabic  spoken 
by  them  is  much  purer  than  that  of  the  other  nomad  tribes  in  Xubia.  They  are 
distinguished  from  all  the  other  inhabitants  of  the  country  by  their  love  of  study, 
their  commercial  instincts,  and  their  religious  zeal,  although  they  are  not  fanatics. 
The  men  and  women  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  wear  large  hats  of  foliage  to  protect 
themselves  from  the  sun.  Many  of  the  neighbouring  populations  who  call  them- 
selves Arabs,  without  probably  being  so,  are  in  many  respects  really  assimilated  to 
the  Arabs.  v  '  '    '        ' .        •  •        —      ^ 

The  Bejas.  ^'■■'■''  '"     "^  ""■■■':,':' 

The  Bejas,  the  Blemmyes  of  the  ancients,  perhaps  the  Bonkas  or  BongM 
whose  name  is  found  on  the  inscriptions  of  Aksum,  constitute  one  of  the  ethnical 
groups  represented  by  the  greatest  number  of  tribes.  North  and  south  of  the 
Bazen  territory  they  occupy  nearly  all  the  region  comprised  between  the  Blue 
Nile  and  the  northern  Abyssinian  advanctd  ranges.  Still  farther  north  the  bulk 
of  the  nation,  which  appears  to  have  preserved  its  ethnical  name  under  the  form  of 
Bish&rin,  stretches  far  into  Lower  Nubia,  occupying  all  the  land  comprised  between 
the  great  western  bend  of  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea  coast ;  besides,  several  Beja 
tribes  also  live  west  of  i.e  main  stream  in  Kordofan  and  even  in  Dar-For.  The 
"  Nubians  "  recently  exhibited  at  the  Jardin  d'Acclimatation  in  Paris  were  nearly 
all  Bejas  from  Eassala  and  the  surrounding  district.  The  southern  peoples  south 
of  the  caravan  route  between  Berber  and  Suakin,  have  no  national  cohesion  with 
the  kindred  tribes.  Most  of  them  are  even  mutually  hostile  to  each  other,  and 
never  cease  their  quarrels  except  to  unite  against  a  foreign  invader.     Thus  the 


oir  hlood. 
)pon<ItMioe, 

tbo  outer 
ling  trilwa 

inunifuHts 
4  tho  Htura, 
wutch  tho 
iritier ;  on 
,  u  funorul 
ex.     Thoy 

uud  have 

luaband, or 
relution  to 
)and  of  hia 
ir  customs, 
now  in  one 
m  than  to 

od  upon  as 
ibio  spoken 
They  are 
e  of  study, 
ot  fanatics. 
)  to  protect 
I  call  them- 
umilated  to 


or  Bongaa 
;he  ethnical 
)uth  of  the 
n  the  Blue 
th  the  bulk 
the  form  of 
led  between 
everal  Beja 
-For.  The 
were  nearly 
copies  south 
hesion  with 
L  other,  and 
Thus  the 


^^ 


ar 


.  i^UWIIi.^illliHWy.i 


^mfj    '  i> 


THE  BEJA8. 


286 


clans  banded  together  at  the  time  of  the  Turkish  invasion  ;  but  their  confederation 
did  not  last  long,  and  under  the  Egyptian  rule  the  tribes  have  again  become 
scattered  into  a  multitude  of  commimities  without  common  concert.  The  Bcjas, 
rather  than  the  Abyssinians,  are  probably  the  "  Ethiopians  "  of  Herodotus,  the 
civilised  people  who  built  the  city  of  Meroe  and  its  pyramids.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  the  Bejas  also  constituted  a  powerful  state,  whose  capital  was  Aloa,  on  the 
Blue  Nile,  about  12  miles  above  Khartimi.  At  this  period  the  Bejas  were 
Christians,  at  least  in  the  vicinity  of  the  confluence.  When  their  city  was  over- 
thrown by  the  Funj  and  they  returned  to  the  steppes  they  also  embraced  the 
religion  of  the  nomad  pastors.  All  the  Bejas  are  Mohammedans,  although  most 
of  them,  like  the  Bedouins  of  Syria  and  the  Arabian  peninsala,  are  only  so  in  name, 
in  spite  of  tlie  ardour  with  which  they  have  enrolled  themselves  amongst  the 
followers  of  the  Mahdi,  under  whose  guidance  they  have  regained  a  certain  national 
unity. 

Of  all  the  southern  Beja  tribes,  the  most  powerful  is  that  of  the  Hadendoas, 
who  roam  over  the  Taka  steppes,  between  the  Gash  and  the  Atbara  to  the  west, 
and  the  Barka  to  the  east,  although  in  their  mig^ting  and  pillaging  expeditions 
they  often  pass  beyond  these  limits.  According  to  Munzinger,  they  number 
about  one  million  perso'ns.  Another  nmnerous  people  are  the  Shukurieh  or  Shuk- 
rieh,  a  nation  of  pastors  herding  their  flocks  between  the  Nile  and  the  Atbara,  and 
cultivating  the  irrigable  valleys  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kassala.  The  Hallengas 
occupy  the  narrow  zone  comprised  between  the  Atbara  and  the  Gash,  while  the 
Hamran  dwell  on  the  plains  where  the  Atbara  effects  its  junction  with  the 
Bahr-Settit.  Farther  to  the  west  and  south-west,  some  Dabeina  hordes  roam 
over  the  steppes  watered  by  the  Bahad.  In  the  "  Mesopotamia  "  of  the  two  Niles 
the  soil  is  disputed  between  the  Abu-Rdf,  or  Eufah,  the  Jalins,  and  the  Hassanieh, 
that  is  to  say  the  ••  Cavaliers "  or  "Horsemen."  Lastly,  to  the  east  of  the 
Hadendoas,  the  circumference  of  the  advanced  plateau  of  Abyssinia  between  the 
Barka  and  the  Red  Sea,  nearly  as  far  as  the  gates  of  Suakin,  is  occupied  by  the 
Beni-Amers.  According  to  Hartmann  the  Hamrans,  whom  he  calls  Homrans,  that 
is  to  say  the  "  Reds,"  are  related  to  the  Agau.  Nevertheless,  all  these  populations 
call  themselves  Arabs,  and  are  generally  considered  as  such  on  account  of  the 
religion  they  profess,  their  pastoi^  and  warlike  habits,  and  also  on  account  of  the 
language  henceforth  adopted  by  them.  Besides,  it  is  certain  that  the  Arab  element 
is  strongly  represented  in  these  nomad  Beja  tribes,  as  is  proved  by  numerous 
families  whose  type  is  absolutely  identical  with  that  of  the  Arabs  of  the  Asiatic 
peninsula.  According  to  tradition  they  are  descended  from  the  tribe  of  the  TJled- 
Abbas,  in  Hejaz.  In  the  greatest  part  of  the  Beja  countries,  the  original  dialects 
are  giving  way  before  the  language  of  the  Koran  ;  but  they  still  survive,  at  least 
in  a  state  of  patois,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Abyssinian  mountains.  Almqvist,  who  has 
composed  a  general  grammar  of  the  Beja  idioms,  recognises  four  principal  dialects, 
without  counting  the  jargons  which  the  himters  love  to  speak,  probably  because 
they  are  under  the  influence  of  the  superstition,  so  common  in  many  countries, 
that  certain  local  words  have  the  power  of  fascinating  animals.     The  original 


i^,';fffffJWi'P».''^_f'''t*>*yritiy7^»iwBWyijii»t',lJiy»fti^^«y»«y^iiyiiiy,y^^ 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


language  spoken  by  the  Hadendoas,  the  Bish&rin,  and  half  of  the  Beni-Amers,  is 
"  Bedouin  "  (Bedawieh,  or  Bejavi),  which  however,  in  spite  of  its  name,  is  not  an 
Arabic  dialect,  although  in  many  respects  connected  with  the  Semitic  group  uf 
languages. 

The  Bejas,  taken  as  a  whole,  and  apart  from  the  local  varieties,  are  one  of  the 
African  tribes  most  distinguished  by  their  handsome  features  and  elegant  forms. 
The  children  are  as  a  rule  extremely  pretty  and  vivacious,  and  young  women  are 
frequently  met  amongst  them  whose  regiilar  features  and  haughty  carriage  make 


Fig.  76.— SauKUKUu  Bua. 


<«'./'    '  .1   .7 


them  perfect  models  of  physical  beauty.  In  the  families  of  some  of  the  Beni- 
Amer  chiefs,  who  have  slaves  to  prepare  their  meals,  which  are  more  choice  than 
those  of  the  ordinary  nomads,  stoutness  is  by  no  means  rare.  The  complexion  of 
the  nobles  is  also  much  lighter  than  that  of  the  people.  Nearly  all  the  Bejas  are 
very  swift  runners,  which  they  attribute  to  their  frugal  diet,  consisting  entirely  of 
milk  and  farinaceous  aliments.  Their  arms  are  very  long  in  proportion  to  the 
rest  of  the  body.  Explorers  are  struck  with  the  similarity  of  type  between  the 
Bejas,  the  Afars,  the  Ilm-Ormas,  and  even  the  Bantus  of  Southern  Africa.  In 
spite  of  their  pretension  to  the  title  of  Arabs,  several  of  the  Beja  tribes  have 
preserved  the  customs  of  the  Neg^  populations,  as  regards  costume  and  the 


Amers,  is 
is  not  an 
group  of 

ne  of  the 
nt  forms, 
romen  are 
age  make 

'  '  ,V. ''   '  ' 


!  the  Beni- 
ihoice  than 
aplexion  of 
e  Bejas  are 
entirely  of 
tion  to  the 
)etween  the 
yrica.  In 
tribes  have 
le  and  the 


THE  BEJAS. 


287 


scarring  of  the  body.  Their  warriors  have  not  yet  completely  ceased  wearing 
coats  of  mail,  while  some  of  the  tribes  still  use  primitive  weapons,  amongst  others 
a  plain  or  spiked  stick.  The  bulk  of  the  Bejas  wear  their  hair  very  thick  as  a 
protection  bgainst  the  sun.  On  a  level  with  the  eyes  they  draw  a  circle  round  ihe 
head,  above  which  the  hair  rises  straight  up  like  a  huge  mop,  distinct  tufts 
forming  a  crest  at  each  side  and  at  the  back,  which  serve  as  a  protection  to  the 
ears  and  the  nape  of  the  neck.  A  scratcher,  usually  a  porcupine  quill,  is  stuck 
through  this  black  headdress,  which  is  often  saturated  with  butter. 

Most  of  the  Bejas  are  said  in  their  youth  to  possess  considerable  intelligence, 
while  their  development  is  greatly  arrested  after  puberty.  They  are  said  to  be 
bounded  in  their  ideas,  obstinate,  boastful,  rude,  disrespectful  to  their  parents,  and 
careless  of  the  welfare  or  safety  of  their  guests.  They  give  themselves  up  exclu- 
sively to  cattle-breeding,  and  migrate  from  pasturage  to  pasturage,  although  one 
of  their  tsaga,  or  encampments,  may  be  considered  as  the  official  residence. 
Custom  forbids  that  anything  in  this  place  shoidd  be  touched ;  marauders  may 
seize  the  flocks,  but  they  respect  the  tents.  The  Hadendoas  possess  an  excellent 
breed  of  camels,  which  enables  them  suddenly  to  appear  at  great  distances  from 
their  usual  camping-grounds,  and  escape  with  th^ir  booty  before  the  warriors  have 
had  time  to  assemble  so  as  to  overtake  them.  The  numerous  Beja  tribes  also 
consider  it  a  point  of  honour  to  breed  war-horses,  although  in  many  places  they 
are  fain  to  be  content  with  small  wiry  animals  of  Abyssinian  extraction;  the  larger 
and  stronger  Dongola  steeds  suffer  greatly  from  the  climate,  and  the  chiefs  are 
compelled  to  be  constantly  renewing  their  studs.  Some  of  the  Beja  peoples  are 
agriculturists,  but  they  use  very  rudimentary  instruments,  a  stick  burnt  to  a  point 
serving  as  a  plough.  Here  and  there  certain  industries  have  also  survived, 
inherited  from  the  Blemmyes,  such  as  weaving,  iron-smelting  and  forging,  and 
making  filigree  work.  The  straight  two-edged  sword,  the  favourite  weapon  of 
the  Bejas,  is  generally  of  Cbrmaii  manufacture,  but  they  also  forge  excellent 
weapons,  swords  and  daggers;  the  scabbards  are  of  wood,  covered  with  leather, 
and  amongst  the  rich  embellished  with  elephants'  ears.  The  shields  they  use  are 
made  of  rhinoceros  hide,  or  the  skins  of  other  large  animals.  Commerce  is  actively 
carried  on  amongst  all  the  tribes,  and  in  this  respect  the  Bejas  contrast  singularly 
Mrith  their  neighbours  the  Bazen  or  Eunama. 

The  customs  of  the  Bejas,  especially  those  which  relate  to  marriage  and  the 
social  position  of  women,  are  still  very  different  from  those  of  the  Arabs ;  the 
contrast  is  complete  between  the  precepts  of  the  Koran  and  the  traditional  prac- 
tices of  divers  origin.  In  certain  respects  the  women  are  treated  with  unspeak- 
able cruelty.  Parents  are  oblig^  to  make  their  daughters  undergo  dreadful 
surgical  operations,  without  which  they  must  renounce  all  hopes  of  obtaining  a 
husband.  But  after  marriage  the  wife  is  in  no  way  under  the  control  of  the 
husband.  She  can  return  to  her  mother's  tent  whenever  she  pleases,  and  after 
the  birth  of  a  child  she  has  the  right  to  repudiate  her  husband,  who  must  make  her 
a  present  in  order  to  be  accepted  again.  If  he  insults  or  speaks  rudely  to  her  he 
is  driven  from  the  ^«nt,  and  can  only  obtain  re-admittance  by  presenting  her  with 


i; 


i!  ii 


f  f 


I! 


ffy]myi^wi'mii||.]i.»i.',ffiw^f!»»if' 


i;M»i>iU'j^jMi<jCi<i^p*ii^p|y,lin^^.piii^liiii^^^ 


fl88 


NOETH-EAST  APEICA. 


a  cow  cr  a  camel.  Women  are  mcitiioned  who  have  thus  obtained  all  the 
husband's  possessions  and  then  abandoned  them  after  having  effected  their  ruin. 
The  Beja  women,  and  especially  those  of  the  Beni-Amer,  have  generally  a  remark- 
able fellow-feeling ;  directly  one  of  them  has  a  grievance  they  all  share  in  her 
indignation.  By  virtue  of  the  female  customs,  the  wife  should  never  sho-'  any 
apparent  affection  for  the  husband.  She  is  bound  to  treat  him  with  contempt  and 
to  rule  him  with  threats  and  severity,  and  should  he  interfere  with  the  household 
arrangements  without  having  consulted  his  wife,  the  offence  is  considered  unpar- 
donable. It  is  frequently  necessary  to  appeal  to  the  "man  of  honour,"  whose 
duties  as  an  intermediary  have  rendered  him  the  "  brother  "  of  the  wife,  and  his 
advice  is  always  respectfully  listened  to.  At  the  same  time,  although  they  have 
to  complain  of  the  control  and  often  even  of  the  violence  of  their  wives,  the 
husbands  are  after  all  the  superiors  in  virtue  of  their  love  of  work,  bravery,  and 
trustworthiness.  The  henpecked  man  who  seeks  the  assistance  of  a  woman  is 
sure  of  finding  in  her  an  indefatigable  defender. 

The  social  status  of  the  Beja  woman  evidently  points  to  a  former  matriarchal 
government.  The  Arab  authors  who  spoke  of  the  Bejas  of  the  tenth  to  the 
fourteenth  century,  relate  that  these  people  reckoned  their  genealogies  from  the 
side  of  the  women,  and  that  the  inheritance  passed  from  the  son  to  the  sister  and 
from  her  to  the  daughter  to  the  exclusion  of  the  sons.  The  annals  of  the  kingdom 
of  Meroe,  like  those  of  Senaar,  show  what  an  important  part  woman  has  played  in 
Upper  Nubia,  ever  since  the  time  of  Queen  Candaoe.  Amongst  the  Hadendoas 
the  women  have  never  to  undergo  public  accusation ;  if  a  crime  has  been  com- 
mitted by  one  of  them  everybody  keeps  silence,  the  men  alone  being  answerable 
for  the  charge.  Of  all  the  "  Arab  "  tribes  that  which  is  usually  cited  as  univer- 
sally practising  the  strange  custom  of  the  "  fourth  day  free,"  doubted  by  only  one 
traveller,  d'Escayrac  de  Lauture,  are  the  Hassanieh  Bejas  of  the  Nilotic  Mesopo- 
tamia and  Eordofan.  By  this  custom,  the  women  are  only  married  for  a  certain 
number  of  days  in  the  week,  generally  reserving  every  fourth  day,  on  which  she 
claims  perfect  freedom  to  do  just  as  she  pleases. 

Under  the  Arab  nile  the  Bejas  have  readily  acquired  aristocratio  manners. 
The  noble  families  of  native  or  foreign  origin,  who  can  trace  back  their  genealogy 
to  a  long  line  of  ancestors,  enjoy  considerable  personal  authority  over  the  body  of 
the  people,  who  support  them  and  offer  up  sacrifices  on  their  tombs.  Moreover,  it 
is  they  who  own  the  slaves — captives  or  sons  of  captives,  who  have  not  yet  entered 
into  the  community  of  free  men  by  embracing  Islam.  The  nobles  frequently 
take  to  wife  girls  of  inferior  status,  but  a  common  man  can  never  marry  into  a 
noble  family,  unless  the  holiness  of  his  life,  a  miracle,  or  some  prediction  justified 
by  the  event,  have  enabled  him  to  be  classed  amongst  the  sheikhs,  also  called  fakih, 
and  thus  become  the  equal  of  the  upper  classes.  In  certain  regions  of  Upper 
Nubia  there  exist  entire  colonies  of  "  saints,"  who,  like  the  nobles,  fatten  at  the 
expense  of  the  tribe.  In  order  to  insure  their  power  over  the  nomad  populations, 
the  Egyptian  governors  had  taken  care  to  rely  upon  the  political  and  religious 
chiefs  of  the  coimtry,  an<l  it  was  by  the  intervention  of  these  latter  that  the 


iifli(ii|iiiii^iifiiiiiimi 


TOPOGBAPHY— FAZOOL,  FAMATA. 


289 


all  the 
eir  ruin. 
I  remark- 
re  in  her 
sho"'  any 
empt  and 
lousehold 
id  unpar- 
"  whose 
,  and  his 
hey  have 
fives,  the 
ivery,  and 
woman  is 

latriarohal 

th  to  the 

from  the 

sister  and 

9  kingdom 

played  in 

Fladendoas 

been  com- 

ajiswerable 

as  univer- 

y  only  one 

io  Mesopo- 

r  a  certain 

which  she 

s  manners. 

genealogy 
he  body  of 
[oreover,  it 
yet  entered 
frequently 
irry  into  a 
m  justified 
tiled  fakih, 

of  Upper 
tten  at  the 
opulations, 
1  religious 
r  that  the 


tribute  was  raised  ;  but  the  heavy  taxes  at  last  exhaustcid  the  patience  of  the  Beja 
nomads,  and  a  general  insurrection  against  the  Khedive's  power  spread  throughout 
Eastern  Sudan.  It  has  recently  been  seen  with  what  courage  and  absolute  con- 
tempt for  death  the  Beni-Amers,  the  Hadendoas,  and  the  BishArins  have  hurled 
themselves  against  the  English  squares,  opening  a  path  of  blood  with  their  lunces 
up  to  the  cannon's  mouth. 

Topography. 

Under  the  Egyptian  rule.  Upper  Nubia  was  divided  into  provinces  which 
partially  coincide  with  the  natural  divisions  of  the  country.  At  the  outlet  of  the 
Abyssinian  mountains  the  riverain  coimtries  of  the  Blue  Nile  constituted  Fazogl. 
Lower  down  this  name  has  been  preserved  by  the  central  part  of  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  Senaar,  beyond  which  follow  the  provinces  of  Khartum  and  Berber. 
To  the  east  Taka  comprises  the  hills  and  the  plains  bounded  on  one  side  by  the 
Atbara,  and  on  the  other  by  tho  Barka.  The  coast  regions  were  divided  between 
the  provinces  of  Massawah  and  Suakin,  the  former  of  which  has  been  partly 
occupied  by  the  Italians,  the  latter  by  the  English.  Lastly,  a  few  independent 
states,  republics,  or  chiefdoms  still  occupy  the  borderlands  between  Abyssinia  and 
the  Sudan.  '    > 


Fazogl,  Famata. 

Fazogl,  which  has  given  its  name  to  the  upper  province  of  the  Blue  Nile,  and 
was,  before  the  Egyptian  rule,  the  residence  of  a  powerful  king,  is  now  little  more 
than  a  mere  hamlet.  As  ^  ggpital  it  has  been  replaced  by  the  town  of  Famaka, 
where  Mohammed  Ali  had  a  palace  built  at  the  time  of  his  visit  to  his  southern 
possessions  in  1839  ;  a  few  scattered  bricks  are  now  all  that  remains  of  it.  Famaka 
would  be  well  situated  as  a  conmiercial  town  if  slave-hunting  had  not  driven  all 
the  surrounding  peoples  into  the  mountains.  The  houses,  built  on  a  gneiss  rock, 
skirt  th^  right  bank  of  the  Blue  Nile,  near  the  confluence  of  a  khdr  and  a  little 
above  the  point  where  the  river  Tumat  forms  a  junction  with  the  Bahr-el-Azraq. 
Facing  it  to  the  south  stands  Mount  Fazogl,  the  first  high  crest  commanding  the 
river  to  be  met  with  on  coming  from  Khartum ;  hence  it  appears  more  imposing 
than  many  eminences  of  greater  height,  while  the  rich  vegetation  which  clothes  its 
slopes  seems  marvellous  to  those  who  come  from  the  desolate  northern  wastes. 

The  valley  of  the  Tumat  had  already  long  ceased  to  be  Egyptian  territory 
before  the  great  insurrection  of  the  Sudan  peoples  burst  forth.  Nevertheless, 
Mohammed  Ali  considered  that  this  province  was  one  day  destined  to  become  the 
treasure  of  his  empire  ;  he  counted  on  the  gold  washed  down  with  the  sands  of  the 
Tumat  and  its  afiluents  to  pay  his  armies  and  to  free  himself  from  the  galling 
suzerainty  of  the  Padishah.  In  consequence  of  these  ambitious  views  he  caused 
the  upper  basin  of  the  Tumat  to  be  explored  by  the  Europeans  Cailliaud,  Tr^maux, 
Kovalevskiy,  and  Bussegger.    But  the  expenses  of  the  occupation  of  the  country. 


240 


NOETfl-EAST  AFBIOA. 


the  wars  that  it  was  neces8.\ry  to  sustain  against  the  tribes,  the  depopulation 
consequent  on  slave-hunting,  and  the  surveillance  of  the  coxivicts  who  washed  the 
sand,  cost  the  Viceroy  much  more  than  was  covered  by  the  product  of  the  mines. 
Hence  Said  Pasha  ordered  them  to  be  abandoned  and  the  fortresses  to  be  levelled, 
after  which  the  towns  were  again  reoccupied  by  their  original  inhabitants.  Never- 
theless the  native  gold-miners  found  their  fortunes  where  the  Government  had  met 
with  financial  ruin.  The  grains,  called  tibr,  and  usually  collected  in  the  quills  of 
vultures'  feathers,  are  used  as  money  to  purchase  the  merchandise  brought  by  the 
jellabi,  or  local  traders.  The  principal  gold-washing  stations  are  on  the  western 
side  of  the  mountains,  in  the  valley  sloping  towards  the  White  Nile,  and  in  the 


ri'":-l',.'-'>"  ■■.■".•'i'.'.' 


Fig.  77<— Fazool  Gold  Mimbb. 
Boale  1 :  600,000. 


,  UAlilRt. 


middle  of  which  rises  the  pyramidal  Jebel-Dul,  in  all  of  whose  ravines  gold  is 
found.  The  amount  annually  obtained  is  valued  by  Schuver  at  £1,600,  on  which 
the  Sheikh  of  Gomasha  raises  a  tax  of  about  a  f  oui-th.  The  soldiers  he  has  collected 
round  him  are  mostly  slave-hunters,  who  have  escaped  from  the  disaster  of  Sulei- 
man in  the  zeriba  region.  The  Gallas  who  oomo  from  the  markets  of  Tumat 
prefer  another  mediiun  of  exchange  to  gold-dust,  and  will  only  receive  the  "  salt 
bricks  "  imported  from  Eastern  Abyssinia  in  exchange  for  their  goods.  According 
to  Schuver,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Tumat  Valley  receive  yearly  over  76,000  pounds 
of  salt  money. 

Fadasi. 

Even  after  evacuating  the  country,  the  Egyptians  compelled  the  riverain  tribes 
of  the  Tumat  Valley  to  pay  them  a  tax  of  about  £6,000 ;  but  beyond  the  district 


-"mf- 


)opulation 
rushed  the 
the  mineB. 
e  levelled, 
».  Never- 
it  hod  met 
e  quills  of 
jht  by  the  ' 
le  western 
ind  in  the 

■'  ■/■<  t'  ■'  ■    '"'.V  '•   '"   •  ,' 


in>' 


^ 


10' 
'so- 


f!ch 


ines  gold  is 
0,  on  which 
iias  collected 
fir  of  Sulei- 
a  of  Tumat 
ve  the  "  salt 
According 
),000  pounds 


verain  tribes 
1  the  district 


senAb. 


241 


of  Fatfa8i,  which  stands  in  another  fluvial  basin,  that  of  the  Jabus,  their  authority 
completely  ceased.  Fadasi  was  the  point  where  the  travellers  Mamo,  in  1860, 
Gessi  and  Mateucci  in  1878,  were  compelled  to  stop,  not  being  permitted  to  advance 
beyond  the  hill  to  the  south  of  the  chief  town,  which  has  been  named  Bimbaahi, 
after  the  Egyptian  "  captain  of  a  thousand  "  stationed  in  this  place.  Schuver  is 
the  only  traveller  who  has  crossed  the  boundary  of  the  Khedive's  possessions  at  this 
point  in  1881.  Bimbashi,  surrounded  by  numerous  villages  spread  j^er  the  slopes 
of  the  mountain,  commands  a  very  extensive  view  from  its  upland  terrace.  It  is  a 
much  frequented  market-place,  although  not  so  well  attended  as  that  of  Beni- 
Shongul,  situated  hrlf-way  to  Famaka,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  g^ld  washings  and 
the  ruins  of  Stnjeh,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  country.  Still  farther  north,  in  a 
fertile  district  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tumat,  lies  the  village  of  Ohezan,  also  a 
place  of  assembly  for  the  caravans.  Here  the  huge  sycamore-tree  which  shelters 
the  square,,  covers  on  market  days  a  motley  crowd  of  Bertas,  Nubians,  and  Arabs, 
while  the  groves  of  lemon-trees  scattered  in  the  country  recall  the  sojourn  of  the 
Egyptian  garrisons. 

Senab.  ■  ■•!■  :• 

Below  Famaka  the  town  of  RosMs,  or  Ro»a'iris,  whose  houses  are  scattered 
amidst  groves  of  dum  palms,  is  also  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Bahr-el- 
Azraq  ;  it  has  given  its  name  to  a  d&r,  or  country,  of  considerable  extent,  governed 
by  chiefs  taking  the  title  of  king.  Still  lower  down  the  village  of  Karkoj, 
surrounded  by  large  trees  which  contrast  with  the  barren  lands  in  the  vicinity,  has 
now  become  somewhat  important  as  a  market  for  gums,  and  the  converging  point 
of  several  caravan  routes  coming  from  Ged&ref,  Gal&bat  and  Abyssinia.  It  has 
inherited  part  of  the  trade  which  was  formerly  carried  on  with  the  city  of  Sendr, 
about  60  miles  farther  down  on  the  left  bank. 

This  ancient  capital  of  the  Funj  kingdom,  built  at  the  commencement  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  has  lost  greatly  since  the  seat  of  government  has  been  transferred 
to  Khartum.  Heaps  of  rubbish  and  waste  spaces  now  intervene  between  the 
groups  of  cabins,  and  of  what  was  once  the  palace  the  walls  are  all  that  remain ; 
the  mosque,  however,  is  still  standing.  It  was  in  this  city  that  Koule,  the  French 
Ambassador  of  Louis  XIY.,  was  assassinated  in  1705,  before  he  had  reached  the 
states  of  the  sovereign  to  whom  he  was  accredited.  According  to  an  Arab  tradition 
he  was  suspected  of  intending  to  aid  the  Abyssinians  to  carry  out  their  often- 
repeated  threat  to  deflect  the  waters  of  the  Nile  southwards,  far  away  from  Nubia 
and  Egjrpt.  The  inhabitants  have  scarcely  any  industry,  except  the  manufacture 
of  elegantly  designed  straw  mats.  Caravan  routes  run  south-west  towards  the 
Blue  Nile,  leading  to  the  two  fords  of  Abu-Za'id  and  Eelb,  formed  by  banks  of 
shells.  The  Mesopotamian  peninsula,  as  the  Arabs  call  the  "  Island  of  Sen&r," 
is  only  sixty  miles  in  breadth.  According  to  tradition  it  was  at  the  ford  of  Abu- 
Za'id  that  the  Arabs,  g^ded  by  the  hero  of  this  name,  crossed  the  NUe  for  the 
first  time  in  order  to  spread  themselves  throughout  the  Sudan. 

16 — AF. 


up  »i.  niujii  iMP!»pgw»L  mmm^i 


242 


NOETH-EAST  AFEIOA. 


Wor  MeDINEH— K AMLIN. 

Wod-MediMh,  or  Wold-Medineh,  which  after  Sen&r  became  the  capital  of  the 
Egyptian  provinces,  was  also  a  town  densely  populated  in  its  double  capacity  as  a 
garrison  and  trade  centre.  It  is  conveniently  situated,  standing  nearly  at  the 
junction  of  the  north-western  Abyssinian  rivers  with  the  Bahr-el-Azraq,  whilst 


Fig.  78.— SrnAe. 

-'     . 

Seala  1  :  60.000. 

--'■. ^  .    .....rr-  -                                             MIIIM"--'--  '■'.''■"' 

.»:.•.  •»•  ••*...   ^     .                                                          Jb    I"  .'■ 

«.••••«.•!   •.;    •.■■•••*  .           „.                            :;•-    if/li;    ■;.:•.•••.   li' 

15'    •••.  •;.•■:•••■■..•••'  •.  ■•■                                          mwm. ■'■"•:■■      .•*o- 

*o«':  •'•■•.  ".■  -   •••••••..    o                                mmm   ''-■■'•"■  ■ 

■  •■'  ■  •'•  .  .■  •.•  •.;.-.                                              Bl//|f  ■'.> 

%■  '         ^.^;^••  •'•■..                               '  *  '       1»-'---'.''  '•"•— 

'*'                                      f»u|r»                        mm m  ''  .         •■''■'• 

*••.•■.•.••••                     y^^%mfffm'-^  '•■•  ."•■.••••••• 

'•'                                                                               'Clf^^jf^'^^ffllmffnm^  '•  **      '     '  "*      ''•..■ 

.;A,t.^Oum  Hamad                       _  ,.   ,                        ni1SBHI///M:'' '•  ^    •'••.•.•.■•■     ■.'•.•;. 

rV     V    .•.'•■■•■■•:•..■■                 ""*'' wSW/l/M-- •'"'•■••'•■  -''"''^'^^ 

•v  *•  !••                                  /•T?^B^B)li///M '.      '•.•*»S'' 

•  • .                     •  ••                             .^—x^4  Wn//iH 

.    '••  ■      •:■•          ,'  •  •'•• 

'*•'•  .,..•*•••;'*'••.■                     ■.iij*!!!" 

••••   .:  ,.  •      •«     ;.    •  . 

■    :.*.         . .    .        .  •           ". 

i.i .  '•; ■  ■  .*'■  •       •*'  •'•»••  "'  Od*  Tuam  J*                -23-^1 

Am 

■•■■■•.■.?••   ■  •  •  '                                                     mm 

•:'      '•  ••  ■••■  •  *                                m] 

.••  •■;...•■.•••■•  •  •: .  ••.  .  • 

■■•V-' ■••;.:  ••••••••  •                                     ii 

11 

••    .                   •?.                                                                                                        HI 

k    .       •    *                                                                                                    Hill 

i-'-v  •*■•■.•; -.r-.-i  •••■;.•'. 

••••■••''                                             M\wH'   ■.••.;••.;■.•.•■••.■■•• 

•■••     •■•••'          Uba^?                                 ,                   ll'-"'--    ■  ■■^'  •■••"••• '^/i- 

WamVM**    '•     ••  •.*•'-■.••     '  '■..:     . 

■\m.'' *•■•''•••■■'•■.••.•••  ••■'.• 

57                   ,»■,-.    ■  ,           .                             llHIi  •*;•••  ■     •»    .-.  '••' 

■  '                ^   JR^-^'^-*-'- • 

•IH..ua|.^              *^I5''0Wt-^^*"'^"'-'^'': 

g'^'^        •'.;  3mvSvIw|k*'..  •..^     '••'.•- 

/    ■  ..  ■•.•■"...i-a^^^  ••  .•■•••  .:•  •■■..•_ 

'35''4a               E   .  of  .Greenwich 

35*  44' 

close  above  it  is  the  mouth  of  the  Dender,  swoUen  by  the  waters  of  the  Khdr 
Mahara  and  the  Khor  El-Atshan;  still  nearer,  but  below  the  town,  is  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Rahad,  like  the  Dender  navigable  for  eighty  days  in  the  year.  The 
village,  situated  at  the  very  mouth  in  the  "  Isle  of  Isles  "  ( Jezirat  el-Jeziret),  has 
taken  the  name  of  Abtt- Ahraz,  or  "  Father  of  the  Acacias,"  a  term  which  is  also 
frequently  given  to  the  river  Rahad  itself,  the  Shimfah  of  the  Abyssinians. 

At  some  distance  from  the  river,  near  the  ruins  of  the  village  of  Arbaji, 


■wM|*WOT9R«Hmir««lP 


WOD-MEDINEH— KAMTJN. 


243 


)ital  of  tho 
pacity  as  a 
arly  at  the 
raq,  whilst 


■  _ 

14* 

40 

• '   "J 

;!* 

'•*•• 

;   '•• 

•'•f 

I    '. 

«. 
•   • 

•■•  i 

•  * 

'  '/• 

•  • 
• 

13' 

'  .*.  • 

•  *•  ; 

destroyed  hy  tho  Funj,  stands  tho  town  of  MpHsalamieh,  in  tho  midst  of  fiolds  of 
durra,  a  strong  place  which  tho  insurgents  took  from  the  Egyptians  after  a  long 
and  murderous  siege.  Before  tho  war  it  hud  become  a  considerable  market, 
precisely  because  it  wos  distant  from  the  river,  so  that  the  nomads  had  here  to 
fcor  the  pussogo  of  armies  less  than  in  towns  lying  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 

Below  AbCk-Ahraz,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  main  stream,  a  few  ruins  mark  tho 
Bite  of  Kamlin,  or  Kammin,  where,  under  the  protection  of  the  Egj'ptian  govoru- 

Plg.  79.— CON/LUINCB    OP   TMH  Two   NlLBi. 
Boale  1  :  2flA.000. 


iiJ'SO' 


58' 55  L   .  or  Oreenwicli 


,  elkiiiM. 


af  the  Khdr 

,  is  the  con- 

B  year.    The 

■Jeziret),  has 

which  is  also 

lians. 

[6  of  Arbaji, 


ment,  some  European  merchants  founded  in  1840  large  soap,  indigo,  sugar  and 
distilling  factories.  For  a  long  time  these  establishments  were  prosperous,  thanks 
to  the  cheapness  of  coal  and  labour,  but  more  especially  thanks  to  the  monopoly 
possessed  by  the  manufacturers,  whose  products  the  officers  and  soldiers  were 
obliged  to  take  in  part  payment  of  their  salaries.  But  the  forests  have  been 
wasted,  the  country  has  been  depopulated,  and  the  monopoly  has  met  its  usual  fate, 
poverty  and  ruin. 


l->.U.;»il.U5flgJJEUV.! 


•^"tfrv 


W^ 


244 


NORTH-EAST  AFEIOA. 


Khartum. 

Ab  far  as  wo  search  bjick  in  the  history  of  the  upper  regions  of  the  Nile,  an 
important  town  has  always  8too<l  in  tho  vicinity  of  the  junction  of  the  White  and 
Blue  Nilos.  A  geographical  position  of  such  importance  could  not  be  neglected 
even  in  barbarous  times ;  but  the  vicissitudes  of  migrations  and  wars,  perhaps 
aided  by  some  changes  in  the  course  of  the  two  rivers,  have  frequently  compelled 
tho  town  to  shift  its  position.  An  ancient  Christian  city,  Aloa,  is  known  to  have 
stood  10  or  12  miles  above  the  "  Elephant's  Trunk "  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Bahr-el-Azraq.  Several  remains  of  columns  and  sculptures  have  been  found  there, 
proving  that  the  Bejas  of  Aloa  possessed  a  civilisation  superior  to  that  of  the 
states  which  succeeded  them.  All  that  now  remains  of  this  town  are  shapeless 
masses  covered  with  brushwood,  the  building  materials  ready  to  hand  having  been 
used  for  the  structures  of  Khartum.  The  Arab  village  of  "  Old  Sobat "  stands 
near  the  ruins,  and  on  the  opposite  bank  are  the  tile  and  brick  works  of  "  New 
Sobat,"  A  few  sites  are  pointed  out  as  those  of  ancient  churches,  and  bear  the 
name  of  Kenmeh,  a  term  evidently  derived  from  the  word  "  Kilissa  "  applied  to 
Christian  churches  in  the  Turkish  countries  of  Europe  and  Asia ;  at  Bttri,  near 
Khartum  itself,  stands  one  of  these  Kenisaeh.  Not  far  from  Wod-Medineh,  crypts 
of  Christian  origin  have  been  discovered  ;  those  ruins  are  the  southernmost  that 
have  been  hitherto  found  on  the  plains  watered  by  the  Blue  Nile,  beyond  the 
Abyssinian  frontier. 

After  the  destruction  of  the  empire  of  the  Bejas,  the  town  at  the  confluence, 
hitherto  comprised  in  the  realm  of  the  Funj,  stood  farther  north,  some  7  miles 
below  the  present  junction  of  the  two  rivers.  This  town,  which  still  exists  but  in 
a  very  decayed  condition,  is  Ha^faya,  the  residence  of  the  grand  sheikh  of  the 
Jalins.  An  arm  of  the  Nile,  now  Hryp^  up  or  filled  only  during  the  floods,  joins 
the  main  channel  west  of  Half  ay  a ;  it  ir,  8urc*ounded  by  a  garden  of  palms,  shelter- 
ing its  houses.  Opposite  and  not  far  from  the  left  bank,  a  small  g^up  of  hills 
shelter  a  few  trees  in  their  valleys,  and  in  the  rainy  season  give  birth  to  rivulets 
which  wind  through  the  plain. 

After  its  capture  in  1821  by  the  Egyptians,  Halfaya  for  several  years  still 
preserved  a  certain  importance  as  the  strategical  guardian  and  commercial  dep6t 
of  the  junction ;  but  the  very  point  of  the  two  rivers,  called  the  "  End  of  the 
Trunk,"  or  Ra»-el-Khartum,  appeared  to  Mohammed  Ali  a  much  more  suitable 
site  for  the  capital  of  his  vast  possessions,  and  here  he  accordingly  built  the 
barracks  and  arsenal.  In  1830,  there  was  only  one  hut  where,  ten  years  after, 
stood  the  first  city  of  the  Nilotic  basin  beyond  Egypt.  Khartum,  protected  to  the 
north  and  west  by  the  broad  beds  of  its  two  rivers,  is  certainly  very  well  situated 
for  defence,  and  its  walls,  flanked  by  bastions  and  skirted  by  a  ditch,  protect  it 
from  a  surprise  on  the  south  and  east ;  besides,  a  fortified  camp  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Bahr-el-Abiad  near  the  village  of  Omdurman,  renders  it  easy  for 
the  garrison  to  cross  over  to  the  western  bank  of  the  river  and  commands  the 
route  to  Kordof&n.      Thanks  to  the  rivers,  the  steam-boats  which  ply  below 


■« 


#■ 


KnARTUM. 


248 


he  Nile,  an 
White  and 
te  neglected 
ira,  perhaps 
compelled 
9wn  to  have 
tank  of  the 
found  there, 
that  of  the 
re  ahapelcBS 
having  been 
bai"  stands 
«8  of  "  New 
nd  bear  the 
"  applied  to 
t  Burt,  near 
lineh,  crypts 
irnmost  that 
,  beyond  the 

9  confluence, 
ome  7  miles 
exists  but  in 
lieikh  of  -the 
floods,  joins 
dms,  shelter- 
Toup  of  hills 
h.  to  rivulets 

al  years  still 
neroial  depdt 
'End  of  the 
more  suitable 
gly  built  the 
L  years  after, 
otected  to  the 
'  well  situated 
ch,  protect  it 
tuated  on  the 
ers  it  easy  for 
iommands  the 
ch  ply  below 


Khartum  command  all  the  country  on  one  side  as  far  an  the  Zoriba  region,  und  on 
the  other  us  far  as  Berber  and  Ab(i-IIamed. 

Recent  events  have  proved  the  military  importance  of  thin  poHition  between  the 
two  Niles.  From  a  commercial  point  of  view,  Khartum  will  not  bo  so  udvuntuge- 
ously  situated  until  a  bridge  is  built  over  the  Bahr-ol-Azruq,  so  as  to  receive 
directly  the  caravans  which  come  from  Abyssinia,  Kassala,  and  the  shores  of  the 
Rod  Sea.  Nevertheless,  Khartum  had  become  one  of  the  great  cities  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  the  busy  population  which  till  recently  crowded  its  narrow  streets  was 
a  mixture  of  Turks,  Danaglas  or  people  of  Dongola,  Arab^,  and  negroes  of  every 
shade  of  colour.  Italian  was  becoming  almost  as  much  spoken  as  Arabic,  and  the 
exterior  commerce  was  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  French  and  Greeks. 
Khartum  is  the  point  where  took  place  all  the  exchanges  of  Europe  and  Egypt 

Fig.  SO.-Khahtvm. 
8«aa  1  :  7S,000. 


It  ..  .  ^ 


'  •  ••  ••»     .» ..  •  •.•  •  ••' 


Omrfi 


5C*eB' 


t  .  of  G 


36'50- 


Low  Water. 


High  Water. 


with  the  regions  of  the  Upper  Nile ;  it  was  also  the  place  whence  emanated  all  the 
expeditions  and  the  movements  of  military  bodies,  and  where  all  the  religious 
missions  and  commercial  or  scientific  expeditions  were  prepared. 

A  town  of  soldiers,  merchants,  and  slaves,  Khartum  has  no  remarkable  monu- 
ments, and  it  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  spaces  which,  if  not  absolute  wastes,  are, 
at  least,  uncultivated  and  treeless.  At  the  period  of  the  Beja  rule,  the  banks  of 
the  two  Niles  were  said  to  be  shaded  with  an  uninterrupted  forest  of  palms 
festooned  with  vines.  Khartum  is  not  a  healthy  town,  at  least  during  the 
portion  of  the  year  when  the  moist  winds  blow,  increasing  the  waters  of  the  rivers. 
Typhus  has  often  more  than  decinmted  the  population ;  but  in  winter  the  atmosphere 
is  purified  by  the  north  winds  and  the  public  health  is  as  good  at  Khartum  as  in 
any  other  African  city.  After  a  vigorous  defence  maintained  for  upwards  of  two 
years  against  overwhelming  numbers,  Khartum  was  betrayed  to  the  Mahdi  on 


210 


NOnXII-KART  AFFlir'A. 


Jumuiry  'iflth,  1885,  when  itn  heroic  dcfoiulor,  (Joiu'ral  Oorclon,  and  tho  Effvptiun 
gurrJHon,  with  nciirly  ull  tho  ('hriNtiuiiH  Mtill  in  tho  placfl,  wore  iiiUNHiiortHl.  Thin 
truf(ic»»v(>i»toccurr«'(l  only  thn>0(hiyHuffor  fho  urrivul  at  Motiunmch  of  tho  udvunotKl 
divinion  of  tho  DritiNh  oxiM^lition,  or^ani/nl  hy  (iomTul  W'  l«'loy  for  the  reliof  of 
tho  placo  in  tho  uutumu  of  1H84.  Thus  tho  prtniury  objt^ct  of  t)w  oxpodition  wan 
dofeutod,  and  Khartum  bocuino  for  Boino  time  tho  centre  of  tho  Mtth'H'H  T>ower  in 
tho  Upper  Nile  regionB. 

A  few  villugcs  succeed  Khartum  and  the  town  of  Ff^'-lfaya  along  fhe  banks  of 
the  Nile.  But  for  a  distonco  of  120  miles  no  important  plac«'  is  met  till  we  r»'ftch 
Shendi,  in  the  Jalin  territory,  whic^h  is  a  collection  of  Bquare-Bha|>ed  houHOB,  cover- 
ing a  space  of  about  half  a  square  mile  on  the  banks  of  tlio  river.  Shendi,  situated 
below  the  sixth  cataract,  in  times  of  peace  has  a  considerable  trade  with  tho  towns 
on  the  Abyssinian  irontier.  Opposite  it,  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile,  is  the 
town  of  Mdammeh,  the  depAt  of  tho  products  of  northern  Kordof&n ;  in  the  vicinity 
the  desert  sand  is  washed  in  order  to  extract  the  salt  which  is  mixed  with  it. 
Shendi  is  the  town  where  Ismail-pasha,  the  conqueror  of  Nubiu  and  the  banks  of 
the  Blue  Nile  as  fur  as  Fazogl,  received  the  punishment  he  so  justly  merited  for 
tho  massacres  and  devastations  ho  had  ordered ;  having  unsuspiciously  come  to  a 
ban(iuot  to  which  ho  had  been  invited  by  the  chief  of  the  district,  he  was  burnt 
alive  with  all  his  ofticers.  But  soon  after  his  death  was  avenged  by  rivers  of  blood- 
shed by  the  terrible  "  defterdar,"  son-in-law  of  Mohammed  Ali.  The  village  of 
Ouhat,  2  miles  »mth.  of  Metammch,  was  the  extreme  point  reached  by  tho  British 
expedition  sent  t)  the  relief  of  Khartum  and  General  Gordon  in  1884-5. 


Naoa — MeroB. 

This  region  of  Nubia  is  already  comprised  within  the  limits  of  the  ancient 
Ethiopia,  a  region  where  lived  nations  directly  influenced  by  the  general  progress 
of  Egyptian  civilisation.  Numerous  ruins  attest  the  splendour  of  the  ancient  cities 
here  erected,  and,  according  to  the  statements  of  the  Arabs,  the  Europeans  are  still 
acquainted  with  but  few  of  the  monuments  concealed  in  the  desert.  At  a  day's 
march  south  of  Shendi,  not  far  from  the  Jebel-Ardan,  stand  the  two  temples  of 
Nuya,  covered  with  sculptures  representing  the  victories  of  a  king  who  bears  the 
titles  of  one  of  the  Egyptian  Pharaohs  ;  one  of  these  buildings  is  approached  by  an 
avenne  of  sphinxes.  At  the  time  of  Cailliaud's  visit  no  inscription  revealed  to  him 
the  precise  age  of  the  temples  of  Naga,  but  the  ornaments  of  the  Greco-Roman 
style  satisfied  him  that  the  town  was  still  in  existence  at  a  relatively  modem  period. 
Since  then,  Lepsius  discovered  a  Roman  inscription,  and  several  sculptures  which 
apporently  represented  Jupiter  and  Christ. 

About  12  miles  north  of  Naga,  in  a  desert  valley,  is  a  labyrinth  of  ruined 
buildings  and  refuse  which  the  Arabs  have  named  Mesaurat.  The  central  building, 
whose  ruins  are  still  visible,  is  one  of  the  largest  known  edifices,  being  2,900  feet 
in  circumference ;  its  columns,  fluted  and  sculptured,  but  without  hieroglyphics, 
are  evidently  of  Greek  architecture,  and  whilst  Cailliaud  thinks  it  was  a  priest's 
college,  Hoakiu  imagines  it  to  have  been  a  royal  oouutry  seat. 


I  Ef^yptiiin 
ml.     ThiH 

II  udvunciHl 
he  relief  of 

lodition  wuh 
M  T)owor  ia 

)e  banks  of 
ill  wfe  reach 
)UH(iH,  cover- 
i(ii,  Rituatod 
I  the  towns 
Nile,  is  the 
the  vicinity 
xod  with  it. 
the  banks  of 
'  merited  for 
ily  conic  to  a 
le  was  burnt 
ers  of  blood- 
he  village  of 
y  the  British 
-5. 


'  the  ancient 
eral  progress 
ancient  cities 
leans  are  still 
At  a  day's 
o  temples  of 
rho  bears  the 
oached  by  an 
raaled  to  him 
jfreco-Roman 
odem  period. 
Iptures  which 

ith  of  ruined 
tral  building, 
ng  2,900  feet 
lieroglyphics, 
¥08  a  priest's 


NAOA— MEHO*!. 


M7 


The  remains  of  the  town  in  which  Cuilliuud  recf.gniM>d  in  lfl21  the  ancient 
Moroi>,  "  capital  of  Kthiopia,"  stand  I'iO  miles  below  Shundi,  a  few  milcH  fruin  the 
right  bank  of  tho  Nile ;  in  the  midst  of  those  ruins  are  Mcattorod  a  few  villages, 
amongHt  others  that  of  E»-Sur,  which  gives  its  name  to  the  turabil,  or  pyramids. 
The  pylons,  tefnplcs,  colonnadoH,  avenues  of  uniiiialH  and  statues  are  still  standing ; 
but  the  sandstone  of  Mcroe,  excavated  from  the  neighlmuring  quarries,  is  not  so 
durable  as  that  of  Egypt.     Tho  pyramids,  to  tho  number  of  about  eighty,  ore 

Fig.  81.— PYHANin*  or  MiroV. 
1 1 1  m.ooo. 


'.  OnmA// 


55*50 


E    .  of  Greenwich 


55'40' 


8MU«. 


divided  into  three  g^uper,  and  mostly  stand  on  hills ;  not  having  been  undermined 
by  stagnant  waters,  these  edifices  have  resisted  the  ravages  of  time  better  than  the 
buildings  on  the  plain.  Still  none  of  the  pyramids  are  intact,  most  of  them 
having  been  damaged  by  curiosity-hunters.  When  accompanying  a  military 
expedition  to  thie  place,  Lepsius  with  great  difficulty  prevented  the  systematic 
destruction  of  all  the  monuments  of  Meroe.  In  magnitude  the  Ethiopian  pyramids 
will  not  bear  comparison  with  those  of  Egypt ;  the  largest  are  less  than  66  feet 
square,  and  many  do  not  exceed  13  feet  in  height. 


m 


V- 


I 
111 


248 


NOETH-EAST  AFEICA. 


The  numerous  inscriptions  collected  at  Meroe  have  resulted  in  the  discovery  of 
the  names  of  thirty  sovereigns  who  were  at  once  kings  and  high-priests,  and  the  very 
name  of  the  city  has  been  identified  as  Meru,  or  Merua.  At  the  period  when  these 
pyramids  were  built,  hieroglyphics  had  become  an  obsolete  form  of  writing,  the 
exact  sense  of  which  was  no  longer  understood,  and  which  was  reproduced  by 
imitation ;  hence  many  errors  crept  into  the  copy,  so  that  their  decipherment  has 
been  rendered  very  difficult  and  uncertain.  Most  of  these  inscriptions  are  in  the 
Demotic  Ethiopian  character,  derived  from  that  of  the  Egyptians,  but  possessing 
only  thirty  letters.  In  these  inscriptions,  not  yet  completely  deciphered,  savants 
have  attempted  to  trace  the  ancient  language  of  the  Blemmyes,  the  ancestors  of  the 
Bejas.  ,■,.•,•-...  ':^v'  .  '■■  y 

Opposite  Meroe,  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile,  was  apparently  situated  the 
public  cemetery  of  the  g^reat  city  ;  considerable  spaces  are  here  covered  with  small 
pyramids,  imitations  in  miniature  of  those  of  the  great  personages  buried  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river. 


m 


i~ 


Mbtamheh — ^Eaicara — GalAbat. 


In  the  basin  of  the  Atbara,  which  bounds  on  the  east  the  peninsula  called  by 
the  ancients  the  "  Island  of  Meroe,"  there  are  at  present  very  few  towns,  in  spite 
of  the  general  fertility  of  the  valleys  and  the  healthy  climate  enjoyed  by  so  large 
a  portion  of  this  territory.  Most  of  them  are  mere  market-places,  swarming  with 
people  during  the  fairs,  the  next  day  abandoned.  Amongst  these  "towns"  inserted 
on  the  maps  of  the  Sudan,  some  are  mere  clearings  in  the  forest  or  breaches  on  the 
banks  of  the  rivers ;  the  largest  are  Qorgur  and  Dmgur,  situated  to  the  west  of  the 
Abyssinian  plateau,  in  the  country  of  the  Dabaina  Arabs  and  the  "  Shangalla " 
Negroes. 

Metammeh,  capital  of  the  territory  of  Gal&bat,  and  often  called  by  the  name  of 
its  province,  is  during  the  dry  season  the  most  active  centre  of  the  exchanges 
between  the  plains  of  the  Bejas  and  the  Abyssinian  plateaux.  To  the  south  stand 
the  abrupt  escarpments  of  R&s-el-Fil,  or  the  "  Elephant's  Head."  As  an  emporium 
Metammeh  has  succeeded  to  Kamara,  a  village  situated  in  the  vicinity.  Compared 
with  the  surrounding  groups  of  huts,  it  is  almost  a  large  town ;  with  the  "tokuls" 
scattered  in  the  suburbs  in  the  midst  of  tobacco,  cotton,  and  durra  plantations,  it 
covers  a  space  of  about  40  square  miles.  Although  plundered  by  the  hordes  of 
Theodore,  it  soon  regained  all  its  importance  ;  the  hills  skirting  the  Meshareh,  an 
affluent  of  the  Atbara,  were  again  covered  with  huts  in  which  the  merchants 
warehoused  their  goods.  The  Arabs,  Funj,  and  Bejas,  have  returned  to  the  market, 
and  brick  houses,  whose  ground  floors  are  filled  with  merchandise,  now  surround  the 
market-place.  Some  five  or  six  thousand  traders,  mostly  Arabs,  assemble  at 
Metammeh,  and  over  a  thousand  Abyssinians,  porters,  wood-cutters,  and  retailers 
of  mead  descend  from  their  mountains  to  collect  the  crumbs  of  the  feast.  Many 
crocodiles  sport  in  the  waters  of  the  Meshareh,  and  betray  no  fear  of  the  vast 


isoovery  of 
id  the  very 
when  these 
rriting,  the 
'oduced  by 
»rment  has 
are  in  the 
possessing 
ed,  savants 
3tors  of  the 

ituated  the 
with  small 
ried  on  the 


■■-0': 


El  called  by 
ns,  in  spite 
by  so  large 
rming  with 
Ls"  inserted 
ohes  on  the 
west  of  the 
Shangalla" 

the  name  of 
I  exchanges 
south  stand 
0.  emporium 
Compared 
le  "tokuls" 
Eintations,  it 
le  hordes  of 
[eshareh,  an 
I  merchants 
the  market, 
arround  the 
assemble  at 
nd  retailers 
last.  Many 
of  the  vast 


i'iM  v,'S 


J^ 


if 


il 


KASSALA-  -SABDERAT— ALGADEN-DOLKA. 


249 


crowds,  whom  they  never  attack,  whilst  their  own  lives  are  protected  by  the  sheikh 
of  Gal&bat. 

Most  of  the  residents  in  Metammeh  are  Takruri,  who  set  the  example  of  work 
and  industrial  pursuits  to  the  neighbouring  peoples.  Not  only  do  the  Takruri 
import  skins,  coffee,  salt,  some  stuffs  and  beasts  of  burden  from  Abyssinia,  bartering 
them  with  the  merchants  of  the  Nile,  but  they  also  deal  in  the  products  of  their 
own  country,  honey,  wax,  tobacco,  maize,  gum,  incense,  dyes,  and  drugs.  They 
supply  the  Arabs  with  more  than  half  of  the  cotton  they  use  in  weaving  their  togas. 
From  the  provinces  of  the  Sudan  they  receive  more  especially  glass  trinkets,  arms, 
and  the  talari,  or  Maria-Theresa  crown-pieces,  which  are  the  exclusive  currency  in 
northern  Abyssinia. 

The  slave  trade  in  this  district,  till  recently  more  active  than  all  the  others, 
although  officially  forbidden  at  different  times,  has  always  been  carried  on.  But 
it  is  no  longer  openly  conducted  in  public  ;  in  1879,  the  sum  obtained  by  the  sale 
of  slaves  amounted  to  more  than  £20,000.  At  the  time  of  the  Egyptian  rule,  the 
governor  of  Khartum  maintained  a  garrison  of  two  thousand  men  in  Gal&bat.  At 
present  Gal&bat  has  become  an  independent  principality,  no  longer  paying  tribute 
either  to  Egypt  or  Abyssinia.  ^   . 

GeDAREF TOMAT. 

Doka,  on  the  route  from  Metammeh  to  Abu-Ahraz,  is  a  commercial  outpost  of 
Gal&bat  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Rahad  with  the  Blue  Nile.  But  in  this 
lowland  region  the  chief,  if  not  permanent  at  least  temporary,  market  is  8uk- Abu- 
Sin,  or  "Market  of  Father  Sin,"  also  called  Gedare/ alter  the  province  in  which  it 
is  situated.  During  the  rainy  season  S&k-Abii-Sin  is  visited  only  by  the  nomads 
in  the  vicinity ;  but  directly  the  kharif  is  over,  when  the  Atbara  and  the  other 
rivers  of  the  plain  are  again  fordable,  and  when  the  merchants  have  no  longer  to 
dread  the  attacks  of  the  venomous  flies  on  their  camels,  the  caravans  arrive  from 
all  parts,  and  as  many  as  fifteen  thousand  persons  are  often  assembled  on  the 
market-place.  Before  the  war,  gum,  wax,  salt,  cereals  and  cattle  were  the  chief 
wares  in  the  market  of  Abii-Sin,  and  Greek  merchants  mingled  with  the  crowds  of 
Arabs  and  Bejas.  Tomat,  at  the'  junction  of  the  Settit  with  the  Atbara,  is  also  a 
town  where  a  few  exchanges  take  place ;  Qos-Rejeb,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Atbara, 
lies  on  the  caravan  route  between  Shendi  and  the  port  of  Massawah.  The  ruins 
pointed  out  by  Burckhardt  are  a  proof  that  the  Egyptian  merchants  also  passed 
through  this  region  on  their  journey  from  Meroe  to  the  coast  at  Adulis  Bav. 


Eassala — Sabderat — ^Aloaden — DOLKA. 

At  the  present  time  the  most  important  town  of  the  country  is  Kaasala-el-Luz, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Taka,  and,  since  1840,  the  chief  fortress  of  all  the  region 
comprised  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea ;  it  is'  also  called  Gash  by  the 
natives,  after  the  stream  whose  right  bank  it  skirts.     After  having  served  as  a 


260 


NOBTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


bulwark  of  Egypt  against  the  Abyssinians,  Eassala,  when  evacuated  by  its  Mussulman 
garrison,  appears  destined  to  serve  as  the  Abyssinian  outpost  against  the  Muhom- 
medan  lowlanders.  Situated  at  a  height  of  1,900  feet  at  the  western  base  of  a 
"  seven  peaked  "  mass  of  granite  rocks  rising  over  4,000  feet  above  the  plain,  and 
its  forests  of  dum  palms,  Kassala  presents  one  of  the  most  attractive  prospects  in 
Africa.  It  appears  to  have  succeeded  a  still  larger  town,  that  of  Faki  Endoa, 
which  stretched  along  the  torrent  at  a  distance  of  nearly  3  miles.  Commanded  by 
a  strong  castle,  the  remains  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen  on  one  of  the  "  heads  "  of 
the  neighbouring  rock,  this  town  was  the  capital  of  the  Hallenga  nation,  then 
powerful,  but  now  reduced  to  a  few  wretched  communities  of  pastors  and  agricul- 
turists. The  moimtain  is  pierced  with  grottoes  which  are  said  to  hold  the  waters 
of  a  subterranean  lake,  and  whose  labyrinths  appear  to  have  been  formerly 
inhabited  by  man  ;  tv  few  troglodytes  are  reported  even  still  to  live  in  the  galleries 
of  the  rocks. 

By  its  position  on  the  lower  course  of  the  Gash  or  Mareb,  Eassala  commands 
the  distribution  of  the  waters  along  the  riverain  lands.  A  Fasha  even  desired  to 
become  the  absolute  master  over  the  fortunes  of  the  tribes  by  damming  up  the 
river  before  Eassala,  so  as  to  deflect  it  westwards  towards  the  Atbara,  and  thus 
force  the  Hadendoas  to  come  and  beg  permission  to  purchase  a  little  rivulet  to 
irrigate  their  fields.  Under  the  direction  of  the  European  "Weme,  who  lent 
himself  to  this  iniquitous  work,  a  dyke  5,430  feet  long  effectually  dammed  up  the 
current  of  the  Gash  and  caused  it  to  overflow  into  the.  western  steppes ;  but  the 
Hadendoas,  who  felt  it  was  a  matter  of  vital  importance  to  them,  attacked  the 
dam  with  such  fury,  that  in  spite  of  the  soldiers  who  defended  it,  they  soon 
made  a  breach  through  which  the  water  flowed  back  to  its  natural  bed. 

Before  the  rising  of  the  tribes  who  favour  the  Mahdi,  Eassala  had  acquired 
great  importance  as  a  point  of  transition  for  forwarding  cotton,  and  vast  cotton 
gins  are  still  to  be  seen  where  hundreds  of  workmen  were  assisted  by  steam-eng^es. 
Eassala  also  prepared  leather  and  manufactured  mats  and  soap.  The  first  attempt 
of  the  Egyptian  government  in  1865  to  open  telegraphic  communications  between 
Eassala,  Berber,  Suakin,  and  Massa^vah,  did  not  succeed ;  over  eight  thousand 
camels  were  lost  in  this  enterprise.  But  a  second  attempt,  in  1871,  was  more 
fortunate,  and  a  network  of  telegraphs  was  finally  constructed,  the  stations  serving 
also  in  the  capacity  of  caravanserais  for  travellers.  From  Eassala  to  Massawah 
the  journey  occupies  sixteen  days  by  the  route  followed  by  the  telegraph,  through 
the  country  of  the  Bog^s.  Wells  have  been  dug  by  the  side  of  each  station, 
between  Eassala  and  Abu-Ahraz. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Eassala  are  a  few  villages  occupied  by  settled  Hallenga, 
Hadendoa  or  Bazen  populations,  and  during  the  dry  season;  temporary  camps  are 
pitched  in  the  dried-up  bed  of  the  Gash.  Eighteen  miles  to  the  east  is  the  iovra  of 
Sabderat,  whose  artisans  are  occupied  with  weaving  cloth  and  leather  work.  This 
place  perpetuates  the  memory  of  the  defterdar's  atrocities,  who  massacred  all  the 
inhabitants  and  made  pyramids  of  the  bodies,  so  as  to  poison  the  air  and  thus 
prevent  the  repupulatiou  of  the  country. 


.4iit- 


KA88ALA— SABDERAT— ALGADEN— DOLKA. 


261 


[ussulman 
Muhum- 

base  of  a 
plain,  and 
■ospects  in 
^t  Endoa, 
Danded  by 
heads  "  of 
ition,  then 
d  agricid- 
;he  waters 

formerly 
le  galleries 

conunands 

desired  to 

ng  up  the 

<.,  and  thus 

rivulet  to 

who  lent 

aed  up  the 

i;    but  the 

tacked  the 

they  soon 

d  acquired 
irast  cotton 
m-engines. 
rst  attempt 
ns  between 
t  thousand 
,  was  more 
>ns  serving 
Masaawah 
h,  through 
>ch  station, 

Hallenga, 
camps  are 
he  to\m  of 
ark.  This 
ired  all  the 
r  and  thus 


To  the  north  succeed  the  two  large  Hadendoa  villages  of  Miktinab  and  Mlik, 
which  are  of  some  importance  us  market-places.  To  the  south-east  the  Ba/en 
peasantry,  half  converted  to  Islam,  people  the  village  of  Elit,  built  at  a  height  of 
1,330  feet  above  the  plain,  on  an  almost  inaccessible  terrace  half-wuy  up  the  side 
of  a  granite  moimtaiu,  scooped  out  at  the  top  into  a  cultivated  crater  of  quudran- 

Fig.  82.— ExagALA. 

"'';"'.■'■"■<■' }.->\^i\-_    V  '•*"..■  e«*le  1 :  188,000. 


jreenwicK 


56*  14- 


■  SMilM. 


gular  shape.     The  "boiler"  of  Elit  is  probably  a  sinking  of  the  soil,  such  as  is 
frequently  met  with  in  rooks  pierced  with  grottoes. 

North  of  Elit  and  already  on  the  slope  of  the  Ehor  Barka,  is  the  village  of 
A/gaden  or  Algeden,  whose  houses  are  scattered  amidst  the  overturned  blocks  on 
the  sides  of  Mount  Dablot  or  Doblut,  which  overlooks  a  vast  horizon  of  hills  and 
plains  between  the  two  rivers  March  and  Barka.  Algaden  lies  on  the  route  to 
Mecca  taken  by  the  Takruri  pilgrims,  who  support  themselves  from  village  to 


ii-mp.i»w»i_>'wmwT'i'iw»'H!^gw"'i 


— ^-ffl- 


252 


NOETH-EAST  AFEIOA. 


village  by  preaching,  praying,  and  selling  amulets ;  in  this  way  they  have  con- 
verted the  population  of  Algaden,  who  are  mainly  of  Bazen  origin.  In  a  neigbour- 
ing  plain,  the  people  of  Algaden  and  Sabderat  in  1870  gained  a  sanguinary  victory 
over  an  army  of  Abyssinians,  10,000  of  whom  were  left  on  the  battle-field.  '  '  ' 
To  the  south-east  of  Algaden,  in  the  Barea  country,  between  the  Gash  and  the 
Barka,  the  Egyptians  have  recently  founded  two  military  stations,  Kufit  and  Amideb. 
The  first  was  abandoned  in  1875,  but  Amideb  was  still  occupied  at  the  general 
rising  of  the  tribes  ;  it  is  one  of  the  places  that  England  has  by  treaty  handed  over 
to  the  Abyssinians.  Dolka,  on  a  rock  which  rises  to  the  east  of  the  valley  of  the 
Anseba,  long  resisted  the  attacks  of  the  Khedive's  troops.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood are  the  ruins  of  a  town  and  some  Christian  churches  which  bear  a  few 
Abyssinian  or  Himyaritio  inscriptions.  The  principal  town  of  the  Habab  country 
is  Jf-Abad,  or  Tha-Mariam,  situated  in  a  circular  plain,  at  the  foot  of  a  precipitous 
mountain  pierced  with  grottoes. 


Ed-Damer — Berber. 


i 


I 


Below  Eassala  on  the  Gash,  and  Gos-Rejeb  on  the  Atbara,  there  is  only  one 
town  in  the  basin,  Ed-Damer,  lying  south  of  the  confluence  in  the  southern 
peninsula  formed  by  the  Nile  and  the  mouth  of  the  Atbara.  Here  dwelt  the 
Makuberab  tribe,  whom  Schweinfurth  and  Lejean  believe  to  be  the  somewhat 
legendary  ^Macrobians  of  ancient  writers.  But  this  town,  which  was  formerly  a 
brisk  market,  has  lost  its  commercial  importance  and  become  a  city  of  "  saints  and 
teachers."  It  has  schools,  formerly  celebrated,  hotbeds  of  the  Mussulman  propa- 
ganda, but  it  is  no  longer  a  rendezvous  for  caravans. 

Some  30  miles  lower  down  on  the  same  bank  of  the  river,  is  the  commercial 
centre  of  the  great  river  and  its  north  Abyssinian  tributaries.  Berber,  ^ill  recently 
capital  of  an  Egyptian  province,  is  the  largest  mart  between  Khartum  and  the 
Egyptian  frontier,  properly  so-called.  Berber,  so  named  from  the  Bar&bra  people, 
who  occupy  this  region  of  Nubia,  is  officially  called  El-Mekheir,  El-Mukheiref,  or  El- 
Mesherif.  Before  the  present  war,  during  which  Berber  has  been  almost  entirely 
destroyed,  the  town  skirted  the  river  bank  for  a  distance  of  several  miles,  its  white 
terraced  houses  standing  in  the  midst  of  acacia  and  palm  groves.  A  few  gardens 
surround  the  town,  beyond  which  immediately  commence  the  uncultivated,  almost 
desert,  spaces,  visited  only  by  the  Bisharin  nomads. 

Berber  is  the  starting  point  of  the  most  frequented  caravan  route  between  the 
Middle  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea.  At  this  point,  the  distance  which  separates  the  river 
irov^  t Ve  soa  is,  following  the  winding  desert  route,  only  250  miles.  If  well  supplied 
Willi  i'ood  and  \^ater,  travellers  can  easily  complete  this  journey  in  less  than  a  week, 
although  they  usually  take  fifteen  days ;  sooner  or  later  a  few  hours  will  suffice, 
thanks  to  a  railway  already  commenced,  and  on  which  military  trains  were  running 
in  1885  from  Suakin,  for  a  few  miles  inland,  to  Otao,  the  present  terminus  on  the 
route  to  Berber.  *  When  this  line  is  completed,  Berber  will  become  the  port  by 


SUA  KIN— 8INKAT— TOKAB. 


263 


lave  con- 
aeigbour- 
ry  victory 

h  and  tlie 
i  Amideb. 
e  general 
nded  over 
ey  of  the 
eighbour- 
tar  a  few 
)  country 
recipitous 


I  only  one 
southern 
dwelt  the 
Bomewhat 
brmerly  a 
laints  and 
an  propa- 

}nimercial 
1  recently 
1  and  the 
ra  people, 
ref,  or  El- 
i  entirely 
,  its  white 
n  gardens 
ad,  almost 

tween  the 
J  the  river 
1  supplied 
in  a  week, 
ill  su£Sco, 
B  ruiining 
ms  on  the 
e  port  by 


Fig.  83.— Behbbr. 
Sod*  I  :  89,000. 


which  all  the  produce  of  Upper  Sudan  will  be  exported,  and  the  Nile  will  be  the 
commercial  affluent  of  the  Red  Sea.  .  .^^■ 

The  two  caravan  routes  between  Suakin  and  Berber  traverse  vast  sandy  tracts 
where  the  water  in  the  wells  is  brackish.  The  route  lies  over  granite  and  porphyry 
heights,  crossed  by  the  pass  of  Haratri,  the  water-parting  between  the  Nile  basin 
and  that  of  the  Red  Sea,  standing  at  a 
height  of  3,000  feet,  between  mountains 
rising  to  twice  that  elevation.  Before 
the  war  20,000  camels,  laden  with  gum, 
annually  crossed  the  desert  between  the 
two  towns,  which  will  probably  soon  be 
connected  by  rail. 

Suakin — Sinkat — Tokar. 

Suukin,  or  Sawakin,  is  the  safest  port 
on  the  Red  Sea  coast,  and  resembles  that 
of  Massawah  in  its  geog^phical  posi- 
tion. The  riverain  zone  of  coral  banks 
is  pierced  by  a  winding  channel  which 
penetrates  over  2  miles  inland,  termi- 
nating in  an  oval-shaped  basin  about 
1  mile  from  north  to  south.  To  the 
west  are  sand-banks  which  contract  the 
sheet  of  water,  and  are  continued  by 
shallows  overgrown  with  reeds.  Two 
round  islands,  partially  fringed  with 
rooks,  exceed  the  level  of  the  basin  by 
several  feet.  One  of  these  islands,  that 
of  Sheikh  Abdullah,  is  used  exclusively 
as  a  cemetery;  the  other,  farther  south, 
comprises  the  town  of  Suakin,  properly 
so-called.  The  chief  port  lies  between 
these  two  islands,  but  vessels  of  the 
heaviest  tonnage  can  also  anchor  north 
of  the  island  of  Sheikh  Abdallah ,  in 
this  species  of  lake,  which  seems  to  be 
surrounded  by  land  on  all  sides,  vessels 
are  perfectly  safe  from  the  winds  and  surf.  The  port,  opened  in  the  midst  of  a 
beach  rendered  very  dangerous  by  the  multitude  of  reefs,  is  well  worthy  the  name 
of  the  "  harbour  of  the  protecting  gods,"  which  many  authors  believe  to  have  been 
given  it  during  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies. 

Before  the  warlike  events  which  have  procured  for  Suakin  a  name  famous  in 
contemporary  history,  the  annual  movement  of  the  shipping  was  about  12  steamers 


.S,aOO  Tarda. 


264 


NOETH-EAST  AFRICA. 


and  300  Arab  vessels,  which  carried  rice,  dates,  salt,  cowries,  and  European  mer- 
chandise, to  be  exchanged  for  slaves,  mules,  wild  beasts,  and  the  many  products  of 
the  Abyssinian  spurs,  such  as  gum,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  skins,  wax,  musk,  grains, 
and  coffee.  Suakin  is  the  port  where  the  pilgrims  embark  for  Mecca,  to  the  number 
of  six  or  seven  thousand  annually  ;  the  distance  from  here  to  Jeddah  is  about  20 
miles  including  the  deviations  caused  by  the  reefs.  The  slave  merchants  from  the 
interior  present  themselves  in  the  disguise  of  ordinary  travellers,  accompanied  by 
their  wives,  concubines,  and  servants.     But  on  their  return  from  Arabia  to  Suakin, 

Fig.  84.— Suakin  in  1882. 
RrtJe  1 :  Nn.non. 


Iff 


1.1       V     cX 


57*30 


t.    .    of   bfbanwich 


,:>!'!  .19" 


57'8a 


OeptliK. 


0  to  AS  Feet.  32  to  H  Feet.    64  Feet  and  upwsida. 

Band*  aod  coral  reeft  ezpoaed  at  low  water. 


1,100  Tarda. 


they  have  no  longer  wives  or  servants ;  divorce,  desertion,  and  unforeseen  events 
being  supposed  to  have  relieved  them  of  their  families  and  followers. 

The  town,  overlooked  by  several  minarets,  consists  of  stone  houses  with  wooden 
balconies  and  "  musharabiehs  "  elegantly  carved.  It  is  a  cosmopolitan  city,  where 
the  trade  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Arabs.  Turks  and  Hedarmeh,  or  "  Men 
of  Hadramaut,"  here  meet  the  Greek,  Maltese,  or  European  merchants.  But  the 
native  population  live  in  huts  of  branches  covered  with  mats  outside  the  town  in  the 
suburb  of  El-Kef.  It  is  a  far  more  extensive  place  than  Suakin  itself,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  low  bridge  some  330  feet  long,  and  since  1884  by  a  railway 


B  •  "  'II  '  I    ■  IHIi|WW»',l 


opean  mer- 
products  of 
usk,  grains, 
the  number 
is  about  20 
ts  from  the 
iupanied  by 
i  to  Suakin, 


mmm 


'W 


tl     ION-SINK  AT~TOKAE. 


255 


Hft  )lMt.  The  huts  of  1!1-K«'<  ski*  he  suuthern  Hlvure  of  tho  baain,  oppuHito  Suakin, 
A  1  exter.fl  on  both  sid*^  "f  !ia  ato  to  H  wr.  Tho  HudeiulouN  who  live  in  this 
B  )urb  "inr '  >v  themsel^  -a  in  . ,  (m«poninf^  and  stowing  tho  invrchundiHc,  ami  Hiipply 
the  towt^  ^  oul,  foi       fowlH,  I    tter,  fruits,  vogotublos,  and  drinking  water.     In 

wintrr  thi  am  twic<  joro  numorous  than  in  summer,  when  thoy  retire  to  graze 
their  tl(N4  ,m  the  h,  .1  mountains  in  the  vicinity.  Suakin,  although  it  is  well 
proteuted    roiB  pilb|fiug  raids  by  its  insular  pusition,  depends  entirely  for  its 

Fig.  86.— Suakin  Ui'Lanm. 
Seato  1  ;  8.000  too. 


i>S'  L     of  Greenwich 


Deptbi. 


OtoMFiat 


80tol60F«tt.        160ta880F««t     390  to  1600  Feet         1600  Feet  and 

upward*. 


maintenance  on  the  mauoland  ouburb,  and  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  enclose  the 
latter  with  fortifications,  to  protiect  it  against  the  Bejas,  who  recently  rose  against 
the  Egjrptian  Oovcmment. 

The  vital  importance  of  Suakin  with  regard  to  trade  and  political  power  is  fully 
appreciated  by  the  belligerents.  The  sanguinary  battles  which  have  taken  place 
in  its  vicinity,  to  the  west  near  the  fortified  camp  of  Sinkat  and  the  wells  of 
Tamanieh  and  Hashin,  to  the  south-east  before  the  stronghold  of  Tokar  and  in  the 
oasis  of  El-Teb,  prove  how  essential  it  would  be  for  the  Mussulman  world  to 
establish  free  communications  between  Mecca,  capital  of  Islam,  and  ^ifrica,  its 
largest  province,  popidated  with  the  most  fanatic  of  the  faithful.  Great  Britain 
watches  closely  this  continental  port  of  Africa  and,  under  the  name  uf  Egypt,  this 
power  has  definitely  taken  possession  of  it  so  as  to  bring  the  whole  of  the  Upper 
Nile  within  its  commercial  and  political  influence.     Hitherto  the  Beja  insurgents 


P) 


I 


206 


NORTH-EAST  APBICA. 


IiBye  been  able  to  maintain  none  but  preoarioun  relations  with  their  co-religionUta 
on  the  oppnnito  coant  by  moans  of  small  craft  oscuping  from  the  oruoks  along  the 
coast  undur  cover  of  night. 

Before  Suukin  was  bl<K>lccd  by  the  rebclH,  the  merchants  of  this  town  withdrew 
(luring  the  hot  season  to  the  smiling  vuUoy  of  Sinkat,  which,  ul  a  height  of  870 
feet,  lies  amid  extinct  volcanoes  and  cliffs  of  an  extremely  fertile  reddish  marl ;  the 
sl()])e8  have  boon  laid  out  in  steep  torrucos  planted  with  acacias  and  fruit  trees. 
Tokar,  u  little  fort  situated  in  a  fertile  vulley  irrigate<l  by  numerous  small  canals 
derived  from  the  Durka,  stands  in  the  uiid'lo  of  the  "  granary  "  of  this  province. 
During  the  sowing  and  harvest  aeasona,  more  than  twenty  thousand  labourev.i  are 
employed  in  the  fields  of  Tokar. 

Some  of  the  marm  or  niirta,  that  is  harbours,  on  the  neighbouring  coast  may 
perhaps  acquire  some  importance  when  the  mountains  of  the  interior  become 
populated  und  cultivated.  One  of  the  most  convenient,  aa  a  market  of  the  Eh6r 
liurku  Valley,  will  undoubtedly  be  the  port  of  Akiq,  a  vast  and  deep  basin  well 
protected,  like  that  of  Suakin,  by  inlands  and  peninsulas ;  this  port  is  without 
doubt  one  of  the  best  in  the  Red  Sea.  In  the  chief  island  of  the  roadway,  a  Beni- 
Amer  tribe  has  founded  the  little  village  of  Badur,  before  which  vessels  can  cast 
anr^hor  in  a  depth  of  from  23  to  25  feet.  On  the  coast  of  Suakin  and  Akiq  the  sea 
wui'-r  teams  with  animal  life.  The  surface  of  the  sea  is  often  covered  for  miles 
with  ripplets  which  seem  to  be  caused  by  the  breeze,  but  are  really  produced  by  the 
movement  of  a  small  fish  of  the  sardine  type,  myriads  of  which  play  in  the  upper 
layers  of  the  water.  •     '       .*  '  , 

'  ■  '        ■"'•.,■'','■.■  ■ '   ,     .-'  ■•  '■, 

\  ' :    ■'   ■'''  "  /..  .-■  _  ;  :V'  •.>  .  "• 


)  =. 


V 


N. 


*'  '    '  *■*  '■  ■.■,'"■ 


-mnr- 


mitK 


mwnSw 


-roligioni*ta 
M  along  the 

m  withdrew 
Mght  of  870 
h  inurl;  tho 
fruit  trooB. 
inittU  canuls 
!.'«  provinco. 
abourei)^  are 

g  coast  may 
rior  become 
of  the  Kh6r 
p  basin  well 
t  is  without 
way,  a  Beni- 
isels  can  cast 
Akiq  the  sea 
<ed  for  miles 
duced  by  the 
in  the  upper 


■^■;\ 


CHAPTER  TX. 

KtntnoFAN. 

ins  country,  which  was  till  recently  on  Egyptian  provinco,  and 
which,  ut  the  conunencoment  of  1883,  bocamo  the  centre  of  u  new 
state  destined  probably  to  have  but  a  short  existence,  is  u  porfcctly 
distinct  natural  region,  although  without  any  clearly  defined  frontiers. 
On  the  whole  its  form  is  quadrilateral,  inclined  from  the  north  to 
tho  south,  parallel  with  tho  main  stream  between  the  Sobat  and  Blue  Nile  confluence. 
On  the  south  and  east  Kordof&n,  or  Kordoful,  has  for  its  natural  frontiers  low- 
lying  tracts  flooded  by  the  Nile ;  to  the  north  and  west  it  merges  in  the  steppes 
roamcjd  over  by  nomad  tribes.  T!ie  total  area  of  the  region,  thus  roughly  deiined, 
mry  be  estimated  at  100,000  square  miles,  or  nearly  half  the  size  of  France.  This 
space  is  very  sparsely  populated ;  in  1876,  Prout,  an  American  officer  in  the 
Egyptian  service,  made  on  official  return,  according  to  which  the  inhabitants  of 
the  eight  hundred  and  fifty-three  towns  and  villages  of  Kordof&n  numbered 
164,740  persons.  At  the  same  periof]  the  nomad  tribes  amounted  to  a  total  of 
114,000  persons,  but  the  governor  of  the  province  had  made  no  attempt  to  number 
the  turbulent  mountaineers  of  the  south.  The  total  population  of  Kordofftn  can  be 
provisionally  estimated  at  300,000,  giving  a  density  of  about  three  jjersons  to  the 
square  mile.  Wars  have  frequently  devastated  the  countrj',  and  it  is  supposed 
that  the  number  of  people  has  considerably  decreased  since  Uie  massacres  ordered 
by  Mohammed  Bey,  the  terrible  "  Treasurer,"  who  conquered  this  region  for  his 
father-in-law,  Mohammed  Ali.  Fresh  butcherios  have  again  taken  place  since  the 
Mahdi,  or  "  Guide,"  has  made  Eordof&n  the  centre  of  his  eiupire,  and  proclaimed 
the  holy  war  throughout  his  camps.  ,     ;    -  v 


Physical  Featcres.  ,    -. 

By  the  general  slope  of  the  land  Kordof&n  belongs  to  the  Nilotic  basins.  If 
the  rains  were  sufficiently  abimdant  the  wadies,  which  dry  up  at  the  mouth  of  the 
mountain  valleys,  would  reach  as  far  as  the  White  Nile ;  even  the  waters  rising  on 
the  western  slope  flow  to  the  Nile  intermittently,  on  the  one  side  through  the 
Eeilak  and  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  on  the  other  through  the  Wady-Melek.     In  other 

17— AP. 


Ii  I 


!l 


25B 


NORTH-EAST  AFEICA. 


respects  the  level  of  the  land,  which  varies  from  a  mean  height  of  1,330  to  1,660 
feet,  varies  but  slightly  in  a  large  portion  of  the  country ;  in  many  places  the 
nmning  waters  are  said  to  follow  an  uncertain  course  before  excavating  a  regular 
channel  towards  the  Nile.  Throughout  nearly  the  whole  of  its  extent  Eordof&n  is 
a  gently  undulating  steppe,  whose  hills,  seldom  more  than  a  few  feet  high,  serve  aa 
landmarks  during  long  hours  of  march.  It  would  be  easy  to  drive  vehicles  here, 
and  thus  replace  the  use  of  camels  as  a  means  of  transport.  Isolated  peaks  rising 
from  the  middle  of  the  plain  present  an  imposing  appearance,  thanks  to  the  general 
uniformity  of  the  spaces  which  they  command.  Oui;  of  them,  the  Jebel-Eordof4n 
(2,830  feet),  which  has  given  its  name  to  the  country,  rises  about  12  miles  east  of 
the  capital,  El-Obeid ;  near  it  is  the  almost  regular  pyramid  of  Jebel-el-Ai'n.  The 
upper  strata  consist  almost  entirely  of  granitic  sand,  the  decomposed  remains  of 
mountains  which  contain  in  abundance  particles  of  mica  mixed  with  impure  clays. 
At  a  depth  varying  from  100  to  166  feet  are  found  rocks  of  mica  schist. 

At  a  mean  distance  of  120  miles  to  the  west  of  the  Nile,  the  central  region  of 
Eordof&n  rises  into  mountainous  masses,  whose  crests  attain  a  height  of  many 
hundreds  of  feet  above  the  plain.  To  the  north-west  the  Jebel-Katul  and  the 
Jebel-Kaja  are  protected  on  the  side  of  the  plains  by  rocks  sufficiently  inac- 
cessible to  afford  the  independent  tribes  a  refuge  against  their  neighbours.  To 
the  north  some  isolated  granite  cliffs,  amongst  others  the  Jebel-Haraza,  command 
the  winding  caravan  route  between  El-Obe'id  and  Dongola.  In  the  centre  of 
Kordofjln  the  Jebel-Deyer,  covering  a  space  of  about  200  square  miles,  raises  its 
crests  to  an  altitude  of  over  2,660  feet,  or  1,000  feet  above  the  surrounding  steppes. 
Its  outer  walls,  pierced  with  a  few  breaches,  form  a  complete  rampart  round  it ; 
but  inside,  the  natives  say,  there  is  a  deep  valley,  a  basin  flowing  with  water  and 
well  wooded,  which  the  surrounding  nomads  describe  as  an  earthly  paradise.  To 
the  south  of  this  elevation  the  steppe  no  longer  continues  in  monotonous  undulat- 
ing hillocks,  as  in  the  north-west  of  £ordof4n,  having  no  other  arborescent 
vegetation  than  a  few  groves  of  stunted  acacias  and  hete  and  there  a  baobab,  whose 
twisted  branches  stand  out  against  the  horizon.  It  now  becomes  a  level,  fertile, 
and  well-wooded  plain,  from  which  the  bluish  cones  of  Mounts  Tagala  are  visible, 
girdled  with  verdure  at  the  base  and  running  southwards,  towards  the  steppes 
inhabited  by  the  Bagg&ra,  for  a  distance  of  at  least  30  miles.  Farther  west,  the 
other  mountainous  masses,  also  formed  of  granite  rocks,  have  taken  the  general 
name  of  Jebel-Nuba,  or  D&r-Nuba,  that  is  to  say,  "  Country  of  the  Nubas,"  after 
the  people  inhabiting  them. 

^.  Hydrographic  System. 

'v 

The  mountains  of  Southern  Eordof&n  receive  a  much  larger  quantity  of  water 
than  those  of  the  north.  The  showers  which  fall  in  the  Jebel-Nuba  are  sufficiently 
heavy  to  give  birth  to  a  khor,  the  Abft-Hableh,  which  flows  to  the  east  and  north- 
east for  a  distance  of  over  180  miles  before  finally  disappearing  in  the  ground.  It 
is  even  said  that  during  certain  very  rainy  years  a  little  water  from  Eordof&n  has 


.■>fcViiiaV»"frtM!ir'iii»x'nifti»(ri'  'liii'ii  i*H,'ii   <*  inJi'lk^^i.'JB  ''>'j  i^>W'*'»i¥ff|i'l  ili>#W»^i«l^'** 


CLIMATE  OP  KOBDOElN. 


250 


30  to  1,660 
places  the 
ig  a  regular 
KordoMn  is 
gh,  serve  as 
hides  here, 
peaks  rising 
the  general 
el-EordoMn 
niles  east  of 
l-Ain.  The 
remains  of 
npure  clays, 
it. 

ral  region  of 
ht  of  many 
itul  and  the 
iently  inac- 
hbours.  To 
ea,  command 
16  centre  of 
les,  raises  its 
ding  steppes, 
art  roimd  it ; 
ith  water  and 
laradise.  To 
lous  undulat- 
r  arborescent 
>aobab,  whose 
level,  fertile, 
la  are  visible, 
B  the  steppes 
ther  west,  the 
the  general 
Nubas,"  after 


itity  of  water 
re  sufficiently 
ist  and  north- 
5  ground.  It 
ELordof&n  has 


reached  the  Nile  through  this  fluvial  channel.  Throughout  the  course  of  the  Ab{^- 
Hableh  the  surplus  waters  form  during  the  kharif  season,  that  is  to  say  from  June 
to  October,  temporary  sheets  of  water  which  are  usually  marked  on  the  maps  as 
El-Birket,  or  El-Bahad,  that  is,  "  Lakes,"  in  a  pre-eminent  sense.  But  water  rarely 
remains  in  this  reservoir  till  the  end  of  the  dry  season  ;  however,  on  digging  in  the 
sand  to  a  depth  of  8  or  10  feet,  sufficient  can  be  obtained  to  quench  the  thirst  of 
both  man  and  beast.  Most  of  the  other  pools,  generally  called  fulahs,  are  flooded 
only  during  the  rainy  season.  In  the  inhabited  region  of  Northern  Kordof&n, 
estimated  by  Prout  at  17,200  square  miles,  there  are  neither  rivers  nor  ponds,  but 
only  funnel-shaped  wells  sunk  to  a  depth  of  80  and  even  160  feet,  as  far  as  the 
mica  schist  bed,  which  forms  a  layer  through  which  the  rain  water,  filtering  through 
the  light  soil  on  the  surface,  cannot  penetrate.  The  water  in  these  wells  is  reached 
by  steps  cut  round  the  excavation.  The  scientific  exploration  of  this  country  has 
proved  the  existence  of  eight,  hundred  wells,  but  at  least  two  hundred  of  these  are 
completely  dry  for  half  of  the  year,  and  the  water  of  many  is  brackish  or  even  salt. 
According  to  Ebjayrac,  Lauture,  and  Matteucci,  the  general  dessication  of  the 
country  has  been  undoubtedly  going  on  for  many  generations,  and  several  wells 
which  formerly  furnished  water  in  abundance  have  had  to  be  abandoned.  The 
annual  rainfall,  which  is  on  the  average  9  inches  at  El-Obe'id,  somewhat  more  in 
the  mountains  of  the  south,  and  less  in  those  of  the  north,  is  not  siifficient  to  fill  all 
the  wells  sunk  in  the  hollows.  Hence  entire  villages  are  abandoned  during  the 
dry  season.  As  soon  as  the  dokhn,  the  only  kind  of  millet  which  flourishes  in  this 
dry  climate,  has  been  harvested,  the  cultivators  migrate  to  the  wells  which  contain 
a  little  water  throughout  the  year,  and  do  not  retium  to  their  fields  till  the  com- 
mencement of  the  kharif.  In  the  villages  and  towns  water  is  a  commercial  article, 
and  towards  the  end  of  the  dry  season  it  occasionally  costs  more  than  wine  in  wine- 
growing countries ;  in  1873  a  measure  of  two  or  three  gallons  was  sold  for  a 
dollar. 

Climate  of  Kordofan. 

In  spite  of  the  altitude  of  Eordof&n,  the  temperature  of  this  country  is  one  of 
the  hottest  in  the  world.  The  season  of  intense  heats  commences  in  March,  when 
the  thermometer  frequently  rises  to  105°  F.  in  the  shade,  and  the  air  mixed  with 
the  desert  sand  is  almost  suffocating.  After  the  three  months  of  the  sef,  or  dry 
season,  dense  clouds  are  collected  in  the  southern  hori;!on,  fmnouncing  the  approach 
of  the  kharif.  The  beg^ning  of  June  is  ushered  in  by  heavy  showers,  very  violent 
but  of  short  duration,  with  intervals  of  fine  weather.  The  rainy  season  usually 
commences  with  atmospheric  disturbances,  whirlwinds  rushing  over  the  steppes ; 
but  soon  the  aerial  currents  regain  their  equilibrium,  and  the  south-wrst  wind,  a 
continuation  of  the  south-east  trade  wind  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  prevails  over 
this  part  of  the  north,  following  the  direction  of  the  sun.  During  this  season  the 
temperature  is  maintained  with  a  remarkable  uniformity  between  77°  F.  and  92°  F., 
the  oscillations  of  the  thermometer  seldom  exceeding  12°  F.  Such  a  climate  would 
be  very  agreeable,  but  for  the  vapours  and  miasmas  with  which  the  air  is  saturated, 


I 


u 


T 


260 


NOETK-EAST  AFRICA. 


causing  residence  iu  Eordof&n  to  be  very  dangerous  to  Arabs,  urks,  and  Europeans, 
who  often  fall  victims  to  the  endemic  fevers.  Towards  the  end  of  September,  after 
three  or  four  months  of  intermittent  rains,  the  wind  changes.  The  north-east  trade 
winds,  deflected  south  by  the  progress  of  the  sun  towards  the  tropic  of  Capricorn, 
now  sets  in,  bringing  cold  weather  in  its  train  ;  during  the  night  the  temperature 
occasionally  falls  to  69°  F. 


Flora. 


■^i 


i(t    ':if^'  %;f')  ■ 


v-^ 


Thb  uura  of  EordoMn  is  not  very  rich ;  acacias,  tamarisks,  baobabs,  and  such- 
like trees  give  the  landscape  its  characteristic  appearance  in  the  regions  which  are 
not  barren  or  completely  deforested.  The  acacias,  which  furnish  tae  gum  of  com- 
merce, belong  to  various  species.  The  grey-barked  variety,  which  yields  the  best 
quality  of  gum,  is  scattered  in  numerous  thickets  throughout  the  eastern  part  of 
the  country.  In  the  southern  region  the  red-barked  acacias,  which  furnish  the 
least  valuable  kind  of  gum,  extend  in  vast  forests  almost  useless  from  an  economi- 
cal point  of  view ;  very  few  villagfers  or  nomads  take  the  trouble  to  collect  the 
g^m  which  exudes  from  these  trees.  The  most  important  harvest  throughout 
nearly  the  whole  of  Eordof&n,  is  that  of  the  dokhn  [penicilaria  typhdidea),  which 
arrives  at  maturity  four  months  after  being  sown,  a  period  corresponding  to  the 
kharif .  This  variety  of  millet  requires  so  little  moisture  that  it  thrives  better  on 
the  sandy  dunes  than  in  the  hollows ;  nine-tenths  of  the  population  live  on  this 
dokhn.  The  durrah,  or  Egyptian  millet,  is  cultivated  only  in  the  well-watered 
mountain  valleys.  Wheat,  sesame,  haricots,  tobacco,  and  cotton  are  found  in  a 
few  districts  near  the  capital.    Hemp  is  used  for  interlacing  the  walls  of  the  huts. 

Of  all  the  vegetable  products  of  Eordof&n,  g^um  is  exported  in  the  largest 
quantities ;  the  chase  also  contributes  to  the  movement  of  the  exchanges  more 
than  cattle-breeding.  Ostrich  feathers  are  the  most  valuable  articles  that  the 
northern  caravans  obtain  from  the  natives.  But  these  latter  have  almost 
exterminated  the  ostrich  in  the  eastern  plains  of  the  country  ;  herds  of  ostriches 
are  now  mut  with  only  to  the  west  of  the  Eaja  Mountains,  and  the  frontier  of 
Dar-For.  The  steppes  of  Eordof&n  would  be  admirably  adapted  for  ostrich  farms ; 
but  at  present  this  bird  is  not  kept  in  captivity,  and  the  hunters  kill  it  to  such  on 
extent  that  it  is  yearly  diminishing  in  numbers. 

The  ibis  is  very  common  in  Eordof&n,  as  many  as  fifty  nests  being  found  on 
one  tree;  this  bird  like  the  stork,  is  considered  sacred,  and  the  natives  do  not 
permit  strangers  to  kill  it.  The  people  of  Eordof&n  have  a  few  domestic  animals, 
such  OS  horses,  asses,  goats,  and  sheep ;  but  the  pack-animals  belong  more  especially 
to  the  nomad  tribes.  To  the  sotith  the  Baggftras  possess  at  least  one  hundred 
thousand  humped  oxen,  trained  to  bear  burdens,  but  quite  useless  for  field  opera- 
tions ;  the  cows  supply  but  little  milk.  The  scarcity  of  water  in  the  plains  has 
modified  the  habits  of  the  native  breed  of  cattle,  which  come  to  the  troughs  only 
every  two  or  three  days.  Camels  thrive  only  in  northern  Eordofftn,  amongst  the 
Eabubish  nomads  ;  south  of  the  thirteenth  degree  of  latitude  they  perish  under  the 
attacks  of  swarms  of  gadflies  and  other  venomous  insects. 


I  'ki^^  ^sfji  ti!i>'ifai<|j»'  i  ifii^jiiiiiij^  J  »'i;ii^i{  ijtn'  iij>iij^»!|  j  A 


INHABITANTS  OF  KOEDOPAN— THE  MUSABATS  AND  ZOGHAWAS.      261 


Europeans, 
mber,  after 
-east  trade 
Capricorn, 
emperature 


,  and  such- 
which  are 
im  of  com- 
ds  the  best 
em  part  of 
furnish  the 
m  economi- 
colleot  the 
throughout 
ides),  which 
ding  to  the 
38  better  on 
live  on  this 
irell-watered 
found  in  a  . 
of  the  huts, 
the  largest 
langes  more 
les  that  the 
have  almost 
of  ostriches 
e  frontier  of 
itrich  farms ; 
it  to  such  an 

ing  found  on 
itives  do  not 
istic  animals, 
ore  especially 
one  hundred 
r  field  opera- 
le  plains  has 
troughs  only 
,  amongst  the 
ish  under  the 


\  ,    Inhabitants  of  Kordofan. 

Central  Eordof&n,  in  the  vicinity  of  El-Obeid,  is  one  of  the  most  densely 
inhabited  regions  of  eastern  Africa ;  in  a  radius  of  about  60  miles  round  the 
capital,  the  villages  are  on  the  average  not  more  than  2  or  3  miles  from  each 
other.  Each  tokul,  or  circular  hut  of  thatch  with  a  conic  roof,  and  occasionally 
the  village  itself,  is  surrounded  by  a  belt  of  prickly  hedges.  The  peoples  who 
occupy  these  settled  groups  of  houses  are  of  a  very  mixed  race,  and  the  original 
type  is  very  difficult  to  be  recognised.  <  '•    ,._ ,      ' 

Founded  as  commercial  stations  on  the  routes  from  the  Nile  to  the  countries 
of  Central  Africa,  the  towns  of  £ordof&n  are  places  of  assembly  for  the  merchants, 
who  here  come  to  rest  from  their  march  across  the  surrounding  deserts.  The 
soldiers  and  slaves  of  every  tribe  who  accompany  these  traders  tend  to  corrupt 
the  race  and  destroy  its  primitive  elements.  The  people  who  are  the  result 
of  these  crossings  are  intelligent,  happy,  talkative,  and  "  given  to  dancing  and 
amusements."  >  ;  :     , 

In  some  villages  the  Ghodiats  (Gilledats  or  Oowameh),  supposed  to  be  of  more 
or  less  pure  aboriginal  descent,  are  still  said  to  survive.  According  to  Mimzinger, 
who  calls  them  Eadejat,  they  are  related  to  the  Fimj.  They  dwell  to  the  east 
and  south  of  the  mountains  of  Kordofan  and  Jebel-A'in  or  "  Mountain  of  the 
"W  aters,"  and,  in  spite  of  the  conquests  and  changes  in  the  political  regime  they 
still  constitute  an  independent  group.  They  acknowledge  one  of  their  own 
people  as  a  sheikh  and  pay  tribute  to  him  ;  but  if  they  are  not  satisfied  with  him 
they  beseech  a  fakih  to  take  off  his  turban  of  investiture  and  place  it  on  the  head 
of  another  person.  This  ceremony  is  quite  sufficient  to  effect  a  transfer  of  the 
authority. 

The  MtsABATs  and  55oghawas. 

By  virtue  of  a  long  occupation,  the  descendants  of  those  who  invaded  this 
country  at  an  already  distant  period  are  considered  as  having  the  best  right  to  the 
name  of  Eordofanese.  Such  are  the  Musabats,  who  say  they  are  of  For  descent, 
and  whose  chief,  residing  at  El-Obeid,  still  takes  the  name  of  sultan.  Such  are 
also  the  Eunjaras,  likewise  of  F6r  descent,  who  obtained  possession  of  Eordof&n 
at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  who  were  compelled  to  yield  their 
power  to  the  Egyptians  in  1820,  after  their  defeat  at  the  battle  of  Bara.  About 
one  thousand  of  them  still  live  isolated  in  a  few  villages  near  El-Obe'id,  and  their 
chief  takes  the  title  of  sultan,  like  tBat  of  the  Musabats.  Some  twenty  years  ago 
a  few  Eunjara  still  spoke  their  native  Fdr  dialect ;  but  Arabic  has  now  become 
generally  emploj  ed  by  them  as  well  as  by  the  sons  of  the  conquering  Forians. 

The  Zoghawas,  the  remains  of  the  nation  which  iu  the  twelfth  century  ruled 
Over  all  the  space  comprised  between  the  mountains  of  Dar-F6r  and  the  Nile,  are 
still  to  be  found  in  the  northern  part  of  Eordof&n.  The  other  inhabitants  of 
the  country  whose  origin  is  known  are  the  Jalin  Arabs,  who  have  nearly  all 
the  trade  in  their  hands,  and  the  people  of  Dongola,  the  Danageleh  or  Danagla, 


i 


In 


m ! 


\  ( 


262 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


who  were  charged  hy  the  Egyptian  Government  with  collecting  the  taxes. 
Christian  and  Mussulman  Syrians,  Albanians  and  Greeks,  are  the  non- African 
elements  which  are  met  with  in  Eordof&n,  and  which  contribute  to  the  inter- 
mingling of  the  races.  But  the  modification  of  the  type  is  more  especially  due  to 
the  people  of  the  neighbouring  tribes  brought  in  by  the  dealers,  such  as  the 
Nubas,  Denkas,  and  Bongos.  The  Takruris,  Fellatas,  and  other  western  immi- 
grants, travelling  with  the  double  object  of  selling  their  merchandise  and 
propagating  the  doctrines  of  the  Koran  throughout  the  towns  along  their  route. 

Fig.  86.— Cbktral  KohdovAn.  ;' 

8e>I«  1 :  680,000. 


V)l  Satamah 

•if 


!^' 


50°4b' 


E   .  aff  Greartwich 


il'lb' 


euiiMu 


have  also  settled  down  in  the  country,  and  constitute  new  tribes  by  intermarrying 
with  the  daughters  of  the  Arabs.  A  great  number  of  Takruri  come  to  Eordof&n 
to  offer  their  services  temporarily  at  the  sowing  or  harvesting  seasons,  and  when 
they  are  well  received  they  settle  down  in  the  country.  The  islands  of  the  White 
Nile,  which  however,  are  not  considered  as  belonging  to  Eordof&n,  are  nearly  all 
inhabited  by  Arabs.  One  of  them,  the  largest  and  best  cultivated,  is  that  of  Abba, 
in  which  the  Mahdi,  Mohammed- Ahmed,  revealed  his  mission  to  his  first  disciples, 
and  gained  his  first  victory  over  the  Egyptians  in  1881. 


'^gjfegjltiiftiiiMiiiiii^ 


THE  NUBAS— THE  TAOALAS. 


268 


tbe  taxes, 
on- African 

the  inter- 
ally  due  to 
iich  as  the 
;em  immi- 
andise  and 
;heir  route, 


15' 


,  ,  The  Nubas. 

The  Nubas,  who  occupy  the  Jebel-Deyer,  south  of  Kordof&n,  and  a  few  of 
whom  are  still  found  on  other  uplands,  have  a  language  of  their  own  ;  but  it  can- 
not be  positively  assei  i«d  that  they  are  related  to  the  Nubians,  from  whom  they 
are  separated  by  a  desert  and  by  other  populations.  Driven  from  the  plains  and 
massed  in  the  mountains,  they  lead  a  precarious  life,  being  considered  as  wild 
beasts  and  hunted  as  such.  In  Eordof&n  the  name  of  Nubas  is  synonymous  with 
slave,  and  when  captured  this  is  indeed  the  condition  to  which  they  are  reduced. 
As  their  small  republican  communities  have  not  been  able  to  form  a  solid  con- 
federation, they  make  no  resistance  to  their  enemies.  Nevertheless  there  are  a 
few  Nuba  villages  which  by  payment  of  a  tribute  acquire  the  right  to  live 
unmolested  near  the  plains,  and  are  allowed  to  descend  to  the  markets  to  dispose 
of  their  goods.  The  Nubas  dress  like  the  Arabs,  but  do  not  plait  their  hair.  They 
are  completely  black,  with  the  face  very  prognathous,  nor  do  their  features  possess 
that  peculiar  sharpness  which  distinguishes  the  riverain  Nubians  of  the  Nile. 
According  to  Munzinger,  they  are  also  amongst  the  least  intelligent  Nigritians  ;  as 
slaves  they  can  be  employed  only  in  rude  and  monotonous  laboiirs,  but  they  are 
good-natured,  honest,  and  constant  in  friendship.  When  they  are  in  the  company 
of  Mahommedans  the  Nubas  call  themselves  servants  of  Allah ;  biit  they  do  not 
appear  to  render  him  any  kind  of  worship.  Their  only  priests  are  the  "  makers 
of  rain,"  and  magicians  who  heal  diseases  by  gestures  and  incanttitions.  The  rite 
of  circumcision  was  practised  by  them  previous  to  the  influences  of  Islam. 

The  vocabularies  collected  by  Munzinger,  Russegger,  Ruppell,  and  Brugsch 
prove  that  the  dialect  of  the  Nubas  differs  little  from  that  of  the  Nilotic  Nubians, 
the  principal  differences  bearing  in  certain  portions  of  the  language.  To  the  west 
of  the  Nubas  are  said  to  live  a  still  more  savage  people,  the  Gnumas,  Negroes  of 
tall  stature  who  go  naked,  and  of  whom  it  is  related  that  they  kill  the  old  men, 
the  infirm,  and  those  attacked  by  contagions  diseases,  so  as  to  shorten  their  voyage 
to  a  better  world ;  by  the  side  of  the  corpse  in  the  grave  they  place  food,  a  pipe 
of  tobacco,  weapons,  and  two  pairs  of  sandals. 


Sl'lb' 


itermarrying 
to  Eordof&n 
as,  and  when 
of  the  White 
re  nearly  all 
bhat  of  Abba, 
irst  disciples, 


The  Tagalas. 

The  Tagalas  (Tegeleh,  or  Dogoleh)  dwell  in  the  mountains  of  the  same  name. 
Although  neighbours  of  the  Nubas,  they  speak  a  language  entirely  distinct  in 
words  and  structure.  They  themselves  say  they  are  Funj,  although  they  can  no 
longer  understand  their  kindred  of  Sen&r.  Their  king  wears  the  three-homed 
headdress  which  formerly  served  as  a  crown  to  the  king  of  the  Funj,  and  which 
has  been  borrowed  from  them  by  the  deglel,  or  princes  of  the  Hallengas,  Hadendoas, 
and  Beni-Amers. 

The  Tagalas  have  not  the  fiat  nose  and  prognathous  jaw  so  common  amongst 
the  bulk  of  the  Nigritian  tribes;  their  features  are  regular,  the  expression 
animated,  while  their  intelligence  and  skill  are  highly  spoken  of.     As  slaves  they 


|i  ! 


I)* 


It 


264 


NOIiTHEAST  APBICA. 


are  much  more  appreciated  than  the  Nubas,  and  unfortunately  the  occasion  has 
often  been  had  of  comparing  them  from  this  point  of  view,  because  they  are 
considered  as  the  personal  property  of  the  king.  This  potentate  is  regarded  as  a 
sort  of  deity,  whom  they  approach  only  by  crawling  on  the  stomach  and  scratching 
the  ground  «fith  the  left  hand.  No  one  marries  without  the  permission  of  the 
king,  and  no  one  can  remain  free  if  it  pleases  the  king  to  sell  him  as  a  slave.  The 
father  has  also  the  legal  right  to  get  rid  of  his  children,  and  in  times  of  famine 
the  slave-hunters  go  on  purchasing  expeditions  from  village  to  village.  The 
Mohammedan  religion,  which  has  recently  been  adopted  by  the  country,  has  not 
yet  triumphed  over  the  ancient  customs. 

The  Tagalas  valiantly  resisted  the  Egyptians,  who  would  never  have  succeeded 
in  taking  the  natural  stronghold  occupied  by  these  mountaineers  had  not  disputes 
as  to  the  succession  to  the  throne  opened  a  way  to  the  invaders.  On  the  plateau 
of  the  Tagala  here  and  there  rise  steep  hills,  each  bearing  on  its  crest  a  small 
village  surrounded  by  walls  and  thorny  shrubs.  These  villages  form  the  acropolis 
of  the  commune  ;  subterranean  routes,  excavated  in  the  i-ock  and  communicating 
with  the  outside  by  concealed  passages,  receive  the  provisions,  and  Occasionally 
serve  as  places  of  refuge  to  the  inhabitants.  In  order  to  give  an  idea  of  the  large 
number  of  fortified  villages  inhabited  by  the  Tagalas,  their  country  is  said  to 
possess  no  less  than  nine  hundred  and  ninety  mountains,  whilst  one  thousand  are 
attributed  to  the  more  extensive  country  of  the  Nubas. 

The  Tagala  district  might  under  a  settled  gfovemment  become  the  richest  in 
Eordof4n ;  its  soil  is  fertile  and  relatively  well- watered ;  its  inhabitants  are  skilful, 
and  almost  the  only  people  in  £ordof&n  who  have  succeeded  in  cultivating  the 
steep  slopes  by  means  of  terraces  sustained  by  walls  of  loose  stones.  The  low 
mountain  range  of  Wadelka,  to  the  south-east  of  the  Tagala  hills,  is  also  sur- 
rounded by  regular  terraces,  like  the  advanced  spurs  of  the  Alps,  above  the  plain 
of  Lombardy. 

The  Tagalas,  extremely  skilful  smiths,  import  iron  to  manufacture  arms  and 
implements ;  but  the  deposits  of  copper  which  ejdst  in  their  mountains  are  still 
less  worked  than  the  auriferous  sands  of  the  country  of  the  Nubas.  The  gold  of 
Kordof&n  is  not  so  much  appreciated  as  that  of  Fazogl,  on  account  of  its  colour. 


The  Eababish  and  BAOoiRA  Tribes. 

The  cultivated  regions  of  Eordof&n  are  eveiywhere  surrounded  by  nomad 
populations,  known  under  the  general  name  of  Bedoiiins,  and  divided  into  two 
main  groups  of  tribes,  to  the  north  the  Eababish  or  "  Goatherds,"  to  the  south  the 
Bagg&ra  or  "  Cowherds."  These  names,  which  merely  indicate  the  pursuits  and 
the  mode  of  life  of  the  tribes,  do  not  imply  any  difference  of  race,  and  perhaps 
both  the  Eababish  and  Bagg&ra  belong  to  one  and  the  same  ethnical  stock ; 
according  to  Brun-RoUet,  the  BaggarAs  give  themselves  the  name  of  Gema.  The 
differences  in  soil  and  climate  have  had  much  to  do  with  the  difference  in   their 


icasion  has 
they  are 
garded  as  a 
scratching 
ision  of  the 
slave.  The 
of  famine 
age.  The 
try,  has  not 

e  succeeded 
not  disputes 
the  plateau 
rest  a  small 
he  acropolis 
imunicating 
Occasionally 
of  the  large 
y  is  said  to 
houaand  are 

le  richest  in 
a  are  skilful, 
Itivating  the 
i.  The  low 
is  also  sur- 
9ve  the  plain 

re  arms  and 
iins  are  still 
The  gold  of 
its  colour. 


d  by  nomad 
led  into  two 
he  south  the 
pursuits  and 
and  perhaps 
inical  stock ; 
Gema.  The 
nee  in  their 


THE  KABABISn  AND  BAOOAEA  TRIBES. 


266 


pursuits.  The  goat  and  the  camel  flourish  in  the  generally  arid  northern  plains, 
while  homed  cattle  can  obtain  sufficient  water  only  in  the  southern  steppes. 

All  the  "  Bedouins  "  of  Eordof&n  claim  to  be  of  Arab  origin,  and  do  in  fact 
speak  the  language  of  the  Prophet ;  but,  as  Munzinger  remarks,  "  speech  is  merely 
of  secondary  importance  in  ethnology,  it  is  the  manner  in  which  it  is  spoken 
which  makes  it  characteristic."  Now  of  all  the  "  Arabs  "  of  the  Nilotic  regions, 
the  Bagg&ra,  and  after  them  the  Eababish,  are  those  whose  pronunciation  differs 
the  most  from  that  of  the  true  Arabs.  A  large  number  of  the  usual  sounds  in  the 
classical  tongue  are  unknown  and  replaced  by  other  sounds,  possibly  inherited  from 
a  now  extinct  language. 

The  Kababish,  who  are  more  civilised,  thanks  to  their  geographical  position, 
have  other  occupations  besides  goat  and  camel-breeding ;  they  also  cultivate  the 
soil  in  the  lowlands  which  fringe  the  Nile,  and  found  permanent  villages  there, 
and  as  they  are  careful  purveyors,  they  accompany  the  caravans  from  El-Obeid  to 
the  stations  on  the  Nile.  Some  of  the  Eababish  tribes  wear  enormous  hats,  similar 
.  to  those  worn  by  the  Eabyles  of  Tunis  and  Algeria.  The  eraploymenta  of  the 
Bagg&ra  consist  of  grazing  their  cattle,  himting  the  elephant,  the  buffalo,  and 
other  larg^  game,  and  even  occasionally  man.  Directly  the  pasturages  no  longer 
offer  sufficient  nourishment  for  their  herds,  or  when  the  gadfly  attacks  the  cattle, 
'  they  strike  their  fergan  or  tents,  load  the  oxen  with  the  mats  which  form  them, 
and,  followed  by  a  band  of  their  ferocious  little  dogs,  they  migrate  to  another  part 
of  the  steppe.  Carlo  Fiaggia  met  one  of  these  caravans  of  Bagg&ra  nomads 
which  extended  for  a  distance  of  two  miles ;  including  men  and  animals,  it  com- 
prised at  least  fifty  thousand  individuals,  whilst  birds,  as  if  drawn  there  by  the 
column  of  air  displaced  by  the  caravan,  wheeled  in  thousands  round  the  animals, 
■);    destroying  the  parasites  with  which  they  wero  infested. 

Most  of  the  Bagg&ra  have  a  red  skin,  like  that  of  the  American  Indians,  and 
in  bodily  beauty,  athletic  form  of  the  chest  and  shoulders,  elegance  of  their  hands 
and  feet,  they  have  but  few  rivals  in  the  world.  Their  costume  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  Eordof&n  villagers,  their  garment  consisting  of  a  kind  of  white  shirt 
striped  with  red,  which  leaves  the  right  arm  uncovered;  they  adorn  them- 
selves with  glass  trinkets,  rings,  and  articles  of  ivory  and  horn.  The  women 
still  dress  their  hair  in  the  ancient  fashion  represented  on  the  Egyptian  monu- 
ments, and  their  tresses,  which  fall  half-way  down  the  forehead  and  on  both  sides 
;  down  to  the  shoulders,  are  plastered  with  butter  and  aromatic  pomades.  The 
gilded  ring  which  many  women  pass  through  the  nostrils  is  often  connected  with 
a  chain  hung  behind  their  hair.  The  men  carry  the  lance,  in  the  use  of  which 
they  are  very  skilful,  and  the  European  weapons,  Solingen  swords  and  Li^ge 
rifles,  have  already  become  generally  adopted  by  them.  Few  Arabs  are  so  warlike, 
or  so  scrupulous  in  observing  the  duties  of  the  vendetta,  as  the  Bagg&ra. 

The  Bagg&ra  are  amongst  the  most  fervent  of  the  faithful,  and,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Mahdi,  they  have  eagerly  thrown  themselves  into  the  holy  war ; 
they  have  many  times  crossed  the  Bahr-el-Arab  to  attack  the  Negro  popidations 
of  the  zeriba  region,  and  tx)ward8  the  end  of  1884,  the  date  of  the  last  news 


Kt 


11 


r 


866 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


received,  the  result  of  the  war  was  still  uncertain.  In  any  case  Islam,  whilst 
spreading  from  Kordof&n  towards  the  surrounding  countries,  is  far  from  having 
accomplished  its  mission  in  Eordof&n  itself,  where  numerous  practices  forbidden 
by  the  Prophet  are  still  observed.  For  the  natives  the  principal  difference 
between  paganism  and  Mohammedanism  is  that,  in  the  former  case,  the  amulet  is 
a  morsel  of  horn  or  rag,  whilst  in  the  latter  it  consists  of  a  pouch  enclosing  a 
verse  from  the  Koran  or  a  prayer  written  by  a  fakih.  ^ 

Social  Usages. 

Temporary  marriages  are  practised  throughout  Eordofftn;  even  at  El-Obeid 
the  custom  of  the  "  fourth  free,"  which  is  specially  attributed  to  the  Hassanieh,  is 
said  to  exist  amongst  aeveral  families  of  other  tribes.  Polyandry,  regulated  for 
each  of  the  husbands  by  a  partial  purchase  of  the  women,  would  appear  to  be  an 
extremely  common  institution. 

Amongst  the  Qhodiats  of  the  plains  and  the  Joama  Arabs,  no  young  girl  has 
the  right  to  marry  till  she  has  presented  her  brother  or  uncle  with  a  child,  the  son 
of  an  unknown  father,  destined  to  serve  as  a  slave  to  the  head  of  the  family. 
Amongst  other  tribes,  the  women.,  belong  only  to  the  strongest  or  to  the  one  who 
can  endure  the  most.  A  day  is  fixed  for  the  young  men  who  dispute  for  the 
possession  of  the  girl  to  assemble  before  the  old  men  and  the  women  armed  with 
kiirbashes,  and  tliose  who  bear  the  g^atest  number  of  blows  without  flinching  are 
judged  worthy  to  obtain  the  prize.  At  other  times  two  of  the  rivals  lie  prostrate 
on  the  g^und,  one  to  the  right  the  other  to  the  left  of  the  young  girl,  who, 
her  elbows  armed  with  knives,  rests  with  all  the  weight  of  her  body  on  the  naked 
thighs  of  the  young  men.  He  who  submits  the  most  gallantly  to  these  fearful 
wounds  becomes  the  fortunate  husband,  and  the  wife's  first  care  is  to  staunch  the 
fearful  gash  that  she  has  made. 

Several  other  customs  bear  witness  to  the  barbarous  energy  of  these  "  Arabs  " 
of  Eordof&n  and  Dar-F6r.  Often  when  an  old  man  feels  his  end  approaching  he 
quits  the  dwelling-place  without  telling  his  friends,  makes  his  religious  ablutions 
in  the  desert  sand,  excavates  a  pit,  and  wrapping  himself  in  his  shroud,  lies  down 
with  his  feet  turned  towards  Mecca.  He  looks  to  the  sun  and  then,  veiling  his 
face,  waits  till  the  evening  breeze  shall  blow  the  sand  over  his  grave.  Perhaps 
the  hyaenas  commence  to  gnaw  his  limbs  before  he  has  breathed  his  last ;  but  he 
will  die  without  complaining,  for  the  object  of  his  existence  is  accomplished. 


V 


Topography — :EL-OBEiD. 


El-Obeid,  or  Lobeit  as  it  is  called  by  all  the  natives,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Eordof&n,  and  the  first  Mahdi's  residence  till  the  beginning  of  1885,  occupies 
precisely  a  situation  which  presents  all  the  conditions  necessary  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  large  city.  Should  it  be  again  destroyed,  as  it  was  in  1821  at  the 
period  of  the  arrival  of  the  Turks,  it  would  spring  up  on  the  same  site  or  in  the 


mmm 


1 


TOPOGRAPHY— EL-OBEID. 


867 


Islam,  whilst 
from  having 
MB  forbidden 
lal  difference 
the  amulet  is 
L  enclosing  a 


at  El-Obeid 
Hassanieh,  is 
regulated  for 
)pear  to  be  an 

oung  girl  has 
child,  the  son 
if  the  family. 
0  the  one  who 
spute  for  the 
n  armed  with 
b  flinching  are 
8  lie  prostrate 
ng  girl,  who, 
on  the  naked 
these  fearful 
to  staimch  the 

hese  "  Arabs  " 
pproaching  he 
^ious  ablutions 
■oud,  lies  down 
en,  veiling  his 
ave.  Perhaps 
is  last ;  but  he 
iplished. 


imme<liate  vicinity  with  renewed  life.     El-Obeid  is  built  in  one  of  the  purts  of 
Kordof&n  where  the  rainfall  is  most  abundant ;  the  heat  there  is  also  less  over- 


Fig.  87.— El-ObbKo. 

Real*  1  :  30,000. 


Arab  dwelUnfpi. 


Wooden  huti. 


Brick  aud  itooe  honsea. 
i__— .  660  Tarda. 


the  province  of 
1885,  occupies 
the  establish- 
n  1821  at  the 
I  site  or  in  the 


powering  than  elsewhere,  since  the  town  lies  at  a  height  of  2,030  feet,  although 
there  are  no  mountains  to  be  scaled  before  reaching  its  basin. 

In  this  region  the  mountains,  either  isolated  or  disposed  in  parallel  ridges, 
leave  the  way  open  in  eVery  direction,  and  the  caravans  converge  there  without 
meeting  with  any  obstacles.  To  the  west  of  the  Nile  El-Obeid  is  the  first  statio'-. 
where  the  caravans  rest  and  reform  on  the  way  to  Dar -For,  "Wadai,  and  Western 


868 


NOaTU-EAFtT  AFBICA. 


I 


Africa.  Its  principal  relations  aro  not  with  Khartum,  but  with  tho  villages 
situatod  at  the  end  of  tho  great  bend  which  the  river  doacribes  above  Dongola. 
Ah  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile  greatly  increase  the  cost  of  transport,  it  is  in  the 
interest  of  the  caravans  coining  from  Kgypt  to  follow  the  desert  route  south-east 
towards  Khartum  and  south  towards  El-ObcKd.  In  both  of  these  towns,  articles  of 
European  manufacture  commanded  tho  sumo  market  price  before  the  rising  of 
Kordoftkn.  Tho  trade  of  El-OboYd  was  then  very  considerable,  especially  the  sale 
of  slaves  who,  according  to  Munzinger,  form  three-fourths  of  the  population  of 
Kordofiin.  Like  the  European  cottons  consigned  to  the  western  countries,  nearly 
all  tho  ostrich  feathers  imported  from  Fdr  pass  thro'igh  El-ObeKd.  The  exporta- 
tion of  gums  in  1880  was  valued  at  100,000  cwt.,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  sum  of 
£80,000.* 

Should  El-Obeid  lose  this  trade,  wherein  lay  its  importance,  what  would  become 
of  this  capital  of  Kordofftn,  even  were  it  to  be  chosen  as  the  capital  of  a  new 
empire  under  any  of  the  rival  Mahdis  f  However,  ever  since  the  destruction  of 
the  Egyptian  army  the  isolation  of  the  town  has  not  been  so  great  as  might  be 
supposed,  and  relations  with  Tripoli  have  been  actively  carried  on  through  WadaJf 
and  Fezzan;  but  the  Europeans  have  not  played  their  usual  role  as  the  inter- 
mediaries in  this  revived  commerce.  ,• .. 

El-ObeKd  does  not  offer  the  appearance  of  a  compact  city ;  it  is  rather  a  collec- 
tion of  villages  relieved  here  and  there  by  brick  buildings  erected  in  the  "  Christian 
style."  Around  the  southern  quarter,  which  is  the  town  properly  so-called,  nearly 
all  the  dwellings  are  mere  tokuls,  ''ke  those  of  the  country  hamlets — huts  of  earth, 
which  collapse  under  a  heavy  showtr  of  rain,  or  else  cabins  of  mats  or  branches, 
surrounded  by  thorny  hedges  to  prevent  the  camels  from  gpiawing  the  cloths  and 
ropes  which  are  placed  on  the  houses. 

The  populations  of  various  origin  are  distributed  throughout  the  different 
quarters  according  to  their  ethnical  affinities.  Here  are  settled  the  Jalin  or 
Danagla  merchants ;  farther  on  reside  the  Nubas,  the  Takruri,  the  immig^rants  of 
FftT  and  the  Maugrabins,  whilst  before  the  war  four  or  five  himdred  Qreeks  had 
their  shops  in  the  centre  of  the  southern  quarter.  A  few  gardens  skirt  the 
kheran,  or  sandy  river-beds,  which  intersect  the  town,  and  which  are  sometimes 
flooded ;  but  nearly  all  the  cabins  are  surrounded  by  fields  of  dokhn. 

During  the  dry  seasons  nothing  but  dusty  spaces  intervene  between  iiio  huts, 
and  the  town  presents  a  dreary  appearance ;  but  towards  the  end  of  the  kharif, 
when  the  vegetation  is  in  its  beauty,  the  outlying  quarters  of  El-ObeXd  api)ear  like 
vast  prairies,  and  the  conic  roofs  of  the  tokuls  are  hardly  visible  above  the  floating 
sea  of  red-eared  dokhn.  Before  the  war  the  population  of  El-Obeid,  including  the 
suburban  villages,  was  calculated  at  30,000  persons.  An  Italian  traveller  even 
ventures  to  raise  the  number  to  100,000 ;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  capital  of 
Kordof4n  has  become  almost  abandoned  since  the  first  Mahdi  ordered  the  people, 
under  pain  of  death,  to  quit  their  brick  houses  and  dwell  either  in  the  tent  or  in 


*  Trade  of  Kotdof&o,   according  to  Prout,  in    1876 : 
Total,  £182,000. 


Imporls,   £50  000;     Exports,    £132,000. 


-':'!!>:.>^ffrii^^^.-^m3eifl;mf^mmmmg'm, 


AHU-HABAZ-MELllEIft— LABA-KAtMAR— KL-HAFI. 


2(t0 


tho  villn^oa 

vo  Dongulu. 

it  is  ia  the 

t«  Houth-eiut 

18,  articles  of 

tho  rising  of 

ally  the  Hulo 

Mpulution  of 

II tries,  nearly 

'lie  exportu- 

to  a  sum  of 

v^ould  become 
ital  of  a  new 
lostruction  of 
as  might  be 
rough  WadaJ 
as  the  inter- 

tther  a  colleo- 
he  "  Christian 
called,  nearly 
huts  of  earth, 
I  or  branches, 
he  cloths  and 

the  different 
the  Jalin  or 
mmigrants  of 
d  Greeks  had 
ens  skirt  the 
ire  sometimes 

^een  tho  huts, 
)f  the  kharif, 
Id  api)ear  like 
'e  the  floating 
including  the 
Taveller  even 
;he  capital  of 
id  the  people, 
he  tent  or  in 

porta,    £132,000. 


huts  of  branches,  so   that  no  exterior  signs  might  bear  witness  tu  ine<iuality 
unongNt  the  Mussulmans,  all  "  sons  of  the  sumo  father." 

Ih  tho  spring  of  the  year  1885  tho  report  reached  Kuroix*  that  Kl-(-)lH»i«l  had 
boon  burnt  and  plundered,  the  booty  being  carried  away  to  Jobel-Dehr  by  Nowtil, 
an  Arab  sheikh  who  hud  never  submitted  to  the  first  Mahdi.  Then  came  tho  news 
that  a  second  or  rival  Mahdi,  Mulcy  Hassan  Ali,  made  u  triumphant  entry  into  the 
capital  of  Kordof&n  on  March  lS2th,  1885.  He  bore  a  sword  in  his  hand,  rode  on 
a  white  horse,  and  was  followed  by  derwishes,  by  prisoners,  and  by  his  adherents 
with  drawn  swords.  When  he  passed  the  people  kissed  the  ground,  and  during 
his  stay  in  the  mosque  a  large  pilo  was  mado,  upon  which  a  copy  of  the  other 
Mahdi's  Koran  was  burnt.  The  new  Mahdi  told  the  assembled  multitudes  that 
Mahommed  had  given  him  a  sword  wherewith  to  extirpate  the  "  false  "  Mahdi  a  !'« 
all  his  followers.  Since  then  it  appears  that  the  forces  of  the  rival  Mahdis  hitve 
met  on  the  battlefield,  and  that  the  original  Mahdi  waa  defeated  with  great 
•laughter  and  driven  out  of  £ordofftn.  . ' '  <  ' 


'\- 


Abu-Haraz — Melbe'18. 


To  the  south-west  of  El-Obeid  is  Abu-Haras,  a  somewhat  important  group  of 
hamlets,  situated  in  a  large  wooded  valley,  in  the  midst  of  gardens  surrounded  by 
quickset  hedges.  Melbe'w,  another  town,  is  built  in  a  depression  near  a  morass 
occasionally  flooded  by  the  torrents  which  descend  from  Mount  Kordof&n.  In  tho 
vicinity  of  this  town,  on  the  banks  of  the  Khor  Siashgil,  a  tributary  of  the  Ab(l- 
Hableh,  is  the  spot  where  was  fought  in  1883  the  decisive  battle  which  put  an  end 
to  the  Egyptian  rule  by  exterminating  an  army  of  eleven  thousand  men.  At  the 
same  time  the  Europeans  lost  much  of  their  prestige  in  the  eyes  of  the  nativos, 
because  the  commander  of  the  Egyptian  troops  was  General  Hicks,  an  Englishman, 
and  the  bulk  of  his  ofiicers  had  been  selected  from  the  British  army.  Throughout 
the  whole  of  the  Nile  basin  it  was  repeated  from  tribe  to  tribe  that  England  had 
been  conquered  by  the  Mahdi,  and  that  the  cannons  of  the  "  Infidels "  had 
thundered  in  vain  against  the  warriors  sent  by  God. 

Bara — KAiMAR — El-Safi. 

The  main  caravan  routes  in  Kordof&n  were  till  recently  skirted  by  the  tele- 
gfraph,  which  was  much  dreaded  by  the  natives ;  many  of  them  hardly  dared  to 
speak  when  near  the  wires,  lest  their  voices  might  be  heard  at  Khartum  or  in 
Egypt. 

To  the  north  of  El-Obe'id,  the  principal  town,  situated  on  the  caravan  route 
between  Kordof&n  and  the  bend  described  by  the  Nile  at  Dabbeh,  is  Bara,  founded 
by  the  Donagla  merchants.  Under  the  rule  of  the  Dar-F6r  people  before  the 
invasion  of  the  Egyptians,  this  market-town  was  very  prosperous ;  at  that  time, 
xjcording  to  tradition,  "  all  the  Bara  women  wore  earrings  of  gold  and  bracelets 
and  hair-pins  of  gold  and  silver."     Near  Bara  was  fought  in  1821  the  battle 


CfJSKT- 


270 


NOUTH-EABT  AFRICA. 


which  pr(K!uml  Kordof&n  for  tho  Kgyptiann,  and  which  rovcnpfed,  after  a  courws  of 
two  f^onorutiouH,  tho  still  more  terrible  buttle  of  Kaah|^il. 

One  of  the  Htations  on  the  route  liotwoen  liaru  und  DabU^h  is  the  oasis  f)f 
Kntmar,  or  Kujmur,  whore  there  in  a  sinuU  intermittent  lake  full  of  salt  water ; 
but  the  wells  in  tho  vicinity  furniMh  frcHh  water  nearly  as  good  as  that  of  tho 
Nile.  In  tho  vicinity,  on  tho  JelHil-IIaraza,  Lejean  has  soon  a  rock  covered  with 
curious  paintings,  which  probably  represent  a  razaia.  One  of  the  figures  ii 
repreHontod  of  a  gigantic  stature,  the  beard  cut  to  a  point,  and  wearing  a  costume 
similar  to  that  used  by  the  Franks  during  the  First  Crusade. 

Beyond  this  point,  on  the  route  to  Dabboh,  lies  the  oasis  of  Et-Safi,  which, 
thanks  to  its  magnificent  vegetation,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  all  Africa. 
Although  not  permanently  inhabited  it  may  be  considered  as  the  centre  of  the 
Kubabish  nation,  who  cultivate  the  soil  and  water  their  cattle  at  its  streams.  At 
the  period  of  Cuny's  visit,  at  least  fifteen  thousand  camels  were  grazed  in  the 
district  surrounding  Lake  Es-Sofi.  The  water,  which  probably  filters  from  the 
Nile  through  the  sand  or  subterranean  rocks,  covers  a  vast  space,  and  is  dotted 
with  islands.  During  tho  rainy  season  the  trees  on  the  banks  are  partly  submerged 
by  the  rising  waters.  Flocks  of  ducks  and  geese  swim  on  the  surface  of  the  lake, 
whilst  its  banks  are  lined  with  waterfowl  —storks,  hei-ons,  ibis,  secretaries,  and 
pelicans.  ' 


■N 


J"3? 


t    *ft  I  ■  I  ■ 


Jfl'l" 


>r  a  courM)  of 

the  oasia  of 

Halt  water ; 

that  of  the 

covorod  with 

figures   in 

ng  a  oostutno 


10 


Safi,  which, 
n  all  Africa, 
ientre  of  the 
itreanis.  At 
razed  in  the 
era  from  the 
ind  is  dotted 
;ly  submerged 
)e  of  the  lake, 
sretaries,  and 


''I.""   "v. 


CHAPTER  X. 

DAE-F(^R. 

|AR-POR,  or  the  "  Country  of  FAr,"  more  commonly  called  Dnrf'ur, 
by  fuHing  the  two  words  in  a  similar  fashion  to  that  in  which  tho 
French  say  "  Angletorre,"  instead  of  "  Pays  dos  Anglais,"  is  tho 
region  which  stretches  west  of  Eordof&n  on  tho  route  to  tho 
river  Niger.  Dar-FAr  does  not  entirely  belong  to  the  Nile  basin. 
Its  western  slope,  which  has  as  yet  been  explored  but  by  few  travellers,  appears  to 
lose  its  waters  in  depressions  with  no  outlet ;  but  if  the  rainfall  were  sufficiently 
abundant  the  wadios  of  this  region,  changed  into  permanent  watercourses,  would 
ultimately  reach  Lake  Tsad. 

Tho  streams  draining  in  the  direction  of  the  Nile  also  run  dry  in  tho  plains, 
except  in  the  season  of  the  kharif,  when  the  streamlets  rising  in  the  southern 
part  of  Mount  Marrah  fall  into  the  Bahr-el-Arab.  Wady-Melek,  or  Wed-el-Mek, 
that  is  to  say  the  "  Royal  Valley,"  also  called  Wady-Mas-SAl,  which  runs  to  the 
north-east  of  Dar-F6r  towards  the  great  bend  of  the  Nile,  is  also  flooded  with 
water  during  rainy  years,  possibly  for  ten  or  fifteen  days  together ;  but  it  never 
reaches  the  Nile,  its  mouth  being  blocked  by  shifting  sands.  The  enormous 
fluvial  bed,  nearly  always  dry,  might  roll  down  a  volume  equal  to  that  of  the 
Rhdne  or  the  Rhine.  Its  sandstone  or  limestone  cliffs,  here  and  there  interrupted 
by  lava  streams,  are  from  3  to  30  miles  apart,  whilst  the  hollows  are  filled  with 
trees,  which  form  a  continuous  line  like  a  band  of  verdure  in  the  midst  of  the 
desert. 

The  eastern  half  of  Dar-Fdr,  belonging  to  the  Nile  basin,  is  tho  most  important 
part  from  a  political  point  of  view,  probably  on  account  of  the  commercial 
attraction  exercised  by  the  Nilotic  towns,  and  because,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  mountains,  where  water  is  more  plentiful,  the  people  naturally  settle  down  in 
larger  numbers.  In  this  respect  Bar-F6r  is  a  second  Eordof&n,  but  on  a  much 
larger  scale.  Around  a  central  district  dotted  with  settled  villages  stretches  the 
zone  of  the  wilderness  and  g^rassy  savannahs. 

A  country  of  this  description  can  scarcely  have  any  fixed  boundaries ;  here 
camps,  wells,  clumps  of  acacias  or  brushwood,  and  bleached  bones  are  the  signs  by 
which  the  traveller  knows  he  is  crossing  from  one  district  into  another.    As  f ar  ae 


I 


i 


272 


NORTH-EAST  AFEIOA. 


can  be  judged,  without  attempting  an  at  present  impossible  approximation,  tlie 
area  of  Dar-For  and  its  dependencies  may  be  estimated  at  200,000  square  miles. 
This  extent  of  country  is  bounded  to  the  north  by  the  desert,  east  by  Eordof&n, 
south  by  the  Bahr-el-Arab,  and  west  by  "Wadai,  whilst  its  total  populations, 
according  to  Nachtigal,  amounts  to  at  least  4,000,000.  Mason,  however,  who  has 
also  visited  this  country,  thinks  that  the  population  does  not  exceed  one  million 
and  a  half.  ''         '     .   '    '  v  ^ ' 

Progress  op  Discxjvery. 

Dar-F6r,  whose  capital  is  more  than  360  miles  from  the  Nile  in  a  straight 
line,  is  too  far  removed  from  this  great  commercial  route  to  have  been  frequently 
visited.  It  was  not  known  even  at  the  end  of  the  last  century  except  by  name, 
and  it  was  then  that  it  entered  for  the  first  time  into  the  history  of  geography, 
thanks  to  the  voyage  of  the  Englishman,  Brown,  who  remained  in  the  country 
three  years,  although  rather  as  a  captive  than  a  free  man.*  An  Arab,  Mohammed 
el  Tunsy,  or  the  "  Tunisian,"  dwelt  still  longer  in  Dar-F6r,  and  wrote  a  very 
interesting  work  upon  it,  which  has  since  been  translated  into  French.  It  is  still 
the  only  book  which  contains  the  fullest  and  most  valuable  account  of  the  history, 
manners,  and  customs  of  the  Dar-Forians. 

The  Frenchman  Cuny  in  1858  presented  himself  at  the  court  of  El-Fasher, 
but  he  mysteriously  died  there  a  few  days  after  his  arrival,  and  not  even  his  diary 
from  El-Obeid  to  El-Fasher  has  been  preserved.  The  sovereign  of  Dar-For  had 
doubtless  wished  to  act  up  to  the  name  bestowed  on  his  country,  "  the  mouse- 
trap of  Infidels,"  who,  it  is  said,  "  can  easily  cx>me  in,  but  never  get  out  again." 

It  was  to  Nachtigal,  the  third  European  visitor,  that  fell  the  honour  of 
describing,  for  the  first  time  during  this  century,  the  interior  of  a  country  hitherto 
so  little  known.  This  explorer  was  still  in  Dar-F6r  when  the  slave-dealer  Zibehr 
commenced  its  conquest,  which  was  soon  afterwards  achieved  in  the  name  of  the 
Egyptian  Government.  The  country  was  opened  to  travellers,  and  the  European 
staff  officers  were  able  to  draw  up  a  map  of  it ;  but  the  Egyptian  occupation  has 
not  even  lasted  ten  years.  The  governor  nominated  by  the  Khedive  is  a  prisoner 
of  the  insurgent  Mussulmans,  and  the  frontier  of  Dar-F6r  is  again  forbidden  to 
explorers  for  a  time. 

Physical  Features. 

More  truthfully  than  to  most  other  countries  the  expression  "  backbone  "  may 
be  applied  to  the  mountain  system  of  Dar-Fdr.  Here  almost  more  than  elsewhere 
the  whole  Hving  organism — streams,  plants^  animals,  man  himseU  and  his  history 
— are  attached  to  the  main  ranges  as  to  the  bones  of  a  skeleton.  Without  the 
mountains  of  Marrah  there  would  be  no  Dar-F6r.  This  chain  of  lavas  and  granites,  - 
whose  general  shape  is  that  of  a  crescent,  commences  north  of  the  fourteenth  degree 
of  latitude,  and  after  rimning  southwards  for  a  distance  of  about  120  miles,  sweeps 
round  to  the  west.     At  the  point  where  Nachtigal  crossed  it,  towards  its  northern 

«  W.  G.  Blown,  "  Travels  in  Afiica,"  1799. 


„«  »-«-zjiJUli  'iM-:! 


PHYSICAL  PEATUEES. 


m 


ximation,  tlie 
square  miles, 
by  Kordof&n, 
I  populations, 
ever,  who  has 
d  one  nullion 


in  a  straight 
sen  frequently 
3ept  by  name, 
of  geography, 
a  the  country 
lb,  Mohanomed 
wrote  a  very 
ich.  It  is  still 
of  the  history, 

of  El-Fasher, 
even  his  diary 
f  Dar-F6r  had 
,  "  the  mouse- 
out  again." 
the  honour  of 
)untry  hitherto 
e-dealer  Zibehr 
e  name  of  the 
i  the  European 
occupation  has 
ve  is  a  prisoner 
in  forbidden  to 


extremity,  it  bears  the  name  of  Kerakeri,  which  signifies  "  rubbish,"  or  "  rabbit- 
burrow,"  which  term  has  been  procured  for  it  by  the  thousands  of  crumbling  blocks 
covering  its  slopes. 

At  the  highest  point,  which  is  crossed  by  the  route  from  Wadai  to  El-Fasher, 
Nachtigal  determined  an  approximate  height  of  3,553  feet,  which  the  neighbour- 
ing summits  exceed  by  from  600  to  1,000  feet.  During  their  short  occupation  of 
the  country  the  oflScers  of  the  Egyptian  army,  notably  Mason,  Purdy,  and  Messe- 
daglia,  partially  explored  the  interior  of  the  uplands,  measuring  some  of  the  crests 
which  overlook  the  rest  of  the  lofty  granite  masses.     One  of  them,  that  of  Tura, 

'"   '  Fig.  88.— Central  Rboion  OF  Dab-FAk. 

S«Ue  1 : 4,40(l;<)00. 


.00 


backbone  "  may 
than  elsewhere 
and  his  history 
.  Without  the 
as  and  granites,  ■ 
(urteenth  degree 
10  miles,  sweeps 
rds  its  northern 


in  the  northern  part  of  the  chain,  rises  to  a  height  of  4,800  feet.  According  to 
Mason,  the  culminating  point  of  the  Marrah  range  attains  an  altitude  of  6,100 
feet,  or  about  2,660  feet  above  the  low-lying  plains  of  Dar-F6r.  The  rocks  of 
Marrah  contain  nimierous  caverns,  several  of  which  formerly  served  as  prisons, 
some  for  the  sons  of  princes,  others  for  the  viziers. 

To  the  north  and  south  are  secondary  chains  and  isolated  masses  like  those  of 
Eordof&n.  Such  are  the  superb  Gu'-ger  Mountains  to  the  north-west,  and  the 
Jebel-Si,  standing  quite  alone  in  the  plain  and  terminated  by  an  enormous  crag  in 
the  shape  of  a  throne.    A  village  is  perched  round  these  escarpments,  protected  by 

18— AF. 


I 


274 


NOETH-EAST  AFEIOA. 


a  circular  enclosure.  In  the  more  remote  regions  of  central  Dar-F6r  are  also  a 
few  isolated  uplands.  The  confines  of  Wadai,  towards  the  north-west  angle  of 
Dar-F6r,,are  indicated  from  afar  by  the  Jebel-Abft-Ahraz,  or  the  "  Mountain  of 
the  Father  of  the  Acacias."  A  second  height,  better  known,  as  it  commands  the 
caravan  route  from  Kobeh  to  Siut  to  the  west,  develops  its  peaks,  such  as  the 
Jebel-Dor  and  the  Jebel-Anka,  in  a  line  with  the  northern  continuation  of  the 
main  axis  of  the  Marrah  range. 

To  the  north-east  of  Dar-F6r,  the  Jebel-Medob  lifts  -its  sandstone  walls  and 
granite  cupolas,  here  and  there  broken  by  lava  streams,  to  a  height  of  nearly  4,000 
feet.  Beyond  this  point  extends  the  plateau  of  the  Jebel-Ain,  skirted  by  the 
Wady-Melek.  To  the  east  the  Jebel-el-Hillet,  which  is  skirted  by  the  route  from 
£1-Fasher  to  £l-Obeid,  and  to  the  south,  in.  the  hydrographic  basin  of  the  Bahr-el- 
Arab,  are  still  several  other  isolated  uplands,  connected  by  no  intermediate  ridges 
with  the  Marrah  highlands.  The  Jebel-Hadid,  one  of  these  g^ups  of  hills,  is 
very  rich  in  iron  ores.  Some  30  miles  to  the  south-west  of  the  Jebel-Dango, 
another  mountain  mass  rising  above  a  plain,  are  the  copper-mines  of  Hofrah, 
celebrated  throughout  the  whole  of  central  Africa.  The  mineral  vein  which  is 
now  being  worked  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Bahr-el-Fertit,  an  affluent  of  the 
Bahr-el-Arab.  An  excavation,  500  feet  long  by  50  feet  broad,  with  a  mean  depth 
of  10  feet,  has  been  dug  nv*.  by  the  miners,  and  shafts,  now  abandoned,  have  been 
sunk  in  all  directions  wifb>:'  -.--^iusof  1,660  feet  frOm  the  pit.  It  was  mainly 
with  a  view  to  obtain  these  >[  ■  mines  that  the  Khedive  caused  Dar-F6r  to  be 
occupied.  Few  other  regioaH  nave  been  the  cause  of  more  wars  between  the 
African  populations  than  these  now  valueless  mineral  beds. 

Hydrographic  System. 

The  rainfall  and  the  waters  of  the  wadies  are  regulated  by  the  atmospheric 
currents,  as  in  Kordof&n ;  however,  it  would  appear  that  the  higher  mean  elevation 
and  the  greater  extent  of  the  Dar-F6r  highlands  cause  more  of  the  rain-bearing 
winds  to  be  arrested,  thus  securing  a  more  copious  rainfall  for  this  region. 

Near  the  centre  of  this  mountainous  district,  in  a  closed  amphitheatre,  lies  a 
lake  which  has  never  yet  been  visited  by  European  travellers. 

The  rains  are  more  abundant  in  the  western  region  of  Dar-Fdr ;  and  as  the 
concave  side  of  the  crescent-shaped  Marrah  range  faces  westwards,  the  water- 
courses of  this  watershed  all  converge  on  the  main  branch,  the  Wady-Azum,  a 
relatively  copious  stream,  although  its  bed  is  dry  for  a  portion  of  the  year.  On 
the  convex  slope  of  the  Marrah  Mountains  the  running  waters,  diverging  east  and 
southwards,  become  lost  in  the  desert,  and  hence  are  unable  to  unite  their  sandy 
beds  in  one  common  hydrographic  system.  On  the  southern  slope  alone,  where 
the  rains  fall  more  frequently,  the  rivers  have  a  longer  course  and  constitute 
veritable  fluvial  basins.  Thus,  during  the  rainy  season,  the  Wady-Amor  and  the 
Wady-el-K6  combine  to  fill  a  rahad  or  lake  of  some  considerable  size,  at  which  the 
Eizegat  Bagg&ras  water  their  cattle. 


L. 


?6t  are  also  a 
-west  angle  of 
"  Mountain  of 
commands  the 
cs,  such  as  the 
inuation  of  the 

itone  walls  and 

af  nearly  4,000 

skirted  hy  the 

the  route  from 

of  the  Bahr-el-  ' 

rmediate  ridges 

lups  of  hills,  is  ' 

e  Jebel'Dango, 

les  of  Hofrah, 

1  vein  which  is 

I  affluent  of  the 

1  a  mean  depth 

sned,  have  been 

It  was  mainly 

Dar-F6r  to  be 

irs  between  the 


bhe  atmospheric 
•  mean  elevation 
;he  rain-bearing 
region. 
}hitheatre,  lies  a 

i'dr;  and  as  the 
irds,  the  water- 
Wady-Azum,  a 
'  the  year.  On 
merging  east  and 
nite  their  sandy 
>pe  alone,  where 
i  and  constitute 
^-Amor  and  the 
Lze,  at  which  the 


'f^K'WWW 


I  \wmi9ff^\,i  \yf»'* ^1 


'■ii 


K 


lilt 


II  Mi 


I 

!i! 

1 


FliOBA. 


276 


Farther  westwards,  other  wadies  send  down  during  the  kharif  a  sufficient 
volume  to  cause  the  floods  to  spread  out  into  vast  temporary  lakes,  in  which  the 
dunes  and  argilaceous  hills  appear  like  islands.  Here  and  there  are  even  some 
lakes  in  the  steppe,  such  as  Lake  Taimo,  in  which  water  is  found  at  the  height  of 
the  dry  season.  Nevertheless  Wilson  and  Felkin  state  that  at  Shekka,  during  the 
dry  months,  the  people  use  the  juice  of  the  water-melon  instead  of  water  for 
household  purposes,  and  that  the  cattle  have  scarcely  any  other  liquid  to  drink. 
The  upper  Bahr-ol-Arab,  which  receives  the  surplus  of  all  the  wadies  of  southern 
Dar-F6r,  is  flooded  throughout  the  year,  and  in  the  Bahr-el-Fertit,  a  noibLern 
affluent  of  the  Bahr-el-Arab,  water  is  always  to  be  obtained  at  a  depth  of  a  few 
inches  below  the  surface.  The  fish  take  refuge  in  the  deep  pools  excavated  by 
the  current  at  the  base  of  the  rocks,  and  the  river  is  said  to  be  navigable  during 
the  kharif.  The  southern  region,  which  is  often  flooded,  is  the  least  healthy, 
whilst  that  of  the  north,  being  drier,  aud  at  the  same  time  lying  at  a  higher  elevation, 
is  generally  salubrious.  ''"■"  >'  '    , 


■A.. 


':::  ^.^.■;;;,  V-' -  ■•>:;-■';     Flora.,;  '"^i  :..;. 

The  flora  of  Dar-Fdr  is  identical  with  that  of  Eordoflln,  at  least  in  the  region 
which  is  not  watered  by  the  affluents  of  the  Bahr-el-Arab.  The  plants  and  wild 
beasts,  as  well  as  the  cultivated  species  of  the  domestic  animals,  differ  in  no 
respect  in  the  two  regions.  The  same  living  forms  and  products  are  to  be  foimd 
in  the  corresponding  climatic  zones ;  however,  the  western  region  of  Dar-F6r, 
where  water  is  more  abundant,  and  the  layer  of  vegetable  humus  thicker,  is  by  far 
the  richest  in  variety  of  species. 

In  both  countries,  woods  and  groves  are  found  only  on  the  banks  of  the  wadies, 
the  intermediary  tracts  presenting  the  appearance  of  a  steppe  or  even  a  desert. 
Acacias,  tamarisks  and  sycamores  are  the  commonest  varieties  of  trees.  The 
baobab,  which  in  Dar-F6r  is  also  used  as  a  reservoir  during  the  dry  season,  finds 
its  northern  limit  towards  the  middle  of  the  country.  In  t1  e  moimtains  the 
branching  euphorbias  recall  the  flora  of  the  Abyssinian  plater  u ;  here  are  also 
found  cedars,  orange-trees,  citrons  and  pomegranates,  which  reminded  the  Italian 
Messedaglia  of  his  coimtry.  Before  the  war,  the  fruit  of  the  tamarisk,  kneaded 
into  small  cakes,  was  exported  to  Nubia  and  Egypt.  One  of  the  most  valuable 
trees  is  the  higlik  {balanites  ^gyptlaca),  whoee  fruit,  neglected  in  the  zeriba 
region,  is  used  as  an  aliment  by  the  Forians.  The  fruit,  made  into  a  paste  with 
pounded  roots,  is  also  used  as  soap,  whilst  the  young  leaves  and  shoots  make  an 
excellent  seasoning.  The  ashes  yield  a  kind  of  pickle,  also  employed  in  their 
diet,  and  its  wood  bums  without  giving  out  smoke.  Thus  the  higlik  is  to  the 
Forians  what  the  date  is  to  the  Egyptians.  The  palm  is  rarely  seen,  although  the 
western  districts  possess  the  wine  palm  {raphia  vintfera).  Dar-For  and  Kordof&n 
are  comprised  between  two  zones  of  vegetation,  to  the  north  that  of  the  date,  and 
to  the  south  that  of  the  deleb  palm. 


m 


m 


m 


N0BTHEA8T  AFBIGA. 


Fauna. 


The  southern  part  of  Dar-Fdr  also  forms  the  northern  boundary  of  the  forest 
zone,  which,  however,  thanks  to  the  rains,  encroaches  towards  the  north  on  the 
basin  of  the  Bahr-el- Arab.  Here  stretch  the  dense  forests  of  El-Hallah,  frequented 
by  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  giraffe,  and  buffalo,  which  are  chased  by  the  Baggftra 
hunters  of  the  Eambanieh  or  Habanieh  tribe.  The  ostrich,  and  various  species  of 
antelope,  are  also  found  in  large  numbers  in  the  surroimding  steppes ;  but  the 
plains  of  the  northern  provinces  are  the  favoxirite  resort  of  the  ostrich  hunters,  and 
the  finest  feathers  are  procured  from  this  region. 

In  the  vast  steppes  which  intervene  between  Kordof&n  and  Dar-F6r,  the  nomad 
pastors  engage  twice  yearly,  before  and  after  the  rainy  season,  in  a  general  battue. 
All  the  domestic  animals  of  the  tribe,  such  as  the  camels,  horses  and  oxen,  used  as 
mounts  or  beasts  of  burden,  are  brought  into  requisition  and  driven  to  the  himting- 
ground,  where  the  beaters  spread  out  into  a  circle  so  as  to  drive  the  game  towards 
the  entrance  of  a  narrow  passage  strewn  with  traps  and  well  guarded  at  the 
outlet.  Horsemen  then  fall  upon  the  captive  animals  and  massacre  them  before 
they  have  time  to  destroy  or  free  themselves  from  the  traps.  Occasionally  as 
many  as  three  hundred  large  animals — antelopes,  gnus,  and  buffaloes — are  thus 
obtained  in  one  day,  and  the  tribe  are  in  this  way  enabled  to  pay  the  arrears  of 
their  taxes.  In  the  southern  region  of  Dar-Fdr,  the  ardha,  or  white  ants,  exist  in 
such  numerous  colonies  that  whole  forests  are  destroyed  by  them.  In  times  of 
want  the  natives  eat  these  termites,  mixed  with  the  fruit  of  the  tamarind.  After 
sunset  they  light  fires  before  the  pyramidal  hills  of  the  "  white  ants,"  who  rush 
out  in  thousands,  and  thus  whole  boxes  are  packed  with  them  "  like  the  boxes  of 
currants  in  Greece."  .    ,  ,    , 

Inhabitants  of  DAR-FdR. 

The  race  of  "  pure  Forians,"  as  Mohammed  the  Tunisian  called  them,  occupy 
the  mountainous  region  in  the  centre  of  the  country.  As  far  as  can  be  judged 
by  the  meagre  reports  on  the  tribes  that  have  been  studied  by  travellers,  they  are 
Nigritians  of  a  dark  brown  complexion,  the  nose  flat  and  the  forehead  low  and 
receding.  They  are  divided  into  several  groups,  of  which  the  most  important  are 
the  Eunjara,  who  till  recently  ruled  over  the  coimtry,  and  governed  Eordof&n 
before  the  arrival  of  the  Egyptians.  Although  considered  as  Nas-el-Belid,  or  a 
"  stupid  people,"  the  Forians  have  at  least  this  advantage,  that  they  lack  the 
cruelty  and  avarice  of  their  neighbours.  Under  their  rule  the  people  of  Eordof&n 
increased  and  prospered,  whereas  they  have  become  impoverished  and  have 
decreased  since  the  departure  of  the  Eunjaras.  The  Eunjara  language,  which 
after  Arabic  is  that  most  generally  spoken  in  Dar-Fdr,  is  said  probably  to  belong 
to  the  Nubian  group.  But  Lepsius  has  discovered  that  there  are  essential 
differences  between  the  speech  of  the  Nubas  and  that  of  the  Eunjaras. 

The  Massabat  nomads,  who  are  found  in  the  plains  between  Dar-Fdr  and 
Eordof&n,  are  also  said  to  be  of  Forian  race,  although  they  are  now  assimilated  to 


THE  ARABS  OP  DAR-FOR— SOCIAL  USAGES. 


277 


of  the  forest 
jorth  on  the 
b,  frequented 
the  Bagg&ra 
)U8  species  of 
yea;  but  the 
hunters,  and 


Ir,  the  nomad 
moral  battue, 
oxen,  used  as 

the  hunting- 
i^me  towards 
arded  at  the 

them  before 
icasionally  as 
tea — are  thus 
he  arrears  of 
ants,  exist  in 

In  times  of 
irind.  After 
»,"  who  rush 

the  boxes  of 


them,  occupy 
in  be  judged 
Hers,  they  are 
lead  low  and 
important  are 
ned  Eordof&n 
el-Belid,  or  a 
they  lack  the 
ieof  Eordofftn 
ed  and  have 
ig^age,  which 
Eibly  to  belong 
are  essential 
s. 

Dar-F6r  and 
assimilated  to 


the  Arabs  in  speech.  There  are  moreover  numerous  other  communities,  whose 
classification  is  a  matter  of  great  difficulty.  All  call  themselves  Arabs,  so  as  to 
appear  of  more  noble  extraction  ;  but  the  bulk  of  them  are  probably  allied  to  the 
Forians.  The  powerful  Massalit  tribes,  several  of  which  live  in  complete  inde- 
pendence on  the  western  frontiers  of  Dar-F6r  and  in  "Wadai,  are  amongst  those 
tribes  believed  to  be  of  aboriginal  descent.  TiU  recently  they  were  in  constant 
feud  with  the  Habanieh  tribe,  who  occupy  more  especially  the  southern  region  of 
Dar-Fdr ;  but  peace  has  now  been  restored.  According  to  Nachtigal,  some  of 
these  people  are  still  addicted  to  anthropophagy. 

The  Arabs  of  DxR-FdR. 

The  northern  part  of  the  country,  on  the  verge  of  the  desert  between  Kordof&n 
and  Wadai,  is  peopled  by  Barftbra  immigrants,  Zogawahs,  Bideyata,  and  many 
others,  and  even  by  Bisharins  from  Eastern  Nubia.  There  are  numerous  Wada'i 
colonies  in  Dar-Fdr  which,  like  the  other  natives  of  the  western  countries,  are 
generally  known  by  the  name  of  Takrur  or  Takarir.  Dar-F6r  has  also  been 
colonised  by  Fulas,  belonging  to  the  same  race  as  those  of  Western  Africa,  and  by 
Homrs,  Hamrs,  or  Beni-Hamrans,  who  possess  many  camels,  and  who  claim  to  have 
oome  from  Marocco.  They  live  principally  to  the  north-east  of  the  Marrah  Moun- 
tains, in  the  Om-Bedr  oasis,  and  to  the  west  in  the  Wady-Bareh,  where  they 
practice  sorcery ;  some  of  their  families  have  even  penetrated  as  far  as  Eordof&n. 
According  to  Ensor,  the  Homrs  are  distinguished  from  the  other  inhabitants  of 
Dar-F6r  by  the  respect  which  they  show  to  their  wives.  The  majority  of  the 
strangers  consist  of  Arabs,  or  of  "  peoples  assimilated  to  the  Arabs,"  who  have 
come  from  the  north  and  east.  Already  some  centuries  ago,  and  pfobably  even  at 
a  period  anterior  to  the  Hegira,  nomads  from  the  Arabian  peninsula  had  penetrated 
into  Dar-F6r.  The  Tunjur  or  Tunzer,  who  governed  the  coimtry  and  whose 
descendants  still  live  in  the  mountains  und  plains  situated  south  of  El-Fasher, 
claim  to  be  Arabs  and  are  considered  as  such,  although  they  are  not  Mohammedans, 
and  although  the  peoples  in  these  countries  are  usually  classed  according  to  their 
religion.  In  the  opinion  of  Lejean  they  are  not  Arabs,  but  Tubbu  tribes  who 
have  migrated  from  the  north-west.  The  Mussulman  "  Arabs"  also,  who  xuam  in 
the  plains,  divided  into  numerous  groups,  are  evidently  of  mixed  origin,  like  those 
of  Eordof&n,  whom  they  resemble  in  customs  and  speech.  In  southern  Dar-Fdr 
all  the  tribes  belong  to  the  great  Bagg&ra  family.  According  to  Mohammed  the 
Tunisian,  children  bom  of  mixed  Arab  and  For  parents  die  at  an  early  age,  whilst 
those  bom  of  parents  of  the  same  race  are  usually  of  sound  and  vigorous  constitu- 
tion. Consumption  is  extremely  rare  amongst  them,  and  this  malady  is  almost 
unknown  elsewhere  in  Dar-F6r. 

Social  Usages. 

The  civilisation  of  the  Forians  is  of  Mussulman  origin,  and  the  Arabs  have 
evidently  been  the  instructors  of  the  nation.     Literature  and  science,  if  these  two 


'278 


NORTU-EAST  AFRICA. 


terms  can  bo  used  in  connection  with  a  people  who  have  scarcely  enierpfcd  from 
burburisin,  are  reduced  to  a  study  of  the  Koran.  A  few  magical  practices,  probably 
of  African  origin,  are  mingled  with  the  Arab  traditions;  >iid  even  during  this 
century  human  sacrifices  were  made  at  the  chief  royal  ceremonies.  On  the 
accession  of  every  sovereign,  and  on  other  occasions,  two  young  brother,  were 
sacrificed  with  great  pomp,  and  the  king  with  his  high  functionaries  feasted  on 
their  flcah. 

Agriculture  is  still  in  a  very  rudimentary  state,  their  plough  consisting  of  a 
kind  of  hoe  which  a  man  drags  after  him.  But  this  occupation  is,  nevertheless, 
highly  honoured.  Formerly  the  sultan  of  Dar-F6r,  like  the  king  of  the  Funj  in 
Sen&r,  the  emperor  of  China,  and  other  sovereigns,  was  extremely  proud  of  being 
the  first  sower  in  his  kingdom.  After  the  rains  he  went  forth  in  great  pomp, 
accompanied  by  the  State  dignitaries  and  a  hundred  young  and  handsome  women, 
and  cast  the  seed  into  a  prepared  field,  all  the  courtiers  imitating  him.  Then  the 
people  sowed  in  their  turn  each  in  his  own  field,  and  when  the  harvest  recom- 
pensed his  toil,  the  faithful  subject  offered  up  his  homage  to  the  "  royal  farmer." 

Nearly  all  the  mountain  region  is  perfectly  cultivated  in  terraces,  and  produces 
cereals  and  cotton.  But  according  to  Ensor,  at  most  a  himdredth  part  of  the 
arable  lands  on  the  plains  has  been  reclaimed.  Industries  in  Dar-F6r  are  still  in 
a  very  undeveloped  state,  except  those  of  brickwork  and  pottery.  But  the  cotton 
stufPs  that  are  woven  in  the  tents  are  very  durable  and  much  sought  after.  By 
the  natives  they  are  even  preferred  to  those  sold  by  the  Dongola  merchants,  which 
are  of  European  or  American  manufacture.  These  latter  are  generally  used  as 
money,  but  salt  bricks  are  also  employed  as  a  means  of  exchange.    >  ;    ,; 


Commercial  Relations. 

Since  the  annexation  of  Dar-F6r  to  the  vast  Egyptian  poosessions,  commercial 
relations  had  become  frequent  with  the  Nile.  The  caravans  frequently  journeyed 
between  the  river  and  El-Fasher  by  the  market-towns  of  Eordof&n,  or  else  directly 
towards  Dabbeh,  on  the  g^reat  Itend  of  the  river.  Since  1875  the  Egyptian 
Government  has  even  projected  a  future  line  of  railway  following  the  natural 
route  offered  by  the  bed  of  the  Wady-Melek,  which  is  generally  shimned  by  the 
caravans  on  account  of  the  danger  of  attack  from  marauders.  Before  the 
Egyptian  conquest,  nearly  all  the  traffic  of  Dar-Fdr  with  the  rest  of  the  world 
was  conducted  by  the  medium  of  the  "  great  caravan,"  which  was  increased  by 
numerous  smaller  "  kafilahs,"  setting  out  from  the  banks  of  the  Tsad  and  Niger. 

Every  year,  or  else  every  two  or  three  years,  according  to  the  political  situation 
and  the  state  of  the  markets,  the  Takrur  pilgrims  banded  themselves  together  into 
a  karilah  in  northern  Dar-F6r,  and  the  merchants  combined  with  them  in  order  to 
take  part  at  once  in  this  pious  duty  and  in  a  profitable  work.  The  great  caravan 
consisted  occasionally  of  some  thousands  of  persons  and  fifteen  thousand  camels. 
This  moving  army,  which  none  of  the  pillagir ,  steppe  tribes  dared  to  attack,  did 


TOPOOBAl'lIY— EL-FASHER— KOnEH-TORA. 


279 


nierp^Kl  froit 
ices,  probably 
n  during  this 
ies.  On  the 
brother,  were 
ies  feasted  on 

snsisting  of  a 
nevertheless, 

f  the  Funj  in 

roud  of  being 
g^eat  pomp, 

dsome  women, 
im.  Then  the 
larvest  recom- 
yal  farmer." 

and  produces 
h  part  of  the 
<'6r  are  still  in 
But  the  cotton 
ght  after.  By 
irchants,  which 
lerally  used  as 


tns,  commercial 
ntly  jouraeyed 
or  else  directly 

the  Egyptian 
ig  the  natural 
hunned  by  the 
Before  the 
it  of  the  world 
s  increased  by 
I  and  Niger, 
litical  situation 
!8  together  into 
lem  in  order  to 

great  caravan 
ousand  camels. 
1  to  attack,  did 


not  take  the  direction  of  Khartum,  or  even  that  of  the  Nubian  Nile.  Guided  by 
the  stars,  the  sun,  and  old  beaten  paths,  it  marched  from  station  to  Htution  in  a 
northerly  direction,  attaining  the  Nile  at  Siut.  Like  the  caravan  of  Kordof&n,  it 
had  its  particular  route,  wells,  and  oases,  and  hence  did  not  run  the  risk  of  having 
to  fight  for  the  possesnion  of  the  water  gushing  fovth  here  and  there  in  the  desert. 
MoreoTer  it  was  split  up  ir.to  several  sections,  which  followed  each  other  at  a  few 
days'  interval,  so  as  to  give  t)  e  water  time  to  collect  again  at  the  bottom  of  the 
wells. 

Some  caravans,  compelled  to  move  rapidly,  completed  the  journey  in  forty- 
five  days ;  but  they  usually  rested  at  the  stations  and  in  the  oases,  and  did  not 
arrive  in  the  valley  of  the  J'^ile  till  after  a  journey  of  two  or  three  months. 
Bearing  the  valuable  products  of  central  Africa — ivory,  ost.lch  feathers,  gum, 
tamarinds,  skins  of  wild  beasts,  and  rhinoceros  horns,  to  which  were  added  slaves, 
eunuchs  and  the  bulk  of  thecamelb  of  the  caravan — the  merchants  usually  remained 
about  six  months  in  Eg^pt,  awaiting  the  return  of  the  pilgrims  from  Mecca. 
They  then  set  out  on  their  return  journey  to  Dar-F6r  laden  with  woollen  goods, 
pearls,  glass  trinkets,  and  chased  weapous,  articles  liglit  of  weight  but  of  great 
value,  for  the  transport  of  which  they  did  not  require  such  a  long  convoy  of 
animals.  At  the  time  of  the  French  expedition  into  Egypt,  General  Bonaparte, 
desiring  to  open  up  relations  with  the  Sultan  of  Dar-F6r  by  means  of  these 
caravans,  asked  him  to  send  in   exchange  for  his  merchandise,  "  two  thousand 

black  slaves,  over  sixteen  years  of  age,  strong  and  vigorous." 

v.-  .,   '  ;':  ■,■■        '    ■'      .    "  ^'» 

TOPOOBAPHY.  ^*^'' 

.  Dar-Fdr  is  naturally  divided  into  a  central  province,  that  of  the  mountainous 
region,  from  which  the  watercourses  descend,  and  where  the  masters  of  the 
country  have  nearly  always  resided,  and  into  the  province**  of  the  surrounding 
lands,  including  the  region  of  the  steppes.  The  (fdr  or  central  region,  which 
comprises  the  highlands,  is  known  by  the  name  of  Torra ;  the  others  are  termed 
according  to  their  geographical  situation,  D&r-Tokonavi  or  "  the  north,"  Dali  or 
"  the  east,"  Uma  or  "  the  south,"  Dima  or  "  the  south-west,"  and  El-Gharb  or 
"  the  west."  Moreover,  all  the  well-defined  geographical  regions  bear  the  name  of 
dftr  or  "  country,"  independently  of  the  political  or  administrative  divisions. 

El-FaSHER — KOBEH — ^TORA. 

The  present  Father,  that  is  to  say  the  "  Residence,"  is  situated  at  a  height  of 
2,466  feet  on  the  eastern  slope  of  Dar-F6r,  between  two  sandy  hills,  and  on  the 
edge  of  the  Tendelti  lakelet,  which  is  fed  by  a  wady  descending  from  the  northern 
Marrah  hills.  Its  current,  being  retained  by  a  dyke,  supplies  the  inhabitants 
with  water  for  more  than  half  of  the  year ;  however,  before  the  rainy  season  the 
bed  of  the  lake  has  to  be  excavated  to  a  depth  of  over  30  feet  before  drinking 
water  can  be  procured.      El-Fasher  lies  nearly  midway  between  the  capitals  of 


■  ;,*iWr«- 


S80 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


Ill 


Kordof&n  and  Wnda'i,  on  tne  regular  caravan  route.  It  is  not  the  largest  town  in 
the  country,  being  merely  a  group  of  clay  hut*  thatched  with  straw,  with,  accord- 
ing to  EnHor,  a  population  in  1876  of  merely  2,660  peritona. 

The  principal  city,  which  was  also  the  "  residence  "  towards  the  end  of  the 
last  century,  is  Kobeh,  also  lying  on  the  caravan  route  some  30  miles  to  the  north- 
west. Of  all  the  towns  of  Dar-Fdr,  it  is  the  only  place  which  boasts  of  a  few 
stone  houses,  a  proof  of  the  influence  of  a  remote  civilisation.  These  houses 
belong  to  the  merchants  or  the  heads  of  the  caravans,  and  are  surrounded  by  huts 
similar  to  those  which  are  found  in  all  other  towns  and  villages  of  this  country. 
Towards  the  end  of  last  century.  Brown  estimated  its  population  at  6,000  persons. 

Omahanga,  situated  nearly  midway  between  El-Fasher  and  El-Obeid,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Shekka  route,  is  also  a  large  town,  provided  with  an  abundance 
of  excellent  water,  which  is  contained  in  wells  130  feet  deep.  South-west  of  El- 
Fasher,  in  an  upland  mountain  valley,  the  town  of  Tora,  Torra,  or  Toran,  which 
has  given  its  name  to  the  central  province  of  Fdr,  is  also  said  to  be  regarded  as  a 
kind  of  capital,  and  here  are  all  the  royal  tombs. 

Since  the  Egyptians  have  obtained  possession  of  the  country,  new  towns  have 
been  founded,  the  most  important  of  which  is  Ibj'eh  or  Foj'a,  the  arrival  station  of 
the  Eg^tian  caravans.  The  oasis  of  Om-Bedr,  about  60  miles  to  the  north,  has 
no  settled  villages,  although  it  is  the  centre  of  the  Homr  populations.  At  times 
over  six  thousand  persons  and  fifty  thousand  camels  assemble  together  on  the 
temporary  camping-ground. 


■  Dara — Shekka — Tuesha. 

Dara,  in  the  northern  region  of  the  province,  till  recently  enjoyed  some  little 
distinction  as  the  residence  of  on  Egyptian  muuir  or  governor,  and  as  the  caravan 
station  between  Dom-Suleiman  and  El-Obe'id.  A  mere  group  of  tokuls,  it  lies 
near  the  left  bank  of  the  Wady-Amur,  on  which  also  stands  the  villagpe  of 
Memvachi,  about  60  miles  farther  north.  Near  here  in  1874  was  fought  the 
decisive  battle  which  cost  King  Brahim  his  life,  and  converted  Dar-F6r  into  an 
Egyptian  province. 

To  the  south-east  the  town  of  Shekka  or  Shakka,  which  still  lies  within  the 
limits  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  For,  was  the  chief  town  of  the  province  of  the 
Bahr-el-Ghazal,  under  the  khedival  nde.  It  is  peopled  with  Jellabis  or  "  mer- 
chants," as  is  also  the  case  with  a  small  group  of  villages,  bearing  the  general 
name  of  Kobeah,  but  which  is  usually  termed  Kalaka,  like  the  surrounding  country. 
Midway  between  Shekka  and  El-Fasher,  the  principal  caravan  station  is  Tuesha,  a 
second  group  of  villages  whose  name  is  but  too  well  known  throughout  the 
Mussulman  world,  It  is  a  depot  for  slaves,  who  are  here  generally  made  eunuchs 
before  being  forwarded  to  Egypt.  The  routes  converging  on  Tuesha  are  covered 
with  the  bleaching  bones  of  these  unfortunate  people,  whom  no  one  thinks  it  worth 
while  to  bury. 

In  its  western  division,  beyond  the  Marrah  Mountains,  Dar-Fdr  appears  i» 


JA 


JMk 


mm/Mm 


»  within  the  ' ' 
ovince  of  the 
bis  or  "mer- 
^  the  general 
ding  country, 
n  is  Tuenha,  a 
roughout  the 
made  eunuchs 
la  are  covered 
links  it  worth 


DABA— SHEKKA— TIJFlsnA. 


881 


rgest  town  in 
with,  aocord- 

0  end  of  the 
to  the  north- 
uts  of  a  few 
Ihese  houses 
indod  by  huts 
this  country. 
000  persons. 
3be'id,  at  the 
in  abimdance 
h-west  of  El- 
Toran,  which 
regarded  as  a 


poMMi  no  groups  of  settled  habitntions  deserving  the  name  of  town  or  village. 
U('re  it  is  evorywhr'ro  conterminous  with  the  powerful  Mahommedan  kingdom  of 
Wadai,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  only  one  known  military  or  caravan  highway. 
Thi>  drainage  also  lies  in  the  same  direction,  all  the  streams  rising  on  the  western 
slopes  of  the  Marrah  range  flowing  intermittently  through  the  Batha  and  the 
Bahr-es-Salamat  westwards  to  the  basin  of  Luke  Tsad. 


w  towns  have 
val  station  of 
he  north,  has 
18.  At  times 
^thor  on  the 


<d  some  little 
ts  the  caravan 
tokuls,  it  lies 
le  village  of 
w  fought  the 
•For  into  an 


fl-V 


w" 


dr  appears  i» 


I         w  m    •       >■ 


tl 


r.'i: 


ijJ! 


CHAPTER  XT. 


NUBIA. 


HE  term  Nubia,  applied  to  the  country  which  lies  beyond  Egypt, 
has  no  precise  geographical  sense ;  nor  can  any  meaning  be  attached 
to  it  from  a  political  or  administrative  point  of  view.  It  prob.  bly 
had  onco  a  real  ethnological  value,  at  a  period  when  the  Nubas,  not 
yet  driven  back  by  other  populations,  were  the  only  dwellers  on  the 
bunks  of  the  Nile  throughout  a  great  part  of  its  course.  But  wars  and  invasions 
have  for  a  long  time  modified  these  former  conditions.  At  the  present  time  tlio 
terra  Nubia  is  variously  employed  in  current  language.  At  one  time  it  is  applicnl 
merely  to  the  region  of  the  Wady-Nubo,  which  comprises  that  part  of  the  river's 
course  which  is  broken  up  by  the  thousand  rapids  of  the  second  cataract,  whilst  at 
another  it  is  used  to  designate  the  whole  of  the  region  bounded  north  by  the  rapids 
of  ARHuan,  south  by  the  junction  of  the  two  Niles,  east  by  the  Red  Sea,  and  west 
by  the  trackless  desert. 

The  natural  geographical  limits  of  Nubia,  on  the  southern  side,  seem  to  be 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Nile  and  Atbara,  and  by  the  route  from  Berber  to 
Suiikin.  Nubia,  thus  bounded  in  the  direction  of  the  Abyssinian  plattaux,  does  not 
include  any  of  those  regions  which  are  connected  with  Abyssinia,  properly  so-called, 
by  their  mountains,  hydrog^phio  system,  or  populations.  Its  approximate  area 
within  these  limits  and  on  the  western  side  us  far  as  the  twenty-seventh  degree  of 
east  longitude,  is  estimated  at  100,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  about 
1,000,000.  According  to  Ruppell,  the  arable  land  of  Nubia,  limited  by  t>  J'  «ert, 
is  not  more  than  1,300  square  miles  in  extent,  and  all  the  inhabitants  are  concen- 
trated within  this  fertile  riverain  tract. 

The  region,  some  hundreds  of  miles  broad,  which  north  of  th.  Atbara  and 
Barka  separates  the  valley  of  the  Nile  from  the  Red  Sea  coas' ,  ? '  commanded  by 
chains  of  heights,  similar  to  those  traversing  the  territory  of  the  Hadendoas, 
Hallengas,  and  Bazens ;  but  these  chains,  separated  f '  om  the  Abyssinian  spurs  by 
the  deep  breaches  and  by  the  nearly  always  dried-up  beds  of  numerous  wadies, 
constitute  a  special  orthographic  system.  Whilst  the  Abyssinian  chaiu,  although 
abruptly  terminated  by  the  deep  bed  of  the  Red  Sea,  reappears  as  it  were  in  Arabia 
as  the  Yemen  uplands,  the  mountains  of  the  Bisharin  country  develop  their  axis 


,f:  ,',>,:'i 


jmd  Fgypt, 
ig  be  attached 
It  probably 
le  Xuba»,  not 
vollers  on  the 
and  invaaions 
sent  time  tUo 
I  it  is  applied 
of  the  river's 
act,  whilst  at 
by  the  rapids 
Sea,  and  west 

),  seem  to  be 
om  Berber  to 
aux,  does  not 
)rly  so-called, 
oximate  area 
ith  degree  of 
ion  of  about 
>y  t>',  a<  "ert, 
8  are  concen- 

Atbara  and 
mmanded  by 
!  Hadendoas, 
lian  spurs  by 
»rou8  wodies, 
iia,  althougb 
)re  iu  Arabia 
op  their  axis 


6 


a 

& 

o 

i 

L) 

1 


j;?j^|gp 


K '  ;!  U 


:;.'  i 


iSi^immimfmmmiia^H*  Mi^j^  wCBWaanHi 


mmmmsmimtr^ 


THE  NUBIAN  COAST  EANGE. 


S88 


■  parallel  with  the  shores  of  the  Arabian  Sea.  Besides,  known  under  different 
names  at  each  of  their  several  sections,  they  extend  for  a  distance  of  over  600 
miles  to  the  very  gates  of  Cairo.  It  is  the  Egyptian  part  of  this  long  ridge  which 
takes  the  name  of  the  "  Arabian  "  range,  because  the  riverain  Nile  populations  see 
it  standing  out  against  the  sky  in  the  direction  of  Arabia.  The  Nubian  Mountains, 
east  of  the  Nile,  are  also  sometimes  collectively  terttied  Etbai,  a  name  which  is 
more  especially  reserved  for  a  hill  which  rises  near  the  coast  opposite  Jedda. 

The  Nubian  Coast  Range. 

The  coast  or  border  chain  of  Nubia  between  Suakin  and  the  Bas-Benas,  north 
of  the  ancient  port  of  Berenice,  consists,  like  its  Egyptian  extension,  almost  entirely 

;.,      ,.  ,     Fig.  89. — MxNBHAL  KioioN  OP  JHB  EtbaI  Uvlands.  ^,    ; 

Scale  1: 11,000.000. 


55*  E     .  of  Grt^enw'tch 


go  Mile*. 


oiP  primitive  rocks,  such  as  granite,  gneiss,  and  crystalline  schist ;  towards  the 
south  alone  the  system  presents  extensive  limestone  formations.  Rising  gradually 
from  the  south  to  the  north,  it  culminates  in  the  Jebel-Olba,  which,  according  to 
Wellsted,  exceeds  a  height  of  8,000  feet.  Connected  at  this  point  with  the 
mountains  of  the  interior  by  lateral  offshoots,  the  chain  again  falls  in  a  north- 
westerly direction.  At  Mount  Irba  (Soturba)  it  attains  a  height  of  7,010  feet,  and 
at  Mount  Elba,  the  Etbai  properly  so-called,  it  rises  to  more  than  4,080  feet,  that 
is,  about  the  same  height  as  the  Jebel-Farageh,  the  Pentodactyle  of  the  ancients,  lying 
farther  north,  and  which  Schweiufurth  vainly  attempted  to  scale.  In  certain 
places  the  base  of  these  escarpments  is  washed  by  the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea, 


i    I 


/  ,>v..w-.yC*i^rj:* 


284 


NORTH-BAST  AFRICA. 


whilst  at  other  points  the  9ah6l  or  tehama  of  the  coast  is  occupied  by  the  low  hills 
of  the  tertiary  epoch,  moving  sand-hills,  and  coraline  reefs.  The  pyramid-shaped 
islet  of  Zemetyit,  which  lies  60  miles  off  the  coast  in  a  line  with  the  RAs-Benas 
headland,  serves  as  a  landmark  to  the  vesseb  rz  'Cring  the  dangerous  waters  of  the 
Arabian  Sea. 


The  Nubian  Qold  Mines.  , .,. 

The  Elba  Mountains  merge  in  the  interior  with  other  heights  of  divers  forma- 
tions, in  which  the  ancient  Pharaohs  worked  gold  and  silver  mines.  It  is  certain 
that,  during  its  long  period  of  splendour,  Egypt  was  very  rich  in  precious  metals ; 
in  this  respect  the  monuments  are  in  harmony  with  the  statements  of  the  Greek 
authors.  Nubia  appears  to  have  furnished  the  grater  part  of  the  gold,  and  accord- 
ing to  a  tradition,  to  which  weight  is  added  by  the  heaps  of  rubbish  and  g^eries 
hewn  in  the  auriferous  rocks  and  formerly  inhabited  caves,  the  principal  mining 
centre  was  at  Wady-Allaki,  which  is  a  series  of  ravines  stretching  away  to  the  west 
of  the  Elba  Mountains.  These  ravines  were  worked  till  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century  of  the  Christian  era.  The  Pharaohs,  Ptolemies,  Greek  emperors,  and  Arab 
caliphs  were  obliged  to  protect  their  colonies  of  miners  against  the  attacks  of  the 
surrounding  nomad  peoples,  successively  termed  Blemmyes,  Bejas,  and  Bisharins ; 
but  the  difficulties  of  obtaining  sufficient  wood  to  light  the  mines  or  water  for  the 
miners  were  probably  the  g^reatest  obstacle'  in  the  way  of  profitably  working  the 
mines.  All  the  supplies  from  the  springy  of  the  district  had  been  carefully 
husbanded,  and  along  the  ancient  desert  routes,  above  the  springy,  crosses  sur- 
mounted by  a  circle  are  still  to  be  seen,  indicating  the  presence  of  water. 

The  description  g^ven  by  Diodorus  Sioulus,  as  well  as  the  appearance  of  the 
galleries,  shows  that  the  gold  was  not  collected  in  the  sands,  but  extracted  from 
the  rock  itself  by  the  crushing  process.  This  method  was  extremely  costly,  and 
could  not  now  be  adopted  unless  the  mines  were  extremely  rich,  like  certain 
Califomian  "  placers."  But  the  first  exploration,  undertaken  by  Linant  de 
Bellefonds  for  Mohammed  Ali,  followed  by  numerous  visits  made  by  various 
geologists,  have  proved  that  the  ancient  mines  of  Nubia  are  no  longer  sufficiently 
rich  to  be  profitably  worked. 

Hitherto  no  inscriptions  or  sculptures  have  been  discovered  in  the  mining 
region ;  however,  a  column  found  at  Kuban,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile  between 
Korosko  and  Assuan,  and  the  texts  of  the  Egyptian  temple  of  Radesieh,  built  on 
the  riverain  route  to  the  mines  of  Akito,  shed  much  light  on  the  resources  of  the 
Pharaohs.  Moreover,  there  is  in  the  museum  of  Turin  a  fragment  of  an  Egyptian 
map,  which  represents  a  mining  station  with  its  shafts,  depots,  g^eries,  reservoirs, 
and  temple  of  Ammon.  This  precious  document,  the  oldest  of  its  kind,  since  it 
dates  from  the  time  of  Bamses  II.,  is  disposed  in  a  way  inversely  to  that  of  our 
maps,  the  east  side,  which  is  that  of  the  Red  Sea,  being  to  the  left  of  the  sheet. 
It  is  as  yet  uncertain  what  mining  district  i*  is  intended  to  represent. 


i»«ljfJMl'tti»i..«|»l>lrMlli'i'li^:i>MI|ii|iii<U'«i|<;if>W%yy>|l^  ■ 


THE  CENTRAL  HIGHLANDS. 


285 


the  low  hills 
ramid-shaped 
le  R&s-Benas 
waters  of  the 


The  Central  Highlands.     , 

To  the  west  of  the  horder  chain  which  skirts  the  Red  Sea,  the  mountainous 
ridges  run  transversely  either  from  the  east  to  the  west,  or  from  the  north-east  to 
the  south-west,  in  the  same  direction  as  the  portion  of  the  Nile  comprised  between 
Abtl-Hamed  and  Dabbeh.  Some  of  these  ridges  are  continuous ;  such,  for  instance, 
as  that  of  the  "  Cataraota,"  which  forms  the  natural  barrier  between  Nubia  and 


Fisr.  90.— Nubian  Golu  Hinbr 


livers  forma- 
It  is  certain 
oious  metals ; 
of  the  Greek 
,  and  accord- 
and  galleries 
Lcipal  mining 
y  to  the  west 
tf  the  twelfth 
>rs,  and  Arab 
ittacks  of  the 
id  Bisharins ; 
water  for  the 
'  working  the 
Ben  carefully 
,  crosses  sur- 
»r. 

arance  of  the 
ctracted  from 
ly  costly,  and 
,  like  certain 
y  Linant  de 
e  by  various 
sr  sufficiently 


From  the  Tcrin  Faiqmu,  reprndiieed  by  Chabub 


A.  The  Amifcroiia  hilU  ue  (xdonred 

ted  on  the  pirn, 
a.  Oold  Mountain. 
0.  Shrine  of  Ammon  on  the  Holy 

Monntain. 


D.  RoadtoTaMenkt-ti. 
K.  Faee  of  the  Uoaatain. 
F.  Abode  of  Ammon. 
H  HooKii  for  Steiing  the  0<dd. 
I.  King  Ramanem'e  Stele. 


K.  Ciatem. 

L.  WeUa. 

■.  BoadtotheGoait. 

S.  Another  Road  to  the  Coaat. 

0.  Boad  to  Tapimat. 


I  the  mining 
Nile  between 
tsieh,  built  on 
sources  of  the 
an  Egyptian 
ies,  reservoirs, 
kind,  since  it 
to  that  of  our 
of  the  sheet. 


Egypt,  west  of  Assuan ;    such  also  is  the  range  whose  culminating  point  is  the 
Jebel-Shikr,  north-east  of  Abtl-Hamed. 

Other  ridges  are  intersected  at  intervals  by  broad  breaches,  and  from  a  distance 
present  the  appearance  of  walls  partially  crumbling  away.  Like  the  mountains  of 
the  border  chain,  those  of  the  highest  transversal  chains  consist  of  crystalline 
rooks,  granites,  gneiss,  porphyries,  syenites,  diorites,  and  volcanic  formations.  In 
many  parts  of  the  desert  occur  metamorphic  sandstones,  which  have  overflowed  into 
the  crevasses  in  the  soil.  But  between  the  mountains,  which  form  the  backbone  of 
Eastern  Nubia,  are  other  projections  of  leu  height,  nearly  all  isolated,  although 


-r»«. 


286 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


Fig.  91.— KoROBKo  Desbrt. 
Boale  1  : 8,800,000. 


ec 


'Sab.cl-Koheiakd 


:::idi:'.}"':'--  .:-V-.- 


90 


«le 


scattered  by  thousands  in  the  desert.  They  are  small  sand8tx)ne  hills  merely 
rising  some  60  feet  above  the  plain,  but  at  some  points  attaining  a  relative  elevation 
of  660  feet,  or  from  1,630  to  2,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  granite  heights  in  the 
interior  reach  an  altitude  of  over  2,160  feet,  some  of  the  peaks  even  rising  to 

nearly  3,300  feet. 

The  sandstone  rocks  of  Nubia  present 

the  most  diverse  forms.  Some  stand  out 
like  regular  towers,  others  in  the  form 
of  pyramids,  whilst  others  again,  whose 
central  portion  has  disappeared,  re- 
semble volcanic  cones.  Consisting  of 
horizontal  layers  of  quartzose  sandstone 
of  varying  density,  they  offer  more  or 
less  resistance  in  different  places.  In 
one  place  the  summit  crumbles  away, 
elsewhere  the  base  leaving  the  crest 
crowned  as  if  with  a  table ;  several  rocks 
are  also  pierced  with  openings  through 
which  light  is  visible.  The  very  names 
that  the  nomads  and  caravan  leaders 
give  to  these  sandstone  heights  are  a 
proof  of  the  variety  of  their  forms. 
They  imagine  they  see  in  them  palaces, 
animals,  and  processions  of  warriors. 
Thanks  to  these  fantastic  outlines,  the 
guides  of  the  caravans  can  always  de- 
termine their  whereabouts  in  these 
endless  labyrinths  of  breaches  winding 
between  the  rocks.  The  various  colours 
of  the  stone  also  assist  them  in  finding 
their  way.  Certain  strata  are  shaded 
with  g^een,  yellow,  pink,  or  blue ;  whilst 
others,  in  which  ferruginous  sands  pre- 
dominate, are  of  a  brilliant  red.  Jasper, 
chalcedony,  and  siliceous  crystals  are 
embedded  in  the  walls.  But  on  each 
journey  the  guide  finds  some  changes. 
The  sands  produced  by  the  disinte- 
gration of  the  rooks  shift  their  position 
according  to  the  direction  of  the  wind, 
which  carries  it  in  a  cloud  above  the 
crests,  and  scatters  it  now  on  one  side,  now  on  another,  forming  rounded  heaps 
which  blend  in  graceftU  curves  with  the  coarser  sands  at  the  base.  Shifting  dunes 
of  sand,  some  of  which  are  as  much  as  166  feet  high,  move  here  and  there  through- 


ojihi/  q/mfi% 


^'0/6m/.fpfij>jti 


>i^l^'.Ahn9u§a 


AlMiMVlntah.ChattrrQMf' 


py 


:  Jl/m/km/  Afi^hBr'4h_ 


52* 


20' 


.  eoHOeB. 


hills  merely 
ive  elevation 
eights  in  the 
en  rising  to 

Tubia  present 
me  stand  out 

in  the  form 
igain,  whose 
jpeared,  re- 
'onsisting  of 
>8e  sandstone 
>ffer  more  or 

places.  In 
mbles  away, 
ig  the  crest 
several  rocks 
ings  through 
Q  very  names 
avan  leaders 
leights  are  a 
their  forms, 
them  palaces, 
of  warriors, 
outlines,  the 
in  always  de- 
its  in  these 
Dhes  winding 
irious  colours 
;m  in  finding 
a  are  shaded 
rbluo;  whilst 
us  sands  pre- 
;  red.  Jasper, 

crystals  are 
But  on  each 
mie  changes, 
the  disinte- 
their  position 
of  the  wind, 
ud  above  the 
mnded  heaps 
bifting  dunes 
lere  through- 


«IM<'^'.     -^idOil^. 


> 


r-' 


.(fe 


L 


"m^.!iw''rwi^y"yww^"w 


■"■ffWiiiPP 


GEOLOGICAL  FORMATIONS. 


287 


out  the  open  plain.   They  are  uU  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  the  horns  turning  to  the 
south  under  the  influence  of  the  north  wind. 


H 


'  '  Oeolooical  Formations. 

Nearly  all  the  sandstone  rocks  and  dunes  are  destitute  of  vegetation ;  hut  few 
shruhs  are  found  on  the  slopes  of  the  crystalline  mountains,  which  are  emhellished 
by  these  verdant  thickets.  Hitherto  no  fossils  of  animals  have  been  discovered 
in  the  sands  of  the  desert  of  Eorosko,  but  only  some  petrified  trees,  like  those  in 
the  Bayuda  steppe,  in  Egypt,  and  several  other  countries  of  Eastern  Africa. 
According  to  Kussegger,  these  Nubian  sandstones  have  been  deposited  since  the 
chalk  period.  One  of  the  most  extraordinary  products  of  this  geological  formation 
consists  of  spheroidal  stones  of  all  sizes,  resembling  balls,  shot,  and  bullets.  They 
are  so  thickly  scattered  over  the  soil  that  travellers  had  seriously  proposed  to 
Mohammed  Ali  that  he  should  supply  his  artillery  parks  from  this  source.  These 
stone  bullets,  similar  to  those  found  in  Hungary  in  the  mountains  near  Eoloszvar, 
are  formed  of  concentric  beds  of  variously  coloured  sands,  hollow  in  the  middle,  or 
else  filled  with  loose  sand,  and  with  a  very  hard  ferruginous  exterior.  The  cir- 
cumference of  the  stone  is  frequently  marked  by  a  ridge  similar  to  that  which  the 
moulds  leave  on  the  bidlets  at  their  point  of  contact. 

The  great  caravan  route  which  traverses  the  Nubian  desert,  to  the  east  of  the 
Nile,  from  Ab(^-Hamed  to  Eorosko,  extends  over  a  space  of  about  300  miles,  which 
comprises  some  of  the  most  remarkable  localities,  offering  examples  of  all  the 
geological  formations  of  the  country.  This  region  is  specially  termed  atmur,  a 
name  probably  of  Berber  origin,  for  in  the  language  of  the  Tuaregs  iemura  means 
a  "  tract  of  country."  After  having  ascended  the  trachyte-crested  hills,  and 
surmounted  the  granite  escarpments,  the  caravan  route  winds  from  breach  to 
breach  between  the  sandstone  hills,  and  even  crosses  a  pla?n  which,  according  to 
the  Arabs,  is  an  ancient  lacustrine  basin,  the  Bahr-bel&-m&,  or  "  Waterless  River." 
Nevertheless  there  are  no  indications  which  point  to  the  presence  of  running  or 
still  waters  having  ever  been  in  this  place.  One  well  only,  that  of  Morad,  yields 
a  scanty  supply  of  fresh  water  to  travellers  crossing  the  atmur.  But  there  are 
regions  in  this  desert  where  the  sand  contains  abimdance  of  saline  substances 
which  doubtless  proceed  from  ancient  evaporated  lakes.  In  the  vicinity  of  the 
river  the  natives  extract  this  salt  and  sell  it  to  the  caravans. 

The  largest  of  the  dry  valleys  which  wind  through  the  desert  of  Nubia  is  that 
of  Wady-Allaki.  Taking  its  origin  in  the  mountains  of  the  Etba'i,  it  follows  a 
north-westerly  course  and  falls  into  the  Nile  below  Korosko ;  its  basin  is  more 
than  10,000  square  miles  in  extent.  It  has  occasionally  happened  that  the 
"Wady-Allaki,  suddenly  filled  by  heavy  showers,  has  for  some  hours  suddenly 
become  a  powerful  affluent  of  the  Nile,  the  force  of  its  current  completely  barring 
the  main-stream.  But  the  valley  of  the  wady  and  the  tributary  gorges  are  nearly 
always  dry ;  nevertheless,  the  concealed  moisture  is  revealed  by  the  trees,  under 
which  the  Bisharin  tribes  are  accustomed  to  encamp. 


a 


bwi 


HI 


niWiWP  I 


<^m*  wfi 


:)iH.i  r-jijiiiyiiiilf''    I  ^l^i^ljl^ 


LUsDEeassac 


288 


NOETH-EAST  AFRICA. 


Tub  Bayuda  Steppb. 


To  the  west  of  the  Nile,  whose  long  silver  band,  skirted  with  fl^reen,  stretches 
in  two  great  curves  across  Nubia,  rise  mountains  similar  in  formation  to  those  of 
the  east — primitive  rocks,  sandstone  oli£Fs,  and  volcanic  lavas  and  scorise.     The 


Fig.  93.— Batvda  Stippb. 
Seal*  1  :  8.400.000. 


33*  E  .  of  Grtenwich 


.aouoM. 


highest  groups  of  summits,  Jebel-Magaga,  Jebel-Gekdul,  and  Jebel-Gilif,  occupy 
precisely  the  centre  of  the  immense  circuit,  three-fourths  of  which  are  described 
by  the  course  of  the  Nile  between  the  Sixth  Cataract  and  Dabbeh.  Their  peaks 
are  said  to  attain  a  height  of  from  3,330  to  3,660  feet.    The  whole  of  the  space 


r^s^s_. 


in  ipWfO-w 


II.    i-imi.'WJill 


THE  BAYUDA  STEPPE. 


28» 


oen,  stretches 
1  to  those  of 
scorisB.    The 


) 


J6' 


enwlth 


I  ( 


[-Gilif,  occupy 
I  are  descrihed 

Their  peaks     ' 
e  of  the  space 


commanded  by  these  heights  is  a  mountainous  country  covered  with  hollows,  or  a 
few  groves  of  green  mimosas  during  the  rainy  season,  and  bounded  to  the  west 
between  Khartum  and  Ambukol  by  the  depression  of  the  Wady  Mokattara,  or  the 
"  VuUey  of  Inscriptions,"  into  which  probably  flowed  an  ancient  arm  of  the  Nile, 
The  whole  region,  though  much  less  barren  than  the  atmur  of  Eastern  Nubia,  is 
termed  the  steppe  or  desert  of  Bayuda.  Gekdul  and  Magaga,  whose  highest 
point,  Ussub-Oramaneh,  is  a  cupola  of  red  porphyry,  or  erupted  masses,  around 
which  the  sandstone  rocks,  probably  liquefied  by  the  outpourings  of  lava,  have 
spread  over  the  sands  in  sheets  of  siliceous  scorisD.  According  to  Russegger,  it  is 
owing  to  the  eruption  of  these  ancient  volcanoes  that  the  Nile,  formerly  flowing  to 
the  west,  was  compelled  to  turn  eastwards  in  order  to  effect  its  great  bend  of  over 
480  miles.  In  the  western  part  of  the  steppe  the  ferruginous  sands  of  the  moun- 
tains, washed  down  by  the  rains,  have  covered  the  soil  in  thick  layers.  Here  and 
there  the  sand  has  collected  in  the  hollows  where  the  wadies  have  deposited  their 
alluvia  ;  the  surface  of  the  plain  is  thus  streaked  with  long  bands  of  diverse  colours 
of  the  strangest  appearance. 

The  Jebel-Simrieh,  formed  of  pink  sandstone,  and  other  hills  to  the  west  of  the 
depression  of  the  "  Valley  of  Inscriptions,"  are  less  elevated  than  Magaga,  and 
like  it  are  not  very  long ;  the  valley  of  the  "Wady-Melek,  whose  bed,  during  the 
floods,  gives  passage  to  the  waters  of  Dar-F6r,  bounds  these  mountains  on  the  west. 
On  the  banks  of  the  Nile  itself,  in  the  space  comprised  between  Marawi  and  New 
Dongola,  there  are  nothing  but  sandstone  clifis,  the  crystalline  rocks  reappearing 
only  at  the  Third  Cataract.  Here  the  heights  on  the  left  bank  form  part  of  the 
chains  which  rise  in  Eastern  Nubia ;  to  the  west  they  soon  become  lost  under  the 
sands,  being  succeeded  by  oases  at  a  short  distance  from  the  river  and  parallel  with 
it.  In  this  respect  the  western  zone  of  the  Nubian  region  forms  a  complete 
contrast  to  the  tracts  beyond  the  Nile.  To  the  north  of  Wady-Halfa,  and  nearly 
opposite  the  colossi  of  Ibsambul,  lies  a  deep  valley  overlooked  by  the  black  or 
reddish  walls  of  ancient  volcanoes.  This  is  the  "Wady-Jehenna,  or  "  Valley  of 
Gehenna,"  a  terrible  region  which  the  Arabs  shun  as  if  it  were  still  burning. 

In  Western  as  well  as  in  Eastern  Nubia,  the  sandstones  rapidly  crumble  away 
under  the  influence  of  the  wind,  rain,  and  heat,  and  change  into  loose  sand  which 
the  aerial  currents  reform  into  dunes  or  taluses.  In  many  respects  the  sands  of 
Africa  recall  the  snows  of  the  great  Alps ;  like  the  snowfiolds  they  collect  in  the 
depressions  and  crevasses  of  the  rocks,  glide  over  the  ravines  in  avalanches,  crown 
the  needle-like  points  of  the  peaks,  and  here  and  there  project  over  the  precipices, 
forming  narrow  strips  which  give  way  at  the  slightest  shock.  Between  the  dunes 
and  the  populations  of  the  oases  on  the  edge  of  the  desert  the  struggle  is  incessant ; 
the  sands,  borne  forward  by  the  winds,  siirround  the  trees,  cover  up  cultivations, 
block  up  the  fountains,  and  encroach  upon  the  inhabitable  domain.  But  on  his 
side  the  peasant  utilises  the  sand  by  mixing  it  with  his  soil.  The  extent  of  ground 
he  can  render  productive  depends  entirely  upon  the  quantity  of  water  at  his 
disposal. 

19— AF. 


'^m^m^^^- 


NORTH-KAHT  AFRICA. 


Climatk. 


Nubia  is  divided  into  two  clitnatio  zonos,  whose  limits,  chanp^ini^  yearly,  are 
definwl  by  tho  struggle  between  the  northern  und  southern  winds.  In  summer, 
when  the  solur  rays  full  vertically  on  the  soil  between  the  equator  und  the  northern 
tropic,  the  southern  winds  follow  the  sun  i^to  the  northern  hemisphere,  carrying 
the  rain-clouds  with  them  ;  but  they  scorcely  ev<r  rouoh  the  seventeenth  degree  of 
latitude.  The  lust  periodical  ruins  fall  in  the  valley  towards  the  junction  of  the 
Atbura,  the  lust  tributary  watercourse  of  the  Nile.  In  this  spacious  region  the 
force  of  the  southern  winds  is  neutralised  by  that  of  the  aerial  currents  blowing 
from  the  north,  the  result  of  this  struggle  being  the  constant  shifting  of  the 
parting-line. 

Travellers  across  the  Bayuda  territory  in  May  or  June  have  to  struggle 
against  the  winds,  being  at  one  time  forced  from  their  course  by  the  south  wind 
at  another  by  that  of  the  north,  their  way  thus  lying  between  two  conflicting 
temi)CBtB.  However,  the  winds  often  blow  alternately,  that  of  the  north  prevailing 
during  the  day  and  being  replaced  at  night-time  by  that  of  the  south.  To  the 
south  of  this  zone  foil  periodical  rains,  thr  more  copious  and  longer  in  duration 
the  nearer  the  equator  is  approached.  To  the  north,  the  soil  is  not  watered  by  the 
summer  rains,  being  visited  only  by  a  few  showers,  which  sometimes  even  cease 
for  several  years  together.  When  the  northern  winds  predominate  in  the  inter- 
mediary zone  and  drive  the  opposing  currents  south  of  the  usual  limit,  the  drought 
becomes  general,  bringing  to  the  Nubians  distant  from  the  Nile  famine,  involun- 
tary exile,  and  brigandage. 

The  region  of  the  border  mountains,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Red  Sea,  is  more 
favoured  than  the  countries  of  the  interior.  The  abundance  of  the  vapours  in  this 
littoral  zone  promotes  the  advance  of  the  rain-bearing  clouds  towards  the  north. 
Instead  of  stopping  at  the  seventeenth  degree  of  latitude,  they  extend  as  far  as  the 
twenty-first  degree  of  latitude,  and  beyond  this  limit  occasional  showers  are 
frequent ;  but  brought  down  by  the  northern  winds  they  fall  in  winter,  whilst  the 
opposed  southern  winds  cause  the  moisture  to  be  again  precipitated  in  summer. 
The  result  of  this  relative  abundance  of  the  rains  on  the  coast  region  is  a  great 
contrast  between  the  Nubian  districts  near  the  Red  Sea  and  those  of  the  interior. 
To  the  east  the  Arab  nomads  find  abundance  of  wells,  fountains,  and  pasturages 
for  their  cattle ;  but  to  the  west  nothing  is  visible  but  rocks  and  sands,  the  eye  of 
the  traveller  seldom  lighting  upon  a  grove  of  palms  or  mimosas,  or  any  trailing 
shrubs  growing  on  the  banks  of  the  wadies.  In  some  years  the  drought  fs  so 
complete  that  no  shepherd  dare  venture  into  the  desert. 

Nubia  thus  offers  some  well-defined  natural  divisions.  The  southern  part  of 
the  country,  comprising  nearly  the  whole  i)enin8ula  of  Bayuda,  is  a  district  of 
steppes ;  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  presents  an  analogous  appearance,  whilst  all  the 
rest  is  desert  and  atmur,  with  the  exception  of  the  verdant  and  populous  Nile 
Valley  lying  between  these  two  dreary  wastes.  In  many  places  this  valley  is 
reduced  to  a  strip  a  few  yards  in  width ;   it  even  disappears  altogether  at  the 


■||liP"»f"»'W'«»VW^i'i"^»""^*'^''W*1IWW^«^ 


PI-ORA. 


201 


f?  yearly,  are 
In  summer, 
i  the  northern 
lere,  carrying 
nth  degree  of 
notion  of  the 
IS  region  the 
rents  blowing 
lifting  of  the 

B  to  struggle 
tie  south  wind 
wo  conflicting 
rth  prevailing 
mth.  To  the 
jr  in  duration 
(ratered  by  the 
tes  even  cease 
in  the  inter- 
It,  the  drought 
mine,  involun- 

i  Sea,  is  more 
vapours  in  this 
irds  the  north, 
id  as  far  as  the 
il  showers  are 
iter,  whilst  the 
>d  in  summer, 
gion  is  a  great 
)f  the  interior, 
ind  pasturages 
ids,  the  eye  of 
or  any  trailing 
drought  is  so 


mouth  of  the  gorges,  whore  the  cliffs  spring  directly  from  the  river  bed.  Hut 
however  narrow  and  exposed  this  river  valley  may  he,  iU  app<)urunco  is  none  the 
less  charming  to  travellers  coming  from  the  arid  desert,  where  the  only  fluid 
obtainable  is  the  brock i'<]i  water  of  the  wells,  and  where  the  horizon  Ih  iMxiiidcd  by 
the  etemol  rocks  and  sands.  On  approaching  the  river  the  ArabH  perceive  its 
vicinity  by  the  moistness  of  the  air,  and  they  press  forward  with  joyful  cries  of 
"  Allah  be  praised  !  we  feel  the  Nile !  " 

The  Nubian  desert  is  one  of  tho'w  whose  temperature  varies  the  greatest 
between  the  heat  of  the  day  and  the  cold  of  the  night.  Although  these  regions 
are  troversed  by  isothermal  lines  of  79°  F.  and  81°  F.,  and  although  the  thermo- 
meter frequently  exceeds  104°  F.,  nevertheless  travellers  often  shiver  with  the 
cold  beforo  sunrise.  The  cause  of  this  is  the  excessive  dryness  of  the  atmosphere, 
which  causes  the  heat  to  radiate  into  space  during  the  night;  the  north  wind, 
which  blows  nearly  constantly,  also  contributes  to  this  fall  of  temperature  after 
sunset.  The  moisture  of  the  air  is  so  slight  that  it  rarely  ever  falls  in  dew  on  the 
Nubian  deserts.  The  bodies  of  animals  which  have  died  on  the  journey  dry  .up 
without  becoming  decomposed,  the  flesh  gradually  crumbling  into  dust  bencuth  the 
hard  and  extended  skin  without  emitting  the  least  odour.  Although  the  bodies  of 
those  who  die  during  the  journey  are  scarcely  covered  with  u  few  inches  of  sand, 
they  would  easily  pass  unnoticed  were  it  not  for  an  upright  stone  placed  over 
them  by  some  pious  hand.  The  purity  of  the  dry  desert  air  explains  its  perfect 
healthiness,  not  only  for  the  native  Nubian  but  also  for  the  foreigner.  No  sana- 
torium could  be  preferred  to  an  encampment  far  from  the  exhalations  of 
the  moist  plain,  at  least  by  those  who,  like  the  Arabs,  are  cai-eful  to  clothe  them- 
selves in  such  a  way  as  to  be  unaffected  by  the  abrupt  changes  in  the  temperatui'^ 
of  night  and  day.  The  Egyptian  plague  has  never  penetrated  into  Nubia,  and 
ophthalmia,  so  dreaded  in  the  regions  of  the  lower  Nile,  is  unknown  above  the 
cataracts  of  Wady-Halfa,  in  spite  of  the  glare  reflected  from  the  polished  rocks 
and  the  glittering  surface  of  the  river.  But  in  the  Nubian  regions  where  the 
inundations  of  the  Nile  stretch  far  into  the  plains,  leaving  stagnant  pools  here  and 
there,  malignant  fevers  are  very  common  and  frequently  terminate  fatally.  The 
majority  of  the  natives  do  not  draw  their  drinking  water  directly  from  the  river, 
but  sink  wells  some  distance  off  into  which  the  water  filters  through  the  sand,  and 
they  leave  it  exposed  to  the  sun  for  some  time  before  using  it.  They  are  also 
careful  not  to  follow  the  example  of  the  Turks,  and  build  their  towns  on  the  river 
bank ;  their  villages  stand  on  the  steppe  or  on  the  edge  of  the  desert,  beyond  the 
zone  of  the  marsh  fevers. 


Buthern  part  of 
is  a  district  of 
whilst  all  the 
populous  Nile 
I  this  valley  is 
»gefher  at  the 


Flora. 

A  land  of  transition  in  its  climate.  Nubia  also  presents  transitional  forms  in  its 
fauna  and  flora.  The  baobab  is  uo  longer  found  in  the  plains  to  the  north  of 
Kordof&n  and  the  advanced  Abyssinian  ranges.  The  deleb-palm,  which  predomi- 
nates in  the  region  of  the  two  Niles,  is  no  longer  met  with  north  of  the  confluence ; 
the  southern  variety  of  palm  which  is  the  true  ddm-palm,  advances  farther  towards 


Ml  NUUT11-KA8T  AFRICA. 

Kgypt,  hut  it  Hourooly  ever  excooda  the  limit  of  the  Huakin-Uerber  route;  north 
oi  thin  point  it  no  longer  grown  Rpontanoously.  The  urgun,  grovea  of  which  are 
found  iit  M)iao  hoUowH  in  thu  Koroiiko  desert,  and  which  the  majority  of  travellers 
t..ll  dUm,  is  another  kind  of  hyphtone  resembling  the  dftra,  however,  by  the 
ohururt  fistic  bifurcation  of  its  brunches.  The  peculiar  taste  of  its  fruit  might 
procure  for  it  the  name  of  the  gingorbreud-troo. 

KlHowhore  the  date,  which  is  the  characteristic  plant  of  Northern  Xubia, 
supplying  the  people  with  food,  shelter,  hurdles,  boskets,  seats,  and  coarse  gar- 
raents,  is  becoming  scarce  in  Southern  Nubia,  the  last  specimens  being  in  the 
gardens  of  Khartum.  Sycamores  are  still  found  in  the  streets  of  Dongola,  their 
evergpreon  foliage  contrasting  with  the  grey  walls,  but  they  are  gradually  dis* 
appearing  towards  the  south.  Far  from  the  river,  the  prevailing  trees  are  acacias 
and  mimosas  of  various  species.  A  tree  called  ochaa  yields  a  quantity  of  fruit 
covered  with  silky  down  very  brilliant  and  perfectly  white ;  according  to  Oluny 
fine  fabrics  are  woven  from  its  fibre  mixed  with  wool.  The  fruit-trees  of  the 
Mediterranean  zone,  such  as  vines,  oranges,  and  citrons,  are  cultivated  only  in  the 
gardens,  their  fruit  being  sour  and  tasteless,  and  generally  rotting  before  maturity. 
The  cereals  cultivated  in  Nubia,  either  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  or  else  in  the 
"  Valley  of  Inscriptions,"  and  in  the  steppes  of  the  interior,  belong  to  the  same 
species  as  those  of  £gypt. 

Fauna. 

The  wild  fauna  of  Southern  Nubia  does  not  differ  from  that  of  Eordolln  and 
the  slope  of  the  Abyssinian  mountains.  Lions,  leopards,  hyesnas,  antelopes,  and 
gazelles,  giraffes  and  ostriches,  inhabit  the  mimosa  forests  on  the  banks  of  the 
White  Nile  and  the  Bayuda  steppe ;  monkeys  descend  the  Nile  as  far  as  Berber, 
but  neither  the  elephant  nor  the  rhinoceros  pass  beyond  the  forest  regions  on  the 
middle  Atbara.  Tne  last  hippopotamus  that  has  been  seen  towards  the  north  was 
killed  in  the  Hannek  cataracts  about  the  middle  of  the  century,  although  ancient 
pictures  represent  it  as  inhabiting  the  stream  below  Syene. 

Millions  of  aquatic  birds  swarm  in  the  islets  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 
Russegger  has  followed  in  the  fresh  mud  deposited  by  the  waters  of  the.  Nile  the 
traces  of  an  animal  whose  footsteps  resemble  those  of  the  quadrumana,  and  which 
were  directed  from  the  water  towards  the  shore ;  but  he  did  not  see  the  animal 
itself,  the  amanit,  about  which  the  Nubians  tell  strange  stories.  The  termites,  still 
so  much  dreaded  at  Dongola,  are  not  found  farther  north  than  the  twentieth  degree 
of  north  latitude. 

The  Nubians  possess  only  one  kind  of  domestic  animal,  the  horse,  which  is  tall 
and  endowed  with  special  qualities.  Evidently  of  Arab  origin,  like  those  of  the 
Eababish  race  bred  in  the  neighbouring  oases,  these  coursers,  with  erect  heads  and 
thin  legs  white  up  to  the  knees,  possess  none  of  the  beauty  of  their  ancestors,  but 
they  are  astonishingly  nimble  and  fiery ;  they  are  fed  on  milk  and  durrah,  and 
oocasionally  on  dates.    The  gallop  is  their  usual  gait ;   they  roam  throughout  the 


TNlUniTANTS. 


808 


route ;  north 

of  which  are 

of  travellera 

i^ovor,  by  the 

8  fruit  might 


whole  region,  oven  in  the  mud  of  the  Nile  and  on  the  rocky  nlopon  of  the  moun- 
tainn.  liut  they  cannot  ntund  a  change  of  climate ;  they  die  out  of  Nubia,  and 
even  in  the  country  itaolf  have  been  greatly  diniiniiihed  ninco  they  have  l)ccn  ho 
much  nought  after  by  the  Egyptian  officers.  The  cameU  of  the  RiNharinH  and 
Ababdeha  are  no  leu  famous  for  their  speed  than  the  horses  of  DongoUt. 


rthern  Nubia, 
id  coarse  gar- 
being  in  the 
Jongola,  their 
p*adually  dis- 
ues  are  aoaoias 
mtity  of  fruit 
ling  to  Oluny 
t-trees  of  the 
ed  only  in  the 
ifore  maturity, 
or  else  in  the 
to  the  same 


Eordof&n  and 
antelopes,  and 
>  banks  of  the 
far  as  Berber, 
regions  on  the 
the  north  was 
hough  ancient 

B  of  the  Nile, 
f  the  Nile  the 
ma,  and  which 
see  the  animal 
B  termites,  still 
rentieth  deg^ree 

3,  which  is  tall 
:e  those  of  the 
greet  heads  and 
:  ancestors,  but 
id  durrah,  and 
ihroughout  the 


Inhahitants. 

Often  conquered,  and  consisting  of  little  more  than  the  di^uble  riverain  zone  of 
the  Nile,  Nubia  is  peopled  with  tribes  of  very  mixed  origin,  such  as  Ilamites, 
Arabs,  Nigritians,  and  Turks.  Nevertheless  the  basis  of  the  Nubian  population 
may  be  said  to  consist  of  Bar&braa,  who  call  themselves  "  the  people  of  the  soil." 
Some  authors  have  consideted  this  term  Bar&bra  synonymous  with  that  of  Ber- 
beri,  applied  to  the  Tuaregs  and  to  the  Kabyles  of  the  Sahara  and  Mauritania, 
who  are  related  by  their  speech  to  the  people  of  Siwah,  an  oasis  bordering  on 
Egypt.  But  so  great  is  the  difference  of  colour,  type,  and  mental  qualities  of 
these  populations,  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  believe  them  related,  without  going 
back  to  times  far  anterior  to  recorded  history.  According  to  a  general  but 
probably  groundless  opinion,  the  term  Berberi,  Bar&bra,  corrupted  to  Berberins  or 
Barbarins  in  the  lan^^ge  of  the  Franks  living  at  Cairo,  is  merely  the  Greek  or 
Latin  word  "barbarian"  applied  to  the  black  populations  who  live  above  the 
cataracts  beyond  civilised  Egypt. 

The  principal  Nigritian  tribes,  mentioned  over  forty  centuries  ago  on  the 
pillars  of  the  temples  as  having  dwelt  on  ihe  spot  whore  the  present  Bar&bras  now 
live,  are  designated  by  the  name  of  Uauu,  a  term  which  seems  to  convey  a  species 
of  contempt.  It  is  just  such  a  word  as  would  bb  applied  to  a  nation  of  "  yelpers," 
a  name  differing  little  from  that  of  "  stammerers,"  which  for  the  Greeks  had  the 
primitive  meaning  of  the  term  "  barbarians."  But  since  the  name  of  Beraberata 
has  been  discovered  on  the  Theban  lists  of  tribes,  it  is  hardly  to  be  doubted  that  the 
term  "  Bar&bra  "  is  derived  from  it.  ' 

But  however  this  may-  be,  the  Uaua  Negroes,  as  well  as  the  Beraberata,  have 
become  the  Barftbras  of  our  days,  but  not  witLuut  diverse  crossings  with  different 
populations.  From  the  twelfth  to  the  twentieth  dynasty  the  whole  of  the  Nile 
Valley,  colonised  by  the  Egyptians,  had  become  a  Betu  land  in  language  and  race. 
The  reactionary  movement  scarcely  commenced  before  the  Persian  epoch,  but  it 
was  not  till  the  Roman  period  that  the  native  elements  again  took  the  upper  hand. 
During  the  government  of  Diocletian  the  Blemmyes,  the  present  Bejas,  and  more 
especially  the  Bisharins,  invaded  the  region  of  Nubia  and  settled  there  in  a 
compact  body.  It  was  found  necessary  to  withdraw  the  Roman  garrisons,  and  in 
order  to  replace  them  an  appeal  had  to  be  '.nade  to  the  warlike  .tribes  called  the 
NubotsB,  who  were  very  probably  of  the  same  stock  as  the  Nubas  of  Eordof&n. 
From  these  people  the  Uauas  and  Blemmyes  have  received  the  dialects  which  still 
exist,  though  greatly  corrupted  by  Arab  terms. 


,; 


iv,.^' .-  ■.•:'sn^?;,iMrv;*':»it«t'rx--.i'i'-K)*'i/Ki*i'  »\-.^v^'Vp/yw-:/'\v^.^"'(^'.w//>.u«^v.i3^?at;iWiiPl'^ 


P!||( 


ill 


I 


294 


NOETH-EAST  AFRICA. 


The  Nubians  Proper. 


■'^   ;vj: 


The  Barbarins  are  amongst  the  darkest  of  the  African  tribes.  Their  com- 
plexion varies  from  the  colour  of  Florentine  bronze  to  an  almost  bluish-black ;  but 
under  their  dark  skins  are  transparent  reddish  hues,  by  which  they  are  clearly 
distinguished  from  the  Central  African  Negroes.  The  head  is  dolichocephalous, 
and  the  receding  forehead  is  covered  with  hair  which,  without  being  woolly  like 
that  of  the  Negro,  is  nevertheless  very  wavy.  Like  the  Nigritians  they  have  a 
scanty  beard,  but  their  features  are  much  more  regular;  and  BarHbras  are 
frequently  met  with  who  come  up  to  the  standard  of  European  beauty.  The  nose 
is  straight  and  firm,  with  broad  nostrils ;  the  lips,  clearly  cut,  are  rarely  thick  or 
pouting ;  the  teeth  are  small  and  beautifully  white ;  the  cheekbones  are  slightly 
prominent,  and  their  regular  ieatures  are  set  off  by  large,  open,  lustrous  eyes. 

The  Bar^bras  are  of  middle  height  and  well  proportioned ;  the  chest  is  shapely 
and  broad,  the  forearms  and  calves  are  somewhat  slight,  but  less  so  than  amongst 
the  Bedouin  nomads.  Like  the  Funj  and  Bejaa,  they  have  the  custom  of  making 
three  oblique  scars  on  each  cheek,  for  which  they  can  give  no  reason,  as  it  does 
not  serve  to  distinguish  them  from  other  peoples  of  Negro  or  Beja  race.  Under 
the  pretence  of  working  medical  cures,  the  Bar&bras  also  disfigure  their  handsome 
bodies  with  wounds.  Directly  they  experience  any  local  pain  or  mere  uneasiness, 
the  barber  cuts  a  gash  in  them,  and  draws  off  the  blood  which  escapes  from  the 
wound  through  a  cow's  horn ;  but  to  prevent  the  wound  from  haling  too  quickly 
it  is  kept  open  by  irritating  powders.  At  other  times  nails  are  made  red-hot 
and  thrust  into  the  flesh  by  the  head  or  point,  according  to  the  gravity  of  the 
disease.  !  , 

The  usual  dress  of  the  Nubians  consists  of  a  tunic,  over  which  they  wear  a 
long  blue  cotton  robe  like  that  of  the  Egyptian  fellahin.  The  dress  is  completed 
by  sandals  and  a  felt  skull-cap,  for  which  some  substitute  the  turban.  Weapons 
are  forbidden,  but  there  are  few  men  who  dr  not  carry  a  knife  or  poignard  con- 
cealed in  the  left  sleeve  and  attached  by  a  twisted  leather  thong. 

In  the  southern  part  of  Nubia  the  majority  of  the  young  girls,  instead  of 
tunics,  still  wear  the  rahad,  or  girdle  of  fringe  ornamented  with  pearls,  glass 
beads,  and  shells.  Nearly  all  the  northern  and  southern  Nubian  women  wear  a 
ring  in  one  of  their  nostrils,  and  pierce  the  lobe  of  the  ear,  inserting  pieces  of 
white  wood,  awaiting  the  time  when  their  husbands  shall  replace  them  by  trinkets 
of  metal.  The  female  manner  of  wearing  the  hair  is  still  the  same  as  that  repre- 
sented on  the  Egyptian  monuments ;  but  when  a  woman  dies  it  is  quite  a  day's 
work  to  unravel  her  hair,  which  is  saturated  with  grease  and  ochre,  because  their 
religion  forbids  that  they  should  be  buried  with  the  hair  dressed.  Some  women 
after  having  curled  their  hair,  cover  it  with  a  thick  coat  of  gum,  which  causes  it 
to  grow  round  the  head  in  the  shape  of  a  polished  helmet. 

The  Nubians  are  laborious  agriculturists.  Like  the  Egyptians,  they  water  the 
soil  with  the  shaduf  or  sakieh,  and  sow  it  with  durrah,  dokhn,  and  other  cereals. 
But  the  produce  of  their  fields,  restricted  to  a  narrow  zone  between  t'ue  river  and 


THE  DANAGLAS  AND  KENUZI. 


296 


Their  com- 
ish-black;  but 
ley  are  clearly 
ichocephaloiis, 
ng  woolly  like 
IS  they  have  a 
Bar&bras  are 
ity.     The  nose 
rarely  thick  or 
es  are  slightly 
rous  eyes, 
best  is  shapely 
than  amongst 
^m  of  making 
son,  as  it  does 
I  race.    Under 
heir  handsome 
ere  uneasiness, 
^pes  from  the 
ng  too  quickly 
I  made  red-hot 
gravity  of  the 

h  they  wear  a 

98  is  completed 

tan.    Weapons 

poignard  con- 

rls,  instead  of 
I  pearls,  glass 
women  wear  a 
ting  pieces  of 
em  by  trinkets 
<  as  that  repre- 
I  quite  a  day's 
,  because  their 
Some  women 
rhich  causes  it 

they  water  the 
other  cereals, 
t'ue  river  and 


the  steppe,  is  not  sufficient  to  support  them,  and  the  migrating  movement,  which 
attracts  so  many  Danaglas  towards  the  southern  countries,  also  yearly  brings  a 
number  into  the  towns  of  Egypt  to  seek  their  fortune.  Most  of  them  become 
servants  in  the  palaces  and  hotels  of  Cairo ;  others,  clothed  merely  in  a  wide- 
sleeved  blue  tunic,  or  else  splendidly  attired  in  brocade  and  gold,  become  sais,  and 
run  before  the  carriages  of  the  pashas  and  rich  Europeans.  Faithful  and  obedient, 
relatively  clean,  nearly  all  knowing  arithmetic,  and  how  to  read  and  write  Arabic, 
they  are  usually  preferred  to  servants  of  other  races.  Those  who  succeed  in 
escaping  diseases  and  accidents  gradually  manage  to  save  a  little,  and  when 
sufficiently  rich  they  return  to  their  country  and  purchase  a  plot  of  land,  and  live 
peacefully  on  their  income.  Egypt  thus  contributes  to  support  the  Nubian 
population,  thanks  to  the  thrift  of  the  immigrants ;  but  the  taxes  and  exactions  of 
every  kind  have  taken  away  from  them  much  more  than  they  ever  received. 
Before  the  Egyptian  conquest  the  people  of  Nubia  were  certainly  much  better  off 
than  they  are  at  the  present  day  ;  in  many  places  are  to  be  seen  on  the  rocks  and 
river  banks  the  picturesque  ruins  of  houses  and  even  villages,  such  as  would  at 
present  be  no  longer  built,  whilst  remains  of  abandoned  agricultural  tracts  are 
found  at  a  height  to  which  it  is  not  now  thought  necessary  to  bring  water.  In 
many  a  village  the  people  no  longer  defend  their  dwellings,  even  against  the 
termites ;  when  the  house  falls  they  take  refuge  under  a  hut  of  branches  or  mats. 

Emigration  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  the  passage  and  sojourn  of 
officials  and  soldiers  of  all  races,  have  naturally  variously  modified  the  primitive 
type,  and  men  and  women  are  frequently  met  amongst  the  Nubians  who  recall  the 
type  of  the  Itetus,  figured  on  the  Egyptian  monvonrints.  But  how  many  of  them 
are  there  who  no  longer  possess  the  general  character  of  the  race,  and  whom 
servitude  and  misery  have  rendered  as  cowardly,  timid,  and  effeminate  as  the 
fellahin !  But,  taken  collectively,  the  Nubians  are  active,  cheerful,  confiding  ai.d 
gentle.  But  when  brought  into  contact  with  the  Egyptians  they  too  often 
contract  their  drunken  habits. 

Since  their  conversion,  the  Nubians  have  become  much  more  zealous  partisans 
of  Islam  than  the  lowland  peasants  of  the  Nile,  and  regularly  observe  the  usual 
prayers  and  prostrations.  Nor  are  they  incapable  of  a  higher  state  of  civili6t;tion, 
as  is  proved  by  the  many  Nubians  who  have  had  the  opportunity  of  studying  in 
Cairo  or  even  in  Europe,  and  as  was  shown  in  the  past  by  the  existence  of  the 
ancient  pagan  realm  of  Meroe,  which  was  succeeded  by  the  Christian  states  of 
Dongola  and  Aloa.  The  name  of  kir&g4,  derived  from  the  Greek  kyriaki,  that  is 
to  say  "  Day  of  the  Lord,"  which  they  still  use  to  designate  the  Sunday,  is  a 
reminiscence  of  their  now-extinct  Christianity. 

The  Danaglas  and  Kenuzi. 

The  Bar&bras,  who  are  more  especially  termed  Danaglas  or  Danaglehs,  that  is 
"  People  of  Dongola,"  live  in  southern  Nubia,  principally  round  the  capital  and 
in  the  islands  of  the  river.     They  differ  from  the  northern  Barbarius  by  their  love 


il 


296 


NORTH-EAST  AFEIOA. 


of  trade ;  from  Khartum  in  Kordof&n  to  Darfur  they  are  grouped  together  in 
numerous  colonies.  They  also  hire  themselves  out  as  mercenaries,  and  in  this 
capacity  they  were  formerly  largely  employed  to  make  raids  into  the  zeriba  region 
to  procure  slaves  for  the  dealers. 

The  dialect  of  the  Danaglas  differs  little  from  that  of  the  northern  Bar&bras ; 
but  it  is  much  more  corrupted  by  Arabic  words,  thanks  to  their  commercial 
relations  with  this  people.  The  complexion  of  the  Mahas,  who  occupy  both  banks 
of  the  Nile  about  the  region  of  the  Third  Cataract,  is  darker  than  that  of  the 
Danaglas,  and  they  are  usually  more  boastful,  haughty  and  morose  in  character ; 
they  look  upon  themselves  .as  a  distinct  race.  The  Elenuzi,  the  Kens  of  the 
ancient  inscriptions,  inhabit  a  valley  farther  north,  between  Eorosko  and  the  First 
Cataract.       ru  i.f  ■sip'^f'-^./im' iiii-  ;  ^-,  ,•,,-.<  f  .,.  ^-^ 

The  pastoral  peoples,  who  enclose  the  Nubian  peasants  on  both  sides  of  their 
narrow  Nilotic  valley,  all  call  themselves  Arabs,  wht»t8oever  their  origin  may  be. 
Their  language  is  that  of  the  Prophet,  which  becomes  yearly  more  universally 
spoken.  The  name  they  apply  to  the  Nubians,  in  its  true  sense  recalling  the 
ancient  term  of  "  barbariai:;^,"  is  said  to  signify  "  embarrasred,  constrained, 
speaking  with  difficulty."  These  pastoral  peoples  nowhere  intermingle  with  the 
Nubian  peasantry ;  they  have  their  own  villages,  feast-days,  and  national  diess,  and 
nearly  all  of  them  go  bareheaded. 


,  '  ^  The  BisHARiN. 

The  most  charactoiistic  representatives  of  these  Nubian  "  Arabs,"  and  of  those 
constituting  the  most  numerous  group  of  tribes,  are  the  Bisharin,  who  are  pre- 
eminently Bejas,  and  whose  name,  slightly  modified,  may  probably  be  that  of  the 
whole  race.  These  Bejas  are  usually  estimated  at  200,000  persons.  The  Bisharin 
rarely  attain  a  great  height,  but  they  are  extremely  shrewd,  and  although  thin  and 
sinewy,  are  well  proportioned.  Their  complexion  difFers  greatly  from  that  of  the 
Nigritian  peoples,  and  excepting  in  those  families  that  have  been  modified  by 
crossings,  does  not  present  any  blackish  tinge.  Their  colour  is  more  of  a  red,  like 
that  of  the  American  Indian,  and  amongst  the  women,  who  are  under  cover  of  the 
tent,  differs  little  from  that  of  the  Calabrian  and  Sicilian  peasant-women.  The 
youths  are  so  slender  and  graceful  in  form  that  they  might  easily  be  taken  for 
young  girls. 

'  During  their  prime  the  features  of  the  Bisharin  are  regular  and  slightly 
ang^ar ;  the  nobo  is  straight  and  shapely ;  the  skin,  always  healthy  and  clean^ 
appears  as  if  stretched  over  their  hollow  cheeks,  and  on  smiling,  a  glimpse  is 
obtained  of  their  pure  ivory  teeth,  whitened  by  the  continual  mastication  of  the 
bark  of  the  arak,  an  evergreen  tree  found  in  abundance  near  Dougolu.  They 
never  smoke.  Old  age  comes  upon  them  rapidly,  fatigue,  mI;;ory,  hunger  and 
thirst  quickly  changing  their  appearance.  The  eye  is  bright  but  half  shut,  which 
is  caused  by  their  custom  cf  haK  closing  the  lid  to  evade  the  blinding  light 
reflected  from  the  sands. 


THE  ABABDEH  OP  NUBIA. 


297 


!d  together  in 
3,  and  in  this 
I  zeriba  region 

lem  Bar&bras ; 
»ir  commercial 
ipy  both  banks 
a  that  ol  the 

in  character; 

Kens  of  the 
» and  the  First 

sides  of  their 
origin  may  be. 
tre  imiversally 

recalling  the 
L,  constrained, 
ingle  with  the 
Lonal  diess,  and 


rr 


This  ocular  peculiarity  gives  them  a  somewhat  ferocious  appearance,  and  many 
of  them  might  certainly  be  accused  of  cruelty.  They  are  often  spoken  of  by 
travellers  as  men  without  pity  or  honour,  and  avarice  is  tb  nr  ruling  passion. 
Cheerful,  inquisitive,  and  garrulous,  they  converse  with  animation.  While  few  of 
them  are  of  a  religious  temperament,  they  have  nevertheless  preserved  a  few 
practices  of  an  origin  auterior  to  Islam ;  they  never  kill  the  serpent  or  the  par- 
tridge, which  latter  they  look  upon  as  a  sacred  bird. 

From  the  linguistic  and  geographical  standpoint,  the  Bisharin  form  a  connect- 
ing link  between  the  Hamitic  populations  and  the  Egyptians.  The  demotic  and 
hieroglyphic  inscriptions  of  Meroe  are  supposed  to  be  written  in  their  ancient 
dialect.  Property  amongst  the  Bisharin  is  not  personal,  but  common  to  all,  being 
divided  amongst  the  families  or  tribes.  Some  parts  of  the  steppes  are,  moreover, 
considered  common  property,  all  the  tribes  having  the  right  to  graze  their  herds  on 
these  tracts.  The  great  courage  of  the  Bisharin  is  made  manifest  in  the  rules 
regulating  their  duels.  Each  man  in  turn  seizes  a  knife,  which  he  thrusts  into  his 
adversary's  body,  taking  care  not  to  wound  him  mortally  ;  the  elders  act  as  umpires, 
praising  or  blaming  the  attitude  of  the  combatants,  ai.  i  separate  them  when  honour 
seems  to  be  satisfied.  Amongst  some  of  the  tribes  adultery  is  considered  a  very 
minor  fault ;  the  nobility  of  the  race  is  transmitted  by  the  women. 


The  Ababdeh  of  Nubia. 


:A-.n,: 


"  and  of  those 
who  are  pre- 
be  that  of  the 
The  Bisharin 
lough  thin  and 
om  that  of  the 
Q  modified  by 
B  o£  a  red,  like 
er  cover  of  the 
•women.  The 
y  be  taken  for 

r  and  slightly 
[thy  and  clean^ 
r,  a  glimpse  is 
tication  of  the 
angola.  They 
•y,  hunger  and 
alf  shut,  which 
blinding  light 


The  Ababdeh,  "  Arabs  "  of  African  origin,  probably  the  Gebad^i  of  Pliny,  are 
said  to  have  numbered  40,000  at  the  period  of  Russegger's  voyage  in  this  coimtry. 
But  they  appear  to  have  diminished  greatly,  having  doubtless  amalgamated  with 
the  Bisharins,  whose  hereditary  enemies  they  were  at  the  time  when  they  con- 
stituted a  powerful  nation.  Their  principal  tribes  are  encamped  in  Nubia,  the 
others  overrunning  the  region  of  plateaux  and  ravines  comprised  between  the  Nile 
and  the  Bed  Sea;  a^  far  as  to  the  north  of  Kosseir. 

The  Ababdehs  call  themselves  "  Sons  of  the  Jinns,"  as  if  to  point  out  that  they 
are  aborig^es  bom  in  the  desert.  They  somewhat  resemble  the  Bisharin ;  but 
their  features  are  more  delicate,  their  movements  more  graceful,  and  their  disposi- 
tion milder.  The  northern  Ababdeh  speak  Arabic  intermingled  with  Bar^bra 
words,  those  of  the  south  have  retained  their  Beja  dialect,  whilst  the  predominating 
language  amongst  those  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Nile  is  said  to  be  that  of  the  Bar- 
barins.  Elunzinger  has  ascertained  that  the  Ababdehs  of  Eosseir  refuse  to  speak 
their  national  tongue  before  strangers,  as  they  think  that  to  reveal  their  mysterious 
dialect  would  bring  ruin  upon  them.  Evil  would  also  fall  amongst  their  family  if 
a  girl  were  to  set  eyes  on  her  mother  after  her  marriage.  Hence,  as  amongst  the 
Bantus  of  southern  Africa,  the  Ababdeh  husband  is  expected  to  select  for  his  resi- 
dence some  distant  place  where  he  is  never  likely  to  meet  his  dreaded  mother-in- 
law. 

Unlike  the  Arab,  he  does  not  live  under  the  tent,  but  builds  a  hut  with  hurdles 
and  mats,  which  he  pulls  down  and  transports  on  camels,  when  it  is  necessary  to 


.:.-*:.-Li^ii.*ii/';."^--:.'-!:ri'>^.S''lii;il*.-^.f;A 


298 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


seek  fresh  pastures.  The  Ababdeh  likewise  dwell  in  grottoes,  similar  to  those  of 
their  ancestors  the  Troglodytes.  If  the  clay  of  these  caverns  were  explored,  it  woidd 
undoubtedly  yield  a  rich  harvest  of  prehibtoric  objects. 

Gums,  a  few  other  simple  products,  and  fish,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Red  Sea,  are 
the  only  means  of  exchange  by  which  the  Ababdeh  procure  the  durrah  required  for 
their  frugal  diet.  Most  travellers  speak  highly  of  their  honesty,  gentleness,  and 
frankness,  and  however  miserable  they  may  be,  they  never  beg  like  the  fellahin. 


if 


Other  Ethnical  Elements  in  Nubia. 

The  powerful  Eababish  and  Hassanieh  tribes,  who  extend  beyond  their  own 
domains,  where  they  are  too  much  crowded  together,  into  Kordof&n  and  into  the 
peninsiila  lying  between,  and  formed  by  the  two  Niles ;  the  Shukrieh,  encroaching 
on  the  steppes  to  the  north  of  the  Atbara ;  the  Sawrat,  the  Hawins,  and  the  Jeraiad  of 
the  Bay  uda ;  lastly,  the  Bobabat,  and  Shaikieh,  who  occupy  the  two  banks  of  the  Nile 
between  Berber  and  Dongola,  and  now  speak  the  Danagla  lang^ge,  complete  the 
population  of  Nubia.  These  Arabs  or  peoples  assimilated  to  the  "  Arabs  "  possibly 
amount  to  200,000  or  300,000  persons.  Immigrants  from  other  regions  have  been 
amalgamated  with  the  body  of  the  Bar&bra  nation,  and  the  memory  of  their  origin 
has  been  retained  only  by  the  aristocratic  families  who  have  taken  interest  in  pre- 
serving their  genealogies. 

Such  is  the  case  with  the  Bosniaks,  who  are  descendants  of  the  soldiers  sent  in 
1520,  on  a  mission  to  re-establish  peace  in  the  country.  They  caused  fortresses  to  be 
built  on  the  escarpments  overlooking  the  river,  settled  there  as  sovereigpos  of  the 
country,  and  allied  themselves  by  marriage  to  the  ancient  chiefs.  At  the  present 
time  these  "  Ealaj  "  of  Bosnia  are  still  the  most  important  people  of  Lower  Nubia, 
more  especially  between  Assuan  and  Korosko,  and  to  them  it  is  that  the  Egyptian 
Government  has  intrusted  the  local  administration. 


Topography. 


Below  Berber,  Abu-Hamed,  the  principal  starting-point  of  the  caravans, 
occupies  one  of  those  positions  which  in  time  become  market-towns.  A  large  city 
might  even  spring  up  in  this  place  were  both  banks  of  the  Nile  not  bounded  by  a 
vast  desert.  Here  it  is  that  the  river,  ceasing  to  flow  north-westwards,  trends 
abruptly  round  to  the  south-west,  commencing  the  great  curve  which  it  comp' otes 
at  a  distance  of  240  miles  farther  north.  To  avoid  this  enormous  detour  the 
merchants  are  compelled  to  leave  the  Nile,  and  journey  for  seven  or  eight  days 
amid  the  rocks  and  sands  of  the  desert. 

South  of  AbCl-Hamed  the  valley  of  the  Nile  is  broadened  by  the  large  island  of 
Mograt,  which  leaves  to  this  mart  fertile  lands  more  extensive  than  those  of  most 
other  Nubian  villages.  But  the  port  where  the  merchants  of  Eorosko  embark  and 
disembark  is  merely  a  group  of  cabins,  inhabited  by  -^aiuel-drivers  and  fishermen. 
Doubtless  the  caravan  traders  in  this  coimtry  have  no  ir;^  of  warehouses  to  protect 


Mm 


tsa 


MARAWI— BARKAL. 


299 


lar  to  those  of 
plored,  it  would 

le  Bed  Sea,  are 
•ah  required  for 
gentleness,  and 
the  fellahin. 


ond  their  own 
a  and  into  the 
)h,  encroaching, 
d  the  Jeraiad  of 
mks  of  the  Nile 
B,  complete  the 
Lrabs  "  possibly 
^ions  have  been 
of  their  origin 
nterest  in  pre- 

Boldiers  sent  in 
[  fortresses  to  be 
'ereigns  of  the 
At  the  present 
f  Lower  Nubia, 
b  the  Egyptian 


the  caiuvans, 
A  large  city 
t  bounded  by  a 
5stwftrds,  trends 
oh  it  comp'otes 
lous  detour  the 

or  eight  days 

)  large  island  of 
1  those  of  most 
sko  embark  and 
and  fishermen, 
ouses  to  protect 


their  goods ;  they  deposit  their  bales  in  the  sand,  under  the  protection  of  the  shrine 
consecrated  to  "  Saint  Abd-Hamed,"  and  when  they  return,  after  an  absence  of 
months,  or  years,  they  always  find  their  property  just  as  they  left  it  under  the 
shadow  of  this  venerated  tomb.  ^  ^ 

;;/  Marawi — Barkal. 

Some  ruins  are  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  between  Ab(i-Hamed  and  the 
Fourth  Cataract,  but  it  is  below  these  rapids  that,  next  to  those  of  Meroe,  the  most 
remarkable  ruins  of  Upper  Nubia  are  met  with.  Marawi,  the  village  which  at 
present  stands  in  this  part  of  the  valley,  is  a  name  which  seems  to  be  derived  from 
that  of  the  ancient  capital ;  nevertheless,  archaeologists,  relying  on  the  statements 
of  authors,  are  certain  that  Marawi  is  the  Napata  of  Herodotus,  and  the  inscriptions 
deciphered  are  unanimous  on  this  point. 

Marawi,  situated  at  the  foot  of  white  rocks,  occupies  an  important  geographical 
situation,  being  the  place  where  navigation  recommences  below  the  Fourth  Cataract, 
and  the  converging  point  of  the  two  routes  from  Berber  and  Shendi,  across  the 
Bayuda  steppe.  The  Wady-Dum,  one  of  the  most  fertile  and  least  dried-up 
valleys  of  this  region,  forms  a  conflilence  with  the  Nile  valley  precisely  opposite 
Marawi.  Large  heaps  of  rubbish  mark  the  site  of  the  destroyed  monuments,  and, 
not  far  above,  the  remains  of  great  buildings  are  still  to  be  seen  at  the  base  of  the 
superb  Mount  Barkal,  an  enormous  quadrangular  sandstone  mass,  poised  in  the 
middle  of  th'  plain  like  a  pedestal  awaiting  its  statue.  The  hieroglyphic  name  of 
Barkal  was  '"  Holy  Mountain,"  and  its  principal  temple  was  dedicated  to  the  glory 
of  Ammon-Ba.  Of  this  building  but  few  ruins  remain,  sufficient,  however,  to  leave 
no  doubt  as  to  the  Egyptian  origin  of  the  monument  attributed  to  Bamses  the  Great. 
Nevertheless,  the  name  of  Amenemha  III.  is  also  found  on  the  granite  rams  and 
lions  of  natural  size.  In  1863,  Mariette  discovered  amongst  the  monimients  of 
Barkal  five  columns  of  the  highest  importance,  proving  that  Ethiopia  had  a  very 
important  position  among  the  Egyptian  dynasties.  For  a  period  of  fifty-one  years, 
three  Ethiopian  kings,  residing  in  Nubia,  ruled  over  the  greater  part  of  Egypt. 
One  of  these  conquerors,  Tahraka  by  name,  carried  his  expeditions  even  into  Asia. 
The  European  museums  possess  several  of  these  monuments  from  Mount  Barkal. 

Groups  of  pyramids  are  found  near  the  temple.  But  the  most  remarkable 
structures  of  this  description  are  those  which,  to  the  number  of  twenty-five,  stand 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  near  the  village  of  Nttri.  These  latter,  larger  than 
the  pyramids  of  Meroe,  are  not  so  well  preserved,  owing  to  the  less  durable 
qualities  of  the  sandstone,  and  nearly  all  have  lost  their  exterior  coating  of 
polished  stones.  In  the  interior  are  found  vaults,  a  method  of  support  which  was 
tiU  recently  believed  to  be  an  Etruscan  invention,  but  which,  nevertheless,  occurs 
in  various  Oriental  countries,  notably  at  Saqqarah  in  the  tombs  of  the  sixth  dynasty. 

In  the  wady  of  Ab{i-Dum,  soiith  of  Nuri,  atfi  seen  the  ruins  of  a  fine  church 
and  of  a  convent  in  the  Byzantine  style ;  but  nowhere,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river, 
are  to  be  found  the  traces  of  such  an  important  town  as  Nafata  must  have  been, 
which  stood  on  the  northern  bonk.    The  whole  of  this  country  formerly  possessed 


i  i>^Ali\.tt^afA^j.A 


V 


800 


NORTH-EAST  AFBICA. 


a  large  population.  The  numerous  ruins  found  beyond  the  g^up  of  buildings  of 
which  Marawi  is  iliu  centre,  belong  to  diverse  historical  epochs ;  they  consist  of 
pyramids,  dating  from  the  period  of  the  Byzantine  influences,  and  fortresses 
constructed  after  the  triumphs  of  Islam. 

Old  and  New  Donoola. 

The  head  of  the  curve  which  the  Nile  describes  before  resuming  its  northern 
course,  like  that  of  Abil-Hamed,  could  not  fail  to  become  a  rendezvous  for 
merchants.  But  the  deviation  of  the  river  is  here  much  more  extensive,  and  the 
caravans  have  had  the  choice  of  several  sites  for  their  stations  of  arrival  and 
departure.  Thus  follow  in  succession  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  going  north* 
wards,  the  trading  stations  of  Korti,  Ambukol,  Abii-D&m  (Abdum),  Dabbeh,  and 
Ahu'Omai,  where  terminates  the  route  to  Khartum  through  the  Wady-Mokattam. 
Dabbeh  was  the  station  chosen  by  the  British  expedition  of  1884  as  the  centre  of 
their  supplies.  Abli-Gossi  has  been  fixed  by  the  (engineers  as  the  point  where  the 
Nile  railway  will  enter  on  the  desert  along  the  valley  of  the  Wady-Melek ;  at 
the  Sotahl  wells  the  line  will  branch  o£P  on  one  side  towards  Khartum,  and  on  the 
other  towards  Darfur. 

Dongola-el'Ajusa,  or  Old  Dongola,  which  is  believed  to  have  existed  under  the 
name  of  Deng-ur  at  the  period  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  Empire,  was  till  recently 
the  most  important  town  of  the  country.  It  stands  farther  down  o;ii  a  sandstone 
rock  which  commands  the  iight  bank  of  the  river  from  a  height  of  about  one  hun- 
dred feet.  Here  was  discovered  a  column  which  has  since  been  placed  in  the 
Berlin  museum. 

Dongola  was  the  capital  of  a  Christian  realm  which  lasted  for  eight  hundred 
years,  down  to  the  fourteenth  century.  It  was  still  populous  at  the  time  when  the 
Mameluks,  flying  from  the  wrath  of  Mohanuned-Ali,  settled  doMm  in  the  country 
in  the  character  of  devastators,  the  Turks,  who  followed  close  on  their  heels, 
completing  the  work  of  destruction.  The  islands  which  follow  in  succession 
between  the  arms  of  the  Nile,  from  Old  to  New  Dongola,  are  mostly  cultivated, 
and  present  a  charming  appearance,  with  their  borders  of  palms  reflected  in 
the  flowing  stream.  Naft,  one  of  these  islands,  is  the  birthplace  of  the  Mahdi, 
Mohammed  Ahmed. 

Dongola-el-Jedidehy  or  New  Dongola,  the  present  capital  of  Nubia,  is  also  known 
by  the  names  of  Ka&r  Dongola  (Castle  of  Dongola),  and  Al'Ordu{i)xQ  Camp),  in 
reference  to  the  fact  that  it  really  sprang  from  a  camp  which  the  Mameluks  pitched 
near  the  village  of  Marakah.  It  lies  over  a  mile  west  of  the  great  arm  of  the  Nile, 
on  the  bank  of  a  canal  which  at  high  tide  serves  r.s  a  port,  but  which  at  low  water 
becomes  a  mere  stagnant  pool  emitting  dangerous  miasmas.  Consisting  of  low 
houses  with  courts,  outhouses,  and  gardens,  Dongola  o<xupies  a  considerable  extent 
of  ground,  and  some  of  its  buildings,  amongst  others  a  fortress  in  which  are  to  be 
seen  the  rouains  of  a  castle  built  by  the  natiiralist  Ehrenberg,  give  to  the  whole  a 
8tifficiently  imposing  appearance.     According  to  Ensor,  the  mean  population  of  the 


I 


OLD  AND  NEW  DONGOLA. 


801 


of  buildings  of 
they  consist  of 
and  fortresses 


Jig  its  northern 
rendezvous  for 
tensive,  and  the 
of  arrival  and  ^ 
)r,  going  north- 
i),  Dabbeh,  and 
ady-Mokattam. 
18  the  centre  of 
point  where  the 
^ady-Melek;  at 
biun,  and  on  the 

Isted  under  the 
ffaa  till  recently 
0:11  a  sandstone 
about  one  hun- 
D  placed  in  the 

r  eight  hundred 
3  time  when  the 
.  in  the  country 
on  their  heels, 
'  in  succession 
ostly  cultivated, 
ms  reflected  in 
of   the   Mahdi, 

ia,  is  also  known 
((the  Camp),  in 
ameluks  pitched 
arm  of  the  Nile, 
Ich  at  low  water 
msisting  of  low 
isiderable  extent 
which  are  to  be 
I  to  the  whole  a 
)opulation  of  the 


town  does  not  exceed  7,000,  which,  however,  is  doubled  when  the  peasantry  return 
from  their  fields  in  the  neighbourhood. 

To  travellers  coming  from  the  north,  who  are  accustomed   to  houses   with 


^-w.v< 


Fig.  93.— DoMOOLA  AND  THi  Thiud  Catahaot. 

Soale  1  :  8UO.0OO. 


30'50 


if  braenwich 


SO' 


19' 


31° 


,  sUilei. 


terraces,  Dougola  offers  a  great  surprise.     Tht^-^     ^^i-^a  the  inclined  roofs,  which 
immediately  point  out  the  change  in  tho  clin  ixansition  from  the  dry  zone 

to  that  of  the  periodical  summer  rains.    The'>  .jserre  the  incessant  work  of 


MMJI  JilWIifHWi)  tfil,  |i  I  ^jMI  lllllliil 


i 


111 


i  m 


V  ^ 


m 


802 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


destruction  carried  on  by  the  termite,  an  insect  unknown  to  the  riverain  peoples  of 
the  Lower  Nile,  and  which  compel  the  people  to  be  continually  engaged  in  repairing 
their  dwellings.  Before  the  war,  which  for  several  months  caused  Dongola  to  be 
one  of  the  most  important  bulwarks  of  the  Egyptian  Empire,  this  town  enjoyed  a 
fair  amount  of  commerce ;  and  its  port  was  often  crowded  with  craft  scarcely  inferior 
in  size  to  the  dahabiyeh,  but  carrying  a  square  instead  of  the  lateen  sail  used  below 
the  cataracts. 

Below  Dongola  the  course  of  the  Nile  is  divided  by  Argo,  one  of  the  largest 
islands  of  Nubia  and  one  of  the  most  beautiful,  thanks  to  its  wooded  hills,  cultivated 
fields,  villages  hidden  beneath  the  foliage,  and  its  sakieh  or  waterwheels,  which  the 
oxen  turn  slowly  beneath  the  shade  of  the  sycamores.  Thousands  of  years  ago 
Argo  was  one  of  the  centres  of  Egyptian  civilisation  in  the  Nubian  regions ;  here 
was  settled,  at  the  period  of  the  third  dynasty,  a  powerful  colony  of  Egyptians. 
On  this  island  have  been  discovered  huge  ruins  dating  from  this  epoch,  notably 
two  quadrangular  masses  or  tombs,  a  magnificent  colossus  of  Sookhotpu  lY.  and 
remains  of  sculptures  of  the  most  exquisite  style  and  partially  engraved  with  hiero- 
glyphics. Two  unfinished  columns  of  g^ey  granite  lying  upon  the  ground  have 
been  probably  overthrown  by  some  conquering  people  before  being  able  to  witness 
to  the  glory  of  the  sovereign  who  had  caused  them  to  be  erected  by  his  enslaved 
subjects.  At  the  period  of  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the  Turks  Argo  consti- 
tuted a  distinct  kingdom. 

■  J- 

f        The  Wady-Kab  and  Selimeh  Oases. 

To  the  west  of  Dongola  lies  the  Wady-Kab,  a  chain  of  twelve  oases  running 
northwards,  and  following  the  Nile  at  a  short  distance  from  it.  According  to 
Russegger  it  should  be  regarded  as  an  ancient  arm  of  the  Nile,  continuing  that 
occupied  by  the  present  depression  of  Wady-Mokattam.  Bounded  right  and  left 
by  low  eminences  disposed  like  the  cliifs  along  a  watercourse,  the  £ab  undoubtedly 
resembles  a  river-bed,  and  passes  into  the  Nile  valley  above  the  cataract  of 
Hannek.  It  is  supposed  to  lie  at  a  lower  level  than  that  of  the  present  Nile ;  but 
the  numerous  sources  and  sheets  of  water  contained  in  the  wady  might  be 
accounted  for  by  the  infiltration  of  water  from  the  river.  The  pasturages,  brush- 
wood, and  groves  of  dates  and  other  trees  make  of  this  depression  a  chain  of  oases 
which  coidd  support  a  numerous  population,  yet  it  is  only  periodically  visited 
by  Kababish  nomads,  who  come  to  graze  their  herds  and  to  procure  dates,  and 
the  wood  which  they  sell  at  Dongola  for  the  construction  of  the  hoiuies  and 
sukiehs. 

Still  farther  north  are  other  oases,  but  of  much  less  extent.  That  of  Selimeh, 
which  lies  on  the  caravan  route  between  Assuan  and  Darfur,  had  no  fixed  popula- 
tion at  a  recent  period,  although  its  springs,  sheltered  by  groves  of  palms,  are  filled 
with  good  water.  At  the  period  of  Browne's  expedition,  towards  the  end  of  the 
last  century,  it  is  said  to  have  had  nothing  but  pasturages  ;  but  in  the  year  1822 
Cailliaud  here  found  tamarisks  and  some  himdreds  of  palms,  which  had  probably 


■gjJ^tS'i.' 


■^"•»i""Wt~'»»»W»"t?"iWT»mpipP 


erain  peoples  of 
ged  in  repairing 
1  Dongola  to  be 
town  enjoyed  a 
scarcely  inferior 
I  sail  used  below 

le  of  the  largest 
hills,  cultivated 
heels,  which  the 
Is  of  years  ago  , 
,n  regions ;  here 
f  of  Egyptians. 
a  epoch,  notably 
khotpu  lY.  and 
ived  with  hiero- 
be  ground  have 
able  to  witness 
by  his  enslaved 
■ks  Argo  consti- 


3  oases  running 
According  to 
Dontinuing  that 
d  right  and  left 
[ab  undoubtedly 
the  cataract  of 
esent  Nile ;  but 
'ady  might  be 
Jturages,  brush- 
i  chain  of  oases 
odically  visited 
•cure  dates,  and 
die  houses  and 

liatof  Selimeh, 
lO  fixed  popula- 
palms,  are  filled 
the  end  of  the 
1  the  year  1822 
h  had  probably 


SOLEB— AMARAH— SEMNEH— EMKA. 


808 


been  but  recently  planted.  At  one  time  the  English  appear  to  have  entertained 
the  project  of  constructing  a  fort,  and  maintaining  a  permanent  garrison  in  the 
Selimoh  oasis  for  the  purpobe  of  commanding  the  route  to  Darfur,  and  overawing 
the  neighbouring  peoples  in  the  Nile  valley. 

■'■  H'.  SoLEB — Amarah. 

The  usual  route  by  river  to  the  Selimeh  oasis  starts  from  the  village  of  Solel, 
below  the  Third  Cataract.  The  houses  of  the  village  are  overtopped  by  the  rains 
of  a  temple,  one  of  the  finest  and  largest  specimens  of  ancient  Egyptian  workman- 
ship to  be  found  in  Nubia.  The  columns  which  still  stand  are  as  elegant  as  those  of 
Greek  temples  ;  but  the  sculptures  and  inscriptions  in  honour  of  Amenemha  III. 
are  not  numerous,  and  the  interior  is  a  mere  chaos  of  rubbish. 

Lower  down  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  stand  the  sculptured  pillars  of  the 
temple  of  Amarah,  surroundied  by  palm  groves,  whose  fruit  is  the  most  highly 
valued  throughout  tlie  whole  of  Nubia.  Here  begins  that  region  of  gorges  and 
rapids  which  the  Arabs  call  "  Botn-el-Hagar."  Although  the  cliffs  on  both  sides 
almost  meet  here  and  there,  the  banks  of  the  river  are  everywhere  cultivated. 
When  ♦he  strip  of  alluvia  is  only  a  few  yards  broad,  it  is  usually  sown  with 
haricots  or  lentils ;  but  when  the  arable  zone  is  not  so  narrow  it  is  used  for  raising 
crops  of  durrah ;  and  if  still  more  extensive  it  bears  a  few  palms,  under  which 
nestle  small  groups  of  huts. 

The  crests  of  the  neighbouring  rocks  are  crowned  by  the  towers  of  strongholds 
and  the  walls  of  ancient  entrenched  camps.  The  remains  of  a  feudal  system 
similar  to  that  of  Europe,  the  Nubian  castles  differ  little  from  those  of  the  Rhine, 
except  that  the  battlements  and  keeps  are  built  in  red  brick,  whilst  the  roofs, 
slightly  inclined,  are  broader  at  the  base  than  at  the  summit,  and  all  the  towers  are 
conical.  One  of  the  thermal  springs  which  rise  in  these  gorges  on  the  banks  of 
the  Nile,  is  much  frequented  by  the  sick  persons  of  the  surrounding  country,  but 
only  during  the  season  of  low  water,  as  at  other  periods  the  beach  is  covered  by 
the  floods.  The  sands  give  birth  to  several  springs,  many  of  which  are  probably 
rivulets  which  filtered  through  from  the  Nile  during  the  floods,  and  are  now 
returning  to  the  main  stream:  , 

Semneh — Emka. 

.  At  Semneh,  one  of  the  few  villages  situated  in  the  Botn-el-Hagar,  two  cliffs  on 
the  banks  of  the  Nile  each  bear  an  Egyptian  fortress  of  the  twelfth  dynasty.  At 
the  period  of  the  inundations  the  broad  bed  of  the  Nile  is  entirely  flooded ;  but 
at  low  water  nearly  the  whole  of  the  space  comprised  between  the  two  cliffs  is 
occupied  by  shining  black  granite  rocks,  pierced  with  holes  and  intersected  by 
deep  crevasses.  It  is  now  merely  a  narrow  channel  about  100  feet  broad,  through 
which  rushes  a  foaming  body  of  water  at  the  rate  of  several  hundred  cubic  feet 
per  second.  In  no  other  part  of  its  course  does  the  Nile  present  a  more  magnificent 
appearance.  .  . 


't1 

;,1 


■i 


4 


8U4 


N0BTII-BA8T  AFRICA. 


ki '    M 


P    i 


It    .. 


Semneh  ia  the  wcll-knowti  placo  where  Lepsiua  dinoovered  numerous  inscrip- 
tions carved  in  the  rock,  iiulicuting  the  height  of  the  Nilotic  floods  during  the 
reign  of  Amenemha  III.,  and  showing  how  considerably  the  water-mark  has  been 
changed  during  forty  centuries.  Hut  even  at  a  level  much  higher  than  that 
reached  by  the  floods  in  the  time  of  the  I'haraohs,  labyrinths  of  polished  rocks 
are  seen  absolutely  similar  to  those  now  washed  by  the  present  waters  of  the 
river.  Opposite  the  village  of  Emka,  the  rock  is  more  deeply  scored  with  a 
horizontal  lino,  which  M.  Pouchot  believes  to  be  the  primitive  level  of  the  Nile 
floods.  Not  far  from  this  spot  lies  Wady-Sarras,  the  present  (1885)  terminus  of 
the  railway  which  skirts  the  cataract. 


■:\M\{ 


Wady  -  Half4. 


Wady- Haifa,  or  the  "  Volley  of  Reeds,"  is  situated  on  the  right  bonk  of  the 
Nile,  over  o  mile  below  the  last  rapid  of  the  Second  Cotaract.  A  fc-  fields  and  a 
belt  of  palms  growing  in  the  sand  surround  the  huts  of  this  vil'  which  has 
become  of  great  military  and  commercial  importance  as  a  st  .  where  the 
caravans  unload  and  reform.  Moreover,  Wady- Haifa,  as  the  capital  of  the 
frontier  district,  now  enjoys  an  extensive  administrative  jurisdiction,  the  ofliciol 
boundary  of  Egypt  and  Nubia  having  been  transferred  from  the  First  to  the  Second 
Cataract.  During  the  campaign  of  1884-5,  the  English  here  established  their 
principal  provisioning  depot  in  Nubia,  and  since  1875  the  Egjrptians  have  made  it 
the  terminus  of  the  railway  which  skirts  the  Cataracts,  and  which  may  idtimately 
be  pushed  on  to  Dongola. 

A  bridge  will  have  to  be  raised  at  Koyeh,  near  Soleb,  below  the  Third  Cataract, 
so  as  to  open  up  a  route  to  the  capital  of  Nubia  across  the  western  desert.  In 
order  to  aurmount  the  rapids  of  Wady-Halfa,  the  English  employed  boats  of  a 
special  make,  the  guidance  of  which  was  intrusted  to  Canadian  and  Iroquois 
boatmen,  accustomed  from  their  youth  to  sail  down  the  rapids  of  the  Canadian 
rivers.  May  not  the  presence  of  these  Iroquois  boatmen  on  the  Cataracts  of  the 
Nile  be  taken  as  a  striking  proof  of  how  greatly  the  size  of  the  world  has  been 
reduced  by  steam  ? 


l.-|!  M 


Derr — EoRosKo — Ibsambul. 

Till  recently  the  population  of  Wady-Halfa  was  much  Hmaller  than  that  of 
Derr,  a  village  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  its  houses  scattered  amidst 
groves  of  palms,  in  the  most  fertile  part  of  Nubia,  known  by  the  name  of  Boston, 
or  "  the  garden." 

The  traffic  of  Wady-Halfa  was  also  less  important  than  that  of  the  station  of 
Eorosko,  situO'  ed  on  the  right  bank,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  caravan  route 
which  avoids  tiie  great  curve  of  the  Nubian  Nile.  Between  Wady-Halfa  and 
Derr  the  river  flows  by  the  foot  of  two  temples  which  take  their  place  amongst 
the  marvels  of  Egyptian  art ;  they  are  the  monuments  of  Ibsambul,  more  com- 


-^wiS 


-WF 


rtr^'^m^t^mfm 


•ym^m^ifmm 


merouH  inscrip- 

odfl  during  the 

•mark  has  been 

gher  than  that 

polished  rocka 

waters  of  the 

scored  with  a 

)vel  of  the  Nile 

(5)  terminus  of 


ht  bank  of  the 

fe^<^  fields  and  a 

I'        which  has 

..  where  the 

capital   of  the 

tion,  the  official 

st  to  the  Second 

stablished  their 

,ns  have  made  it 

may  ultimately 

Third  Cataract, 
)m  desert.  In 
oyed  boats  of  a 
a  and  Iroquois 
the  Canadian 
Cataracts  of  the 
world  has  been 


DERBr-KOROSKO  - 1  nSAM  m  T  L. 


monly  known  by  the  orronoous  noino  of  Abu-Siml)ol.  Thoy  are  b«»f.h  howii  out  of 
the  rod  furruginouH  HiuulHtone  comimHJng  the  mountainH  which  hhu  on  the  hift 
])ank  of  the  rivor.  IJntwoen  the  two  nniks  gunhos  forth  u  cutaruot  of  yellow  sand, 
borne  thilher  by  the  wind  from  the  Libyan  d*^  .  nd  forming  an  ovor-iin'rcaMing 
mound  before  each  temple,  which,  on  varion-i  vocosic  >  i,  it  has  been  found  uecessaiy 
to  clear  away  from  the  entrances  and  staVK  VI.         -   -»,  •       •  •   t 

The  southern  or  great  temple,  built  in  honour  of  Ammon-Ra,  the  nun-god,  is 
cntiri'ly  hewn  out  of  the  living  rock.     Before  the  gate  sit  four  colossi,  over  60 

FJr.  04.— Tmr  TcMi-La  or  Ahu-Simmki,,  in  Nuhm. 


"  id 

,tJMi|»j:|^ 

^H|^^B|^                      .'''"'§ 

M 

t) 

X  B^^^^^HHHHII 

P^  r' 

.'I 

~  *           "-« 

fv 

-     1                    ~,           ^<^       ^ 

^^           ■* 

.¥ 

—       ~                         * 

i- 

'  ^  .M0K^^^. 

P 
U  ^ 

,-.'-■'■■ 

"'^:l^-.-^ 

."'^I  li&miSMkSU&ISakMB^^^^^^^^^^^^^.  ,■ . ;.  T  .•■ 

»■■■    -  ■-.   .  "    'l            '     ^   M 

T^'T^m 

miP>''-'  *'•( -^       I 

^%-^im^^ 

fr^:zA^^^^^ 

Wi-'--i::J 

-:m 


^^ 


er  than  that  of 
scattered  amidst 
name  of  Boston, 

>f  the  station  of 
he  caravan  route 
rady-Halfa  and 
'  place  amongst 
abul,  more  com- 


feet  in  height,  of  noble  and  placid  countenance,  supposed  to  represent  Ramses  II. ; 
but  of  one  of  these  gigantic  statues,  decapitated  by  an  English  traveller,  the  lower 
part  is  all  that  remains.  \-, 

All  the  colossi  are  covered  with  inscriptions,  Greek  and  Phoenician  being 
even  found  in  the  midst  of  the  hieroglyphics.  In  the  interior  of  the  rock  follow 
in  succession  three  large  halls  and  twelve  of  a  smaller  size,  whose  walls  are  embel- 
lished with  hieroglyphic  paintings  and  sculptures,  whose  colours  are  still  brilliant. 
One  of  these  compositions,  which  comprises  no  less  than  eleven  hundred  figures, 
represents  the  battle  of  Eadesh,  the  prinnip  tl  event  of  the  Egyptian  Iliad.     Nearly 

20— AF. 


i^'«^^ 


NOimi-EAST  AFRICA. 


nil  the  other  sculpturon  nlw>  commctnoruto  the  glory  of  RamaeH,  conqueror  of  the 
Ilittitcii.  On  the  ceiling  of  one  hall  are  carefully  drawn  various  ■pooiot  of 
animuU  no  longer  met  with  in  Nubia,  but  only  in  KordofAn  and  SenAr.  , 

The  Hmaller  tempFe,  connecrated  to  the  goddons  Iluthor,  has  six  colossi  over 
80  feet  in  height  before  the  fafude,  and  four  of  those  huge  maasos  again  represent 
Ramses  II. ;  two  of  the  statues,  the  second  and  fifth,  n>produco  the  features  of 
Nofreuri,  the  "  Divine  Beauty,"  and  their  children  are  placed  between  the  knees 
of  the  wedded  pair. 

Maiiarrakah — Bkit-kl-Wamj. 

The  imposing  sanctu*;fi".-  of  Al)»-8imbol  are  succeeded  by  many  other  temples, 
which  extend  as  far  as  iK  First  ''taract.  Fourteen  have  been  described  by 
archoDologists,  without  including;  vhe  sepulchral  grottoes,  gateways,  and  towers. 
Passing  beyond  the  temple  of  Sabua,  almost  buried  in  the  sand,  and  the  ruins  of 
the  ancient  town  of  Mahendi,  whose  tunnel-shaped  galleries  are  still  to  be  seen 
passing  under  the  houses,  the  traveller  reaches  the  Roman  ruins  of  Maharrakah, 
which  crown  a  }>r«!aontory  commanding  an  extensive  prospect. 

Then  come  Dikkeh,  with  its  gigantic  gateways,  and  Oarf-ffouain,  a  sombre 
cavern  hewn  out  o{  thu  Ninentone  rock,  now  infested  by  bats,  like  all  the  abandoned 
edifices  of  anaient  Egypt  Beyond  this  point  are  seen  the  ruins  of  Kalabahah, 
another  su^ierb  ttrnple  bu  i.  by  Ramses  II.,  where  a  Greek  inscription  has  been 
found  recording  the  victories  that  the  Nubian  king,  Silco,  gained  over  the 
Blemmyes.  Close  by  yawns  the  well-known  sp^os  or  sepulchral  cave  of  Be'it-el- 
Walli,  whose  sculptures,  representing  triumphal  processions,  assaults,  court  and 
battle  scenes,  have  been  rendered  more  popular  by  engravings  than  any  others. 
Although  somewhat  tarnished  by  the  castings  taken  from  them,  the  colours  of  the 
paintings  of  Beit-el-Wtflli  are  still  remarkably  brilliant. 

The  defile  leading  from  Egypt  in  the  direot^n  of  Nubia  is  preceded  by 
temples  and  necropolises,  which  form,  as  it  were,  a  long  avenue  of  tombs.  Cata- 
combs are  much  more  numerous  than  populated  dwelling^,  and  this  region 
probably  contains  fewer  living  men  tlian  gods  engraved  on  the  walls  of  the 
temples  or  sculptured  in  the  granite. 


jm 


luiiquoror  of  tho 
rioufi  Bpooioa  of 
unAr. 

HJx  coloMii  ovor 
I  uguiii  roproaent 

the  features  of 
tween  tho  knoea 


ly  other  tomploa, 
Hsn  deacribed  by 
aya,  and  towora. 
and  the  ruina  of 
still  to  be  aeen 
of  Maharrakah, 

otaain,  a  sombre 
ill  the  abandoned 
as  of  Kalabshah, 
ription  has  been 
^ined  over  the 
1  cttve  of  Be'it-el- 
saults,  cotirt  and 
than  any  othera. 
he  coloura  of  the 

is  preceded  by 
at  tomba.  Cata- 
ond  this  region 
the  walls  of  the 


V 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


*i, 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/ICIVIH 

de 


m 


Canadian  Instituta  for  Historical  IMicroraproductions  /  inttitut  Canadian  da  microraproductiona  tiiatoriquaa 


^. 


n»)i''ilH*ii(nii  I 


W 

-***-- 


CHAPTER  XII. 


EGYPT. 


pEFOEE  the  form  of  the  earth  was  known  to  be  that  of  a  globe, 
every  nation  thought  that  their  country  occupied  the  centre  of  the 
world,  and  a  mere  child  could  point  out  the  precise  spot — lake* 
mountain,  or  temple — which  was  supposed  to  be  the  middle  of  the 
earth.  But  the  exploration  of  our  planet  has  proved  that  on  the 
oirooit  of  the  globe,  no  less  than  in  infinite  space,  "  the  centre  is  everywhere  and 
the  circumference  nowhere." 

Nevertheless,  if  the  surface  of  the  globe  is  studied  according  to  the  disposition 
of  the  continents,  Egypt,  the  Misr  of  the  natives,  more  than  any  other  region  may 
certainly  be  considered  as  occupying  the  veritable  centre.  From  a  geometrical 
point  of  view,  Asia  Minor,  Palestine,  and  Mesopotamia  might  have  as  much  right 
as  the  plains  of  the  Lower  Nile  to  claim  a  central  position  in  the  group  of  the 
three  continents  of  the  old  world.  But  Egypt  has  the  advantage  over  them  of 
offering  an  easy  passage  from  one  marine  basin  to  the  other.  Here  cross  each 
other  the  two  great  diagonal  lines  of  the  world,  that  of  the  overland  routes 
between  Asia  and  Africa  and  the  ocean  highways  between  Europe  and  India. 
The  very  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  has  placed  Egypt  midway  between  America 
and  Australia.  The  ancient  Egyptians  were  quite  justified  in  giving  their  country 
the  position  of  the  heart  in  the  terrestrial  globe,  and  one  of  the  etymological 
renderings  of  its  ancient  name  of  Memphis  g^ves  it  the  sense  of  "  The  Middle  of 
the  World." 

Historic  Retrospect. 

The  people  who  dwell  on  the  banks  of  the  Lower  Nile  played  a  part  in  history 
corresponding  with  the  geographical  position  of  the  land.  Egypt  is  the  first 
region  of  which  there  is  any  record  in  the  annals  of  human  culture.  It  already 
existed  as  a  civilised  power  conscious  of  its  own  greatness  at  a  period  antecedent 
to  the  foundation  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  and  when  the  whole  of  Europe  was 
still  overrun  by  savage  tribes  that  have  left  no  record  behind  them. 

The  inhabitants  of  Asia  Minor  and  Hellas,  who  were  destined  to  become  the 
teacshers  of  the  nations  succeeding  them,  were  still  cavemen  and  denizens  of  the 


-J!'  «-il»!I.J;l-'V!'"t-''l,'-.-l'-"'il»Wi  IJ'iJ'K.H't'i'  ti' 


808 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


h 


forest,  armed  only  with  clubs  and  sharpened  flints,  at  a  time  when  astronomical 
observations,  arithmetic,  geometry,  architecture,  all  the  arts  and  nearly  all  the 
industries  of  the  present  day,  as  well  as  the  games  which  now  delight  our  child- 
hood, or  afford  relaxation  from  the  serious  work  of  life,  were  already  known  to 
their  Egyptian  contemporaries.  The  origin  of  our  sciences,  and  many  moral  pre- 
cepts still  taught  by  the  "  wisdom  of  nations,"  are  found  recorded  on  the  papyri 
and  on  the  bas-reliefs  of  the  monuments  of  Upper  Egypt ;  whilst  many  a  dogma  on 
which  existing  religions  are  based,  may  be  traced  in  its  original  form  to  the 
documents  discovered  in  the  tombs  of  Thebes  and  Abydos. 

To  Egypt  we  owe  the  art  of  writing,  afterwards  modified  by  the  Phoenicians, 
by  whom  it  was  communicated  to  all  the  peoples  of  the  Mediterranean  basin.  The 
very  groove  of  our  thoughts  had  its  origin  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  Mankind  is 
undoubtedly  ignorant  of  its  first  epochs,  nor  can  anyone  assert  positively  that 
civilisation  first  arose  in  Egypt.  Nevertheless,  we  are  unable  to  trace  it  further 
back  than  the  written  records  of  this  land,  whose  pyramids  mark  for  us  the  limit 
of  past  times.  ... 


Egyptian  Chronology. 


jt 


The  Egyptians  had  no  chronology  properly  so-called,  their  only  division  of 
time  consisting  of  the  length  of  reign  of  their  successive  sovereigns.  But  the 
uncertain  dates  obtained  from  the  succession  of  the  rc.:rn8  partially  indicated  on 
the  buildings,  and  those  handed  down  by  Manetho,  a  pricHt  under  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus,  can  be  checked  by  a  few  fixed  dates,  such  as  those  of  astronomical  pheno- 
mena. Biot,  when  examining  -the  hieroglyphics  translated  by  Emmanuel  de 
Rougd,  was  thus  enabled  to  determine  three  dctes  in  the  history  of  Egypt  com- 
prised between  the  fifteenth  and  thirteenth  centuries  of  the  ancient  era.  In  the 
series  of  events  the  Egyptian  annals  accordingly  yield  us  at  least  one  established 
date,  seven  centuries  anterior  to  the  Chaldean  era  of  Nabonassar,  which  another 
astronomical  coincidence  has  enabled  us  to  place  in  the  year  746.  Chabas  has  also 
found  in  a  "  medical "  papyrus  in  the  library  of  Leipzig  the  cartouche  of  Menker& 
or  Mycerinus,  followed  by  a  reference  to  the  solar  ascension  of  Sothis  or  Sirius,  as 
having  taken  place  in  the  ninth  year  of  hi^  reign.  If  the  interpretation  of  the 
text  be  correct,  calculation  would  fix  the  date  between  the  year  3,007  and  3,010  of 
the  ancient  era,  or  a  thousand  years  after  the  epoch  attributed  to  the  reign  of 
Menker^  in  Mariette's  chronological  table.  In  any  case,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  future 
discoveries  will  enable  us  with  certainty  to  trace  back  the  course  of  ages,  and  to 
determine  positive  dates  for  the  origins  of  history,  with  which  may  be  connected 
the  fluctuating  chronology  of  the  most  remote  events  of  which  the  human  race  has 
preserved  the  memory.  The  same  necessity  which  has  caused  the  metrical  system 
to  be  adopted  for  the  measurement  of  terrestrial  spaces,  and  which  is  now 
endeavouring  to  establish  a  common  meridian,  renders  it  equally  indispensable 
that  a  common  era  should  be  sought,  so  as  to  establish  a  concordance  for  the  events 
of  various  nations.  Sooner  or  later,  when  the  savants  shall  endeavour  to  get  rid 
of  the  ab&urd  chronological  system  which  at  present  prevails  in  Christian  Europe, 


■^-■'^■'■'■C'-<i'--^fr-^-;»i!-K^^^^^ 


inni  fill  ii,iip.ip|mni,  I — .- 


«*■■- 


,m^.- 


SOCIAL  CONDITION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


800 


tronomical 
rly  all  the 
our  child- 
known  to 
moral  pre- 
the  papyri 
dogma  on 
rm  to  the 

hoenicians, 
dsin.  The 
fankind  is 
tively  that 
it  further 
a  the  limit 


livision  of 

But  the 

idicated  on 

imy  Phila- 

cal  pheno- 

nanuel  de 

jypt  com- 

In  the 

stablished 

h  another 

18  has  also 

Menkerft 

Sinus,  as 

Dn  of  the 

3,010  of 

reign  of 

bat  future 

68,  and  to 

connected 

I  race  has 

al  system 

is  now 

spensable 

he  events 

o  get  rid 

Europe, 


dividing  history  into  two  eras,  in  the  first  of  which  the  years  and  centuries  are 
counted  backwards,  they  will  very  probably  search  the  Egyptian  annals  for  the 
first  clearly  defined  starting-point  between  the  dim  twilight  of  unknown  ages  and 
the  broad  daylight  of  history. 

Social.  Condition  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians. 

So  ancient  is  the  civilisation  of  Egypt  that  in  certain  respects  it  was  known 
only  by  virtue  of  its  decadence.  The  national  records  reveal  to  us  the  peoples  of 
the  Nile  Valley  constantly  in  a  state  of  bondage,  consequently  living  under  a 
system  which  must  have  debased  them,  suppressing  all  personal  impulse,  replacing 
spontaneous  growth  of  thought  by  formal  rule,  and  substituting  formulas  for  ideas. 

But  the  extent  to  which  a  nation  can  develop  itself  and  increase  its  store  of 
knowledge  is  determined  by  the  amount  of  liberty  which  it  enjoys.  What  a 
ruler  lavishly  squanders  in  one  day,  to  enhance  his  glory,  had  been  laboriously 
acquired  by  free  men  or  by  those  who  enjoyed  intervals  of  rest  from  the* slavery 
imposed  upon  them  by  internecine  warfare  and  the  vicissitudes  of  their  oppressors. 
Hence  before  being  able  to  acquire  their  material  resources,  and  the  science  of 
which  the  monuments  they  have  left  us  are  an  existing  proof,  the  Egyptians  must 
have  passed  through  a  period  of  autonomy  and  obtained  a  state  of  relative  indepen- 
dence. The  erection  of  the  Great  Pyramids,  which  so  many  writers  have  appealed 
to  as  an  indication  of  the  highly  civilised  state  of  Egypt,  is  in  fact  a  striking  proof 
that  before  this  period  the  nation  had  made  very  connderable  progress  in  the  arts 
and  sciences.  ,    .  ■>  ■  .i 

But  at  a  period  of  about  fifty  centuries  anterior  to  the  present  time  the  people 
had  already  commenced  to  degenerate.  As  Herder  remarks,  can  any  one  conceive 
the  dire  state  of  misery  and  the  utter  degradation  into  which  the  masses  must 
have  fallen  before  it  became  possible  to  employ  them  in  erecting  such  tombs  ?  A 
mournful  civilisation  must  that  have  been,  which  employed  thousands  of  men  for 
years  in  transporting  a  few  blocks  of  stone  I  The  slavery  of  the  Egyptians,  attri- 
buted to  Joseph  by  the  Hebrew  writers,  must  have  been  effected  long  before  that 
time,  to  enable  the  kings  and  priests  to  employ  them  on  such  works.  The  land  and 
its  inhabitants  had  already  become  the  property  of  the  Pharaohs ;  under  these 
masters  the  people  sank  to  the  level  of  a  mere  herd  of  cattle. 

Like  the  Nile,  the  Egyptian  civilisation  conceals  its  source  in  regions  hitherto 
unknown,  and,  in  times  antecedent  to  King  Menes,  whom  the  annals  state  to  be 
the  founder  of  the  empire,  the  hieroglyphics  show  the  ffor-cheaoK,  or  "  servants  of 
Horus,"  also  engaged  in  raising  monuments  in  'Egypt,  according  to  plans  traced 
on  gazelle  skins.  The  social  state  of  the  people  inhabiting  the  banks  of  the  Nile 
at  this  period  is  unknown  ;  but  the  most  ancient  buildings  that  they  have  left  us,, 
notably  the  step  pyramid  of  Saqqarah,  and  the  temple  of  Armakhis  near  the  great 
sphinx,  assuredly  prove  that  they  already  possessed  a  well-established  civilisation. 
No  other  Egyptian  statue  is  more  lifelike  or  approaches  nearer  to  the  high  artistic 
standard  than  that  of  Ehephren,  although  it  is  one  of  the  most  ancient. 

In  the  earlier  times  of  Egyptian  history,  the  paintings  which  cover  the  walla 


810 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


of  the  necropolis  show  that  the  philosophy  of  the  Egyptians  was  humane  and 
rational,  and,  as  Marictte  remarks,  it  in  no  way  resembled  the  mystical  fetishism 
which  sprang  up  in  Thebes  twenty  centuries  later.  From  all  points  of  view  the 
most  perfect  epoch  is  precisely  the  most  ancient  that  is  known  to  us.  "When 
Egypt  entered  upon  one  of  those  periods  of  warlike  rule  which  so  many  persons 
still  consider  the  indication  of  true  greatness,  the  Egyptian  sovereigns  were 
enabled  to  use  for  their  conquests  the  effective  power  which  their  armies  had 
already  acquired  during  the  course  of  a  long-established  culture.  Their  empire 
already  extended  far  beyond  the  natural  limits  of  the  Nilotic  basin,  even  far  into 
Asia.  According  to  Mariette  and  most  other  Egyptologists,  the  monarchy  of  the 
Pharaohs,  at  the  time  of  its  greatest  extent,  embraced  the  whole  region  comprised 
between  the  equatorial  countries  of  the  Upper  Nile,  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean, 
and  the  mountains  of  the  Caucasus. 

But  warlike  expeditions  are  always  the  forerunning  sign  of  decadence.  Under 
the  rule  of  the  conquering  Ramses  II.  the  decline  became  rapid,  and  the  latter 
part  of  his  reign  is  marked  by  barbarous  works,  and  sculptures  "  of  a  most  extra- 
ordinary coarseness."  The  force  derived  from  a  superior  civilisation  ended  by 
exhausting  itself,  and  Egypt  was  conquered  in  her  turn,  and  for  more  than  twenty 
centuries  she  has  never  ceased  io  be  under  the  rule  of  foreign  dynasties. 

Present  Social  and  Political  Position. 

The  political  and  social  destiny  of  the  cultivators  of  the  Egyptian  soil  is  clearly 
indicated  by  the  surroundings  amidst  which  they  live.  The  Nile,  the  common 
property  of  the  nation,  floods  all  the  land  at  the  same  time ;  and  before  it  had  been 
surveyed  by  geometricians,  the  land  itself  should  also  have  been  rendered  common 
property.  The  irrigating  canals,  which  are  indispensable  for  cultivation  beyond 
the  limits  attained  by  the  annual  floods,  can  be  dug  out  and  kept  in  oi-der  only  by 
multitudes  of  workmen  labouring  in  unison. 

There  is,  therefore,  only  one  of  two  alternatives  to  be  accepted  by  the  agricul- 
turalists, either  to  unite  together  in  a  commune,  or  else  to  become  the  slaves  of  a 
native  or  foreign  master.  During  the  course  of  written  history,  the  latter  alterna- 
tive is  that  which  has  been  realised,  whatsoever  may  have  been  the  apparent  pros- 
perity of  the  country  under  the  sway  of  the  Pharaohs,  the  Ptolemies,  and  the  Sultans. 
The  bas-reliefs  of  the  monuments  show  us  the  Egyptian  of  three  thousand  years 
ago  bowed  down  beneath  the  lash,  just  as  they  are  at  the  present  day.  The  victim 
of  a  continual  oppression,  and  an  excessive  extortion,  the  fellah  is  unable  to  shift 
his  quarters  like  the  nomad  Bedouin.  In  the  vast  level  plain  of  the  delta,  or  in 
the  narrow  valley  of  the  river,  there  is  not  a  single  retreat  in  which  he  can  hope  to 
And  a  refuge  from  his  taskmasters.  Although  his  misery  is  without  issue  and  his 
future  without  hope,  still  he  passionately  loves  the  land  of  his  birth.  Away  from 
the  banks  of  his  beloved  river,  the  fellah  is  overwhelmed  by  sadness  and  dies  of 
home-sickness.  The  most  commonplace  landscapes  are  still  the  most  beautiful  in 
the  eyes  of  their  inhabitants. 


,.-i^-i».^-^i^-»--.p».^^  J 


PRESENT  SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  POSITION. 


811 


For  nearly  a  century  the  conquerors  of  western  Europe  have  disputed  the 
possession  of  Egypt,  which  was  even  in  1672  spoken  of  by  Leibnitz  as  the  natural 
centre  of  the  Old  "World,  and  the  key  to  all  the  colonial  possessions  on  the  shores 
ot  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  vital  importance  of  this  commanding  position  could  not 
fail  to  be  observed  by  statesmen  who  were  contending  for  the  possession  of  the 
Indian  peninsula.  Had  the  armies  of  the  French  Republic  succeeded  in  retaining 
Egypt,  which  they  had  so  rapidly  overrun,  there  would  have  been  an  end  to  British 
rule  in  Hindustan,  and  England  would  have  lost  the  inheritance  of  the  Great  Mogul. 
But  after  the  destruction  of  the  French  fleet  in  Aboukir  Bay,  Great  Britain,  resuift- 
ing  undisputed  possession  of  the  ocean  highways,  again  became  in  her  turn  the 
mistress  of  Egypt,  without  even  having  the  trouble  to  conquer  it,  and  the  French 
were  obliged  to  withdraw  after  two  years  of  occupation. 

To  the  clash  of  arms  succeeded  diplomatic  manoeuvres  and  incessant  struggles 
for  obtaining  the  upper  hand  at  Cairo  and  Constantinople.  At  the  time  of  the 
inauguration  of  the  Suez  Canal,  which  opened  up  a  direct  route  for  steamers  to 
India,  and  was  the  work  of  a  French  engineer,  France  at  last  seemed  on  the  verge 
of  obtaining  a  kind  of  suzerainty  over  Egypt.  But  England,  concentrating  all  her 
efforts  to  secure  this  highway  to  India,  has  finally  succeeded  in  acquiring  political 
possession  of  Egypt,  just  as  she  has  secured  to  herself  the  commercial  pre-eminence 
over  the  canal  between  the  two  seas.  Officially,  England  intervenes  only  to  advise 
and  assist  the  sovereign,  but  in  reality  her  envoys  are  not  far  from  being  the 
absolute  masters  of  the  land.  They  draw  up  the  treaties,  declare  war,  and  cbnclude 
peace,  distribute  places  and  pensions,  dictate  the  sentences  to  the  magistrates.  But 
they  leave  the  authority  to  the  Egyptian  officials,  when  it  is  necessary  to  sanction 
lists  of  taxes  or  to  imdertake  affairs  for  which  it  does  not  suit  them  to  be  respon- 
sible. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  Nile  basin,  with  its  40,000,000  inhabitants,  has  for  a 
period,  more  or  less  extended,  virtually  become  part  of  the  vast  British  Empire. 
Although  the  English  generals  have  scarcely  any  army  at  their  disposition,  mer- 
cenaries of  all  nations  will  be  found  ready  to  assist  them  in  finishing  the  conquest 
of  the  country,  in  recent  times  commenced  on  behalf  of  the  Khedive  and  the  Sultan 
by  Munzinger,  Baker,  Gordon,  Gessi,  Stone,  Prout,  and  others. 

But  the  military  difficulties  attendant  upon  the  annexation  of  this  country  will 
not  be  the  only  ones  that  Great  Britain  will  have  to  deal  with.  Even  should  the 
other  European  powers  assist  England  in  consolidating  her  supremacy  in  Egypt, 
this  authority  would  not  be  supported,  as  in  most  other  English  colonies,  by  the 
co-operation  of  a  population  of  British  origin.  Those  amongst  the  foreigners 
settled  in  the  country  who  dispose  of  the  financial  resources,  establish  industries, 
conduct  the  papers,  and  guide  pubUo  opinion,  are  mostly  Continental  Europeans, 
Italians,  Frenchmen,  Greeks,  and  Austrians,  whose  interests  and  aspirations  are 
often  antagonistic  to  thoso  of  the  English.  These  European  immigrants,  much 
better  preferred  by  the  natives  to  the  phlegmatic  Englishman,  who  will  always  be 
prevented  by  the  climate  from  founding  colonies  properly  so-called,  form  in  the 
towns    an   ever-increasing   community,  which  already  numbers  nearly  100,000 


812 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


persons,  and  which  will  not  fail  to  act  as  a  check  on  the  exercise  of  British 
power. 

Undoubtedly  the  new  niastcrs  possess  a  certain  means  by  which  they  can  make 
themselves,  if  not  loved,  at  least  respected  by  the  people.  For  they  have  it  in  their 
power  to  restore  the  land  to  its  cultivotors,  to  rescue  them  from  the  usurers  who 
absorb  their  substance,  to  assure  them  an  impartial  justice,  and  to  leave  "  Egypt 
more  and  more  to  the  Egyptians."  But  what  Government  ever  possessed  this  virtue 
of  gradually  effacing  itself  ?  Will  that  of  Great  Britain  set  the  example  ?  If  the 
sdlemn  and  reiterated  affirmations  of  the  heads  of  the  English  Government  are  to  bo 
believed,  their  only  ambition  is  to  re-establish  order  in  the  finances  and  government 
of  Egypt,  and  then,  this  pious  work  accomplished,  to  withdraw,  leaving  their 
successors  to  follow  the  good  example  they  have  set. 

GEOnRAPHICAL    EXPLORATION.  -         '  "   ' 

Connected  as  it  is  with  the  circle  of  attraction  of  European  politics,  Egypt  is 
naturally  one  of  the  best-explored  countries  of  the  African  continent.  At  the  time 
of  the  French  expedition  towards  the  end  of  last  century,  the  numerous  scientific 
men  who  accompanied  Bonaparte,  Desaix,  and  Elcber,  thoroughly  studied  the  land 
from  the  various  standpoints  of  its  mineralogy,  geology,  the  history  of  the  soil, 
hydrography,  annals,  architecture,  manners  and  customs,  and  the  social  economy  of 
the  couhtry,  and  their  joint  labours  still  constitute  the  most  considerable  scientific 
monument  which  exists  regarding  the  lower  Nile  valley.  The  general  nuip,  which 
they  drew  up  to  the  scale  of  xjf'^vjfv  ^"^  ^^^  remained  in  many  respects  the  most 
complete  that  we  possess,  notably  for  Upper  Egypt,  or  SaM.  The  smaller  map  that 
Linant  de  Bellefonds,  Director  of  Public  Works  in  Egypt,  caused  to  be  engraved,  is 
another  valuable  document.  •'  ■     ^  - 

But,  bej'^ond  the  salient  features  of  the  country,  defined  by  the  rocky  backbone 
which  bounds  the  verdant  plains,  the  outlines  of  the  land  change  yearly,  and  any 
local  maps,  drawn  up  with  the  greatest  care  during  the  preceding  generation,  would 
have  to  be  nearly  entirely  recast.  On  one  hand  the  slopes  of  the  Nile  have  been 
eaten  away  by  the  water ;  on  the  other,  alluvial  deposits  have  been  developed,  which 
the  fellahin  have  already  embanked  and  commenced  to  cultivate.  Choked  up 
canals  have  been  replaced  by  other  irrigating  channels,  whilst  routes  and  villages 
liave  changed  both  locality  and  name.  The  special  maps,  mode  for  the  survey  of 
the  great  domains,  constantly  assign  them  different  outlines. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  "  Arabian  "  and  "  Libyan  "  deserts  are  atill  unknown, 
except  along  the  track  of  a  few  explorers,  on  one  side  between  the  Nile  and  the 
ports  of  the  Bed  Sea,  and  on  the  other  in  the  direction  of  the  oases.  It  is  time 
that  the  country  in  which  Eratosthenes,  more  than  two  thousand  years  ago,  first 
measured  an  arc  of  the  meridian,  should  at  last  possess  a  network  of  geodetic 
measurements  with  which  all  the  local  maps  might  be  connected. 

But  most  Egyptian  explorers  have  studied  the  ancient  history  of  the  people 
rather  than  their  present  life  and  the  special  geography  of  the  country,     When 


Ifau^ 


« 


id 


s 


B 


o 

go 


orf 


fl 


,  i.rt»li>  .. 


EXTONT  AND  POrULATION. 


81B 


iK-r 


"•  V^; 


ChumpolHun's  diHcovory  revealed  the  myMtery  of  the  hiero^lyphicH  no  loiij^f  and  m» 
earnently  Houf^ht  for,  und  when  the  nuvuntM  were  able  ut  lust  to  decipher  t)te  inHcriptionH 
which  cover  in  th..UHunds  the  wiillHund  colutnnHof  the  inimenHe  urchitecturul  librury 
of  Kgypt,  thoy  plunged  with  rupture  into  this  hitherto  almost  unknown  Held  of 
inquiry.  To  the  works  of  Huroilotus  and  of  the  Greek  googrophorM  were  now  iiddrd 
still  more  precious  documents,  the  so-callod  "  tables,"  und  the  papyri  written  forty 
centuries  ago  by  the  Kgyptians  themselves. 

Thanks  to  the  investigations  of  Mariotte,  now  continued  by  M.  Masporo,  und 
thanks  to  the  interpretations  of  Lepsius,  Birch,  Chabas,  Emmanuel  do  lloug^, 
Diimichen,  and  so  many  other  Egyptologists,  the  history  of  the  ancient  land  of  the 
Nile  is  being  gradually  reconstituted.  The  Western  nations  are  beginning  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  private  life,  the  deep  moral  character,  and  us  it  were  the  very 
soul  of  this  people,  from  whom  they  have  inherited  such  a  large  part  of  their  ideas. 

Whatever  may  be  said  to  the  contrary,  great  changes  have  taken  place  since  the 
times  represented  on  the  oldest  monuments.  Doubtless  the  same  type  of  face  and 
figure  may  be  found  amongst  many  descendants  of  the  Retu,  and  even  fashions  have 
lurvived,  if  not  amongst  the  Egyptians  at  least  amongst  the  Nubians  whom  they 
had  subjugated.  The  art  of  husbandry  has  not  been  modified,  at  least  amongst  the 
peasantry,  and  as  formerly  "  the  unchanging  temperature  of  Egypt  endows  the 
people,"  as  Bossuet  has  remarked,  "  with  solid  and  constant  minds."  But  the  series 
of  historio  events  could  not  have  been  accomplished  without  producing  a  correspond- 
ing effect  on  the  Egyptian  people ;  immigrants  of  all  roces  have  completely 
modified  the  urban  civilisation.  After  acting  as  the  teacher  of  the  surrounding 
nations,  Egypt  had  to  be  taught  in  her  turn,  and  the  Bomans,  Byzantines,  Arabs, 
and  Europeait  peoples  successively  became  her  masters. 


Extent  and  Population. 

Egypt  may  possibly  now  possess  a  smaller  population  than  she  did  when  at  the 
height  of  her  power ;  but  towns  and  villages  have  always  been  numerous  on  the 
banks  of  the  Nile,  and  they  follow  in  close  proximity  along  the  banks  of  the  river, 
as  in  the  time  of  Herodotus.  In  comparison  with  its  extent  of  arable  land,  Egjrpt 
possesses  one  of  the  densest  populations  in  the  world.  Indeed,  Egypt  proper 
consists  entirely  of  lowlands  which  could  be  brought  within  the  zone  of  irrigation. 
The  rocky  or  sandy  tracts  which  stretch  beyond  the  valley  of  the  Nile  form  a 
portion  of  Libya  on  the  west,  or  of  "  Arabia,"  as  it  is  called,  on  the  east.  The 
narrow  strip,  of  "  golden  thread,"  with  its  "fringes"  in  the  delta,  composes  the 
whole  of  the  domain  of  the  fellahin,  and  the  only  inhabitable  spots  beyond  these 
limits  are  a  few  oases  to  the  west,  and  the  pasturages  found  in  the  eastern 
uplands.  The  triangle  of  the  delta  and  the  winding  river  valley,  which  a  pedes- 
trian traverses  easily  in  a  few  hours,  provided  he  can  find  a  boat  in  which  to  cross 
the  Nile,  compose  all  the  rest  of  the  country,  which  Amru  described  to  the  Caliph 
Omar  in  these  words :  "  Imagine  an  arid  desert  and  a  verdant  plain  between  two 
moimtainous  ramparts ;   that  is  Egypt." 


814 


NOUTII-EAHT  AlUICA. 


Kf^ypt  !•  offiiMully  rinid  to  |k)hm>hr  a  iiu|M^rfi  il  area  of  400,000  M{uaro  milpit, 
omitting  tho  AHJutic  iMmHCHMioiiM  iN'yond  thu  tSuoz  (*uiml,  but  iiiclwliii)^  ull  tbu 
Nilotio  region  botwoi'ii  AnHuiin  and  VVudy-IIulfa.  Tho  population  of  (i.HOO.OOO, 
according  to  fho  ctmHUHof  IHH2,  would  Im<  vory  Mnmll  in  pro]M)rtion  to  thiH  imnKniNo 
npiu'o,  much  Ichs,  in  fuct,  comparatively  pcuking,  than  that  of  8<;andinuviu.  But 
tho  inhabitable  part  of  Kgypt,  roiH>mbliiig  in  shape  a  triangular  kito  with  a  long 
ninuous  tail,  in  B(!arc('ly  12,000  mjuaro  milus  in  oxtont,  which  givc^i  thu  country 
a  dcnaity  of  population  throe  times  greater  than  that  uf  Franco,  and  even  Huporior 
to  that  of  Helgium  and  Saxony. 

Kgypt  is  the  Nile,  and  its  very  name  is  that  by  which  the  river  was  formerly 
known.  Tho  most  ancient  name  of  the  country,  that  of  Eem,  or  Eemi,  that  is  to 
say,  ''  lUaok,"  also  comes  indirectly  from  the  Nile,  because  it  was  derived  from  the 
violet  tint  of  the  alluvia  deposited  by  the  current,  forming  a  contrast  with  the 
"  red "  sands  and  rooks  of  the  desert.  Tho  terra  Kam,  or  Kham,  applied  to 
tho  African  peoples  in  Genesis,  is  probably  nothing  more  than  the  name  of  Kgypt 
itHclf. 

From  this  black  soil,  composed  of  fluvial  deposits,  spring  forth  the  nutritive 
plants ;  whilst,  according  to  an  ancient  legend,  man  himself  issued  from  it.  All 
tho  towns  and  village  of  Egypt  are  disposed  along  the  banks  of  the  river  and  its 
canals,  depending  for  their  existence  on  its  life-giving  waters.  Oommunicationa 
between  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt  could  recently  be  effected  only  by  the  Nile, 
which  is  easily  navigable,  since  boats  ascend  and  descend  with  equal  facility, 
either  driven  up  stream  by  the  north  wind,  or  else  drift  down  with  the  current. 
Shipwrecks  or  prolonged  stoppages  are  likely  to  occur  more  especially  at  abrupt 
turnings,  and  on  navigating  tho  ravines,  whence  irregular  winds  sweep  across  tho 
course  of  tho  stream. 

Thk  Arabian  or  Coast  Range. 

Here  and  there,  from  Assuan  to  Cairo,  the  banks  of  the  Nile  are  commanded 
either  by  the  slopes  of  mountains,  or  by  the  edges  of  plateaux,  whose  height 
ranges  from  300  to  2,300  feet.  From  these  heights  a  whole  section  of  Egypt  lies 
at  the  feet  of  the  traveller,  from  the  eastern  to  the  western  frontier,  with  all  its 
villages,  canals  and  cultivated  lands.  Lower  down  the  yellow  walls  of  the  rooks 
in  many  places  bear  the  aspect  of  quarries,  whose  cleared  spaces  are  now  laid  out 
in  garden-plots.  It  is  especially  towards  the  east  that  the  cliffs  here  and  there 
assume  an  imposing  appearance,  although  nowhere  rising  to  any  great  elevation. 

The  traveller  must  penetrate  some  distance  from  the  Nile  to  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Red  Sea  before  he  reaches  the  coast  range  or  border  chain,  which,  however, 
hus  been  very  imperfectly  explored.  It  forms  a  northerly  continuation  of  the 
Etbai  range,  some  of  whose  peaks  are  said  to  attain  a  height  of  considerably  over 
6,000  feet.  These  highlands  of  the  Arabian  desert,  commonly  spoken  of  simply  as 
El-Jebel,  or  "  The  Mountain,"  consist  of  crystalline  rocks,  such  as  granite,  gneiss, 
mica  schist,  porphyry,  and  diorite.  They  are  disposed  in  several  distinct  groups, 
separated  from  each  other  by  the  ramifications  of  sandy  wadies.      One  of  these 


THE  AUABTAN  OR  fOAHT  RANOE. 


»1A 


gmupn  in  Southom  Kgypt  given  rim)  to  the  trunnverHo  (ihuin  of  the  (!atara(>t«,  which 
fonna  the  northern  frontier  of  Nubiu  projH'r,  und  niergen  nuar  >NHuun  in  tlio 
Libyan  ronpe.     In  the  Hycnito  und  gruuitu  forinutioiiH,  horo  Mkirted  by  th«  rupida, 


Fig.  Od.-'DiiNaiTY  or  thi  I'ohvlation  or  iikivrr. 

I  I  t  A,a()0,lKX>. 


■!.i.tui»».^,«y.  ' 


□ 


Inhabitants  per  Square  Mile. 


oto8.  2toaoo.  aoo  to  1,000. 

Toinia  with  orrr  90,000  inhabitant!. 
^^—1—^— .^— ^  120  MUen. 


are  situated  tbe  famous  quarries,  now  abandoned,  where  the  Pharaohs  procured 
the  materials  for  their  obelisks,  statues,  and  other  huge  monolithic  blocks.  Towards 
the  east  the  same  group  of  hills,  whence  springs  the  chain  of  the  Cataracts, 


316 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


advances  into  the  Red  Sea  in  the  form  of  a  triangular  peninsula,  terminating  in  the 
Ras-Benas  headland,  and  sheltering  on  the  south  the  gulf  of  Umm-el-Eetcf, 
identified  as  the  ancient  port  of  Berenice.  "  ' '  ' 

North  of  the  Nubian  frontier,  where  the  crystalline  rocks  occupy  the  whole 
breadth  of  Upper  Egypt,  the  zone  of  granitic  formations  is  gradually  narrowed, 
while  still  maintaining  its  chief  elevations  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  coast. 
This  region,  now  frequented  only  by  a  few  scattered  nomad  tribes,  was  formerly 
worked  for  its  mineral  wealth  by  numerous  gangs  of  miners  and  quarrymen.  The 
Jehel-Zabarah,  the  Smaragdus  of  the  ancients,  which  rises  on  the  Red  Sea  coast, 
under  the  latitude  of  Edfu,  contains  in  its  veins  garnets  and  other  valuable  crys- 
tals ;  and  in  the  year  1816,  Cailliaud  here  discovered  the  beds  of  emeralds,  which 
though  far  from  abundant  and  of  rather  indifferent  quality,  were  worked  by  the 
sovereigns  of  Egypt  down  to  the  year  1358.  North  and  south  of  the  mountain  are 
still  visible  the  remaino  of  the  villages  erected  by  the  miners. 

Farther  north,  in  the  depression  which  runs  from  the  Nile  at  Eoneh  to  the  port 
of  Kosseir,  and  near  the  Hamamat  wells,  have  been  discovered  the  remains  of  a 
town  of  two  thousand  inhabitants,  built  of  stone,  and  not  far  off  vast  quarries  of 
"  verde  antico,"  of  "  Egyptian  breccia,"  and  of  othor  varieties  of  diorite,  which 
were  used  especially  for  cutting  vases,  sarcophagi,  and  statues.  Still  farther  north 
follow  the  two  groups  forming  the  ancient  Mount  Claudian,  now  severally 
distinguished  as  the  Jebel-Dokhan  and  the  Jebel-Fatireh,  the  latter  granitic,  the 
former  porphyritic.  The  monoliths  hewn  out  of  these  hills  were  conveyed  down 
to  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  thence  transported  by  the  Suez  Canal,  or  "  Trajan's 
River,"  to  the  Nile,  and  so  on  to  Alexandria,  and  there  shipped  for  all  the 
Mediterranean  cities  of  the  Roman  -  world.  The  Jebel-Dokhan,  or  "  Smoky 
Mountain,"  the  "Porphyrites  Mons"  of  the  ancients,  contained  a  group  of 
quarries,  which  during  the  Roman  epoch  was  more  actively  worked  than  any  other 
in  Egypt,  although  the  Egyptians  themselves  had  never  quarried  this  close-grained 
stone.  Since  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  Rome  and  Byzantium  continued 
to  import  the  admirable  red  porphyry,  which  was  used  in  the  erection  of  their 
temples  and  palaces.  Here  are  still  foimd  columns  58  feet  long,  and  24  feet  in 
compass,  Lence  larger  than  the  largest  block  in  "  Pompey's  Pillar."  The  Arab 
invasion  of  Egypt  put  an  end  to  the  operations  carried  on  at  these  famous  quarries, 
whose  site  is  still  indicated  by  enormous  heaps  of  refuse  and  the  remains  of  large 
towns.  The  porphyry  formation  of  the  Jebel-Dokhan  crops  out  in  the  midst  of 
the  granitic  rocks,  like  the  analogous  porphyries  of  the  Jebel-Katheriu  amid  the 
granites  of  the  Sinai  peninsula. 

Over  against  Mount  Tor,  on  the  Slnaitic  coast,  stands  the  Jebel-Gharib,  whose 
granite  peaks  rise  to  an  altitude  of  6,120  feet.  This  is  the  last  lofty  summit  of 
the  border  range,  and  according  to  Schweinfurth,  it  forms  the  culminating  point  of 
the  whole  Arabian  desert.     So  abrupt  are  its  sides  that  it  seems  quite  inaccessible 

In  the  distance  are  visible  Mount  Tenareb  and  the  Jebel-Shellalla,  the  latter 
separated  by  the  Wady-el-Tih  from  the  Jebel-Attaka.  AU  the  mountain  groups 
in  this  region  are  distinguished  by  numerous  pyramidal  crests,  whose  spurs  are 


GEOLOGY  OF  THE  COAST  RANGE. 


»17 


similarly  disposed  in  pyramids  grouped  symmetrically  round  the  central  cone. 
These  uplands,  which  do  not  exceed  1,000  feet  in  altitude,  and  which  are  indebted 
for  their  imposing  appearance  to  their  abrupt  walls  falling  precipitously  down  to 
the  Gulf  of  Suez,  form  the  northern  extremity  of  the  granitic  system.  Farther 
north,  nothing  occurs  except  limestone  rocks  or  sand  dunes.  Both  slopes  of  the 
range  are  also  overlaid  with  layers  of  more  recent  formation.  On  the  east  side 
cretaceous  taluses  are  found  in  many  places  resting  on  a  granite  foundation,  and 


';Ji-rU'3 


Fig.  96. — AssuAN :  Ancient  Quaruv,  now  abandonfu. 


several  of  the  headlands  along  the  coast  belong  to  these  cretaceous  formations. 
Here  also  occur  deposits  of  sulphur,  as  well  as  naphtha  springs  and  beds  of  bitumen. 
Basaltic  eruptions  occurred  at  some  remote  period  in  the  Jebel  range,  and  these 
lavas  are  visible  as  far  as  the  neighbourhood  of  Ismailia. 


Geology  of  the  Coast  Range. 

On  the  coast  the  prevailing  rocks  are  sandstones  and  limestones  of  contemporary 
formation,  in  which  are  embedded  fossil  shells  and  polyps.  Some  more  recent 
sandstones  and  limestones  of  like  origin  are  entirely  formed  of  these  animal 
remains. 

As  on  the  Arabian  seaboard,  a  gradual  movement  of  upheaval  has  been  observed 


818 


NOETH-EAST  AFRICA. 


along  the  Egyptian  coast,  produced  either  by  the  vertical  rising  of  the  land  or  by 
the  subsidence  of  the  surrounding  waters.  Altogether  the  west  coast  is  more 
healthy  and  less  obstructed  by  coral  reefs  than  the  opposite  side.  The  sea  is 
also  deeper  near  the  shore,  and  good  harbours  are  consequently  more  numerous. 

West  of  the  granites,  schists  and  porphyries  of  the  border  range,  the  rocks  over- 
lying the  crystalline  nucleus  consist  of  sandstones  and  limestones.  In  the  southern 
district  rises  an  isolated  sandstone  ma^s  resembling  those  of  Nubia,  Eordof&n,  and 
Sen&r.  This  rock,  especially  at  the  Jebel-Silsileh  between  Assuan  and  Esneh,  is 
very  close-grained  and  disposed  in  regular  layers,  rendering  il  peculiarly  suitable 
for  the  erection  of  large  buildings.  Hence  from  this  source  have  been  obtained 
the  materials  for  the  construction  of  thousands  of  temples  and  other  structures. 
The  breaches  made  by  the  ancient  quarrymen  in  the  rocks  on  the  right  side  inspire 
a  sort  of  awe  by  their  prodigious  dimensions.  According  to  Charles  Blanc,  these 
mountains  supplied  the  building  stone  for  at  least  half  of  the  old  Egyptian  monu- 
ments. 

The  quarries  on  the  west  side,  although  less  extensive,  are  more  remarkable 
from  the  artistic  point  of  view,  for  they  contain  several  temples  excavated  in  the 
live  rock,  as  well  as  sepidohral  caves  and  statues.  Scarcely  had  the  quarries  been 
opened  when  they  appear  to  have  been  converted  into  tombs. 

In  the  northern  section  of  the  Arabian  range  the  sandstones  are  replaced  by 
limestones  of  various  dates,  some  belonging  to  the  cretaceous,  others  to  the  eocene 
epochs.  To  these  chalk  formations  chiefly  belong  the  cliffs  stretching  along  the 
right  bank  of  the  Nile,  which  present  the  most  varied  and  picturesque  forms  of 
monumental  aspect,  separated  by  mere  fissures  or  by  gloomy  ravines,  and  often 
crowned  with  &uitastic  towers  and  pyramids. 

In  the  extreme  north  the  last  hills,  terminating  at  Cairo  itself  with  the  Jebel- 
Mokattam,  or  "  Inscribed  Mountain,"  are  composed  almost  entirely  of  nummulites — 
ostrsea,  cerithium,  and  other  shells  massed  together  in  a  limestone  conglomerate. 
Owing  to  the  abundance  of  their  fossils,  they  have  become  a  sort  of  Eldorado 
for  geologists.  These  nummulitic  strata  include  in  some  places  transparent 
alabasters  of  the  choicest  quality.  Such  are,  west  of  Beni-Suef,  those  of 
the  Jebel-Urakam,  whence  have  been  derived  the  materials  employed  in  the 
construction  of  Mohammed  All's  mosque  in  the  citadel  of  Cairo.  Such  are,  also, 
farther  south  the  alabasters,  which  take  their  name  from  the  city  of  Alabastron, 
whose  site  was  not  far  removed  from  the  spot  now  occupied  by  the  town  of 
Minieh. 

But  more  important  than  these  costly  marbles  are  the  quarries  of  building- 
stone  skirting  the  Nile,  especially  those  of  Turah  and  Masarah.  From  the  vast 
pyramids  erected  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  some  idea  may  be  formed  of 
the  excavations  begun  six  thousand  years  ago  in  these  nummulitic  limestone 
quarries,  which  also  supplied  the  building  materials  for  the  cities  of  Memphis 
and  Cairo. 


tftfSL 


1 


THE  LIBYAN  PLATEAU— THE  MIKAOE. 


819 


The  Libyan  Plateau. 

The  Libyan  hills  are  lower  than  those  skirting  the  right  side  of  the  river. 
Taken  as  a  whole,  the  relief  of  Egypt  presents  the  character  of  a  pilane  inclined  in 
the  direction  from  east  to  west.  From  the  crest  formed  by  the  coast  range  the 
highlands  and  plateaux  diminish  gradually  in  height  down  to  the  Nile  Valley. 
From  the  western  edge  of  this  valley  the  ground  also  falls  until  at  last  it  sinks 
below  the  level  of  the  sea. 

On  both  sides  of  the  strip  of  verdant  and  inhabited  land  fringing  the  Nile  the 
zone  of  rocks  is  alike  destitute  of  permanent  dwellings.  But  the  Libyan  region 
being  more  uniform,  void  of  lofty  eminences  and  covered  with  sand,  presents  a 
more  desolate  appearance  than  the  eastern  zone.  It  already  forms  part  of  the 
great  desert,  which  stretches  thence  westwards  right  across  the  continent  to  the 
Atlantic  seaboard. 

Seen  from  the  pyramid  of  Cheops,  this  Libyan  plateau  might  seem  to  be  nothing 
more  than  a  boundless  plain  varied  only  by  sand  dunes.  But  this  is  merely  the 
effect  of  an  optical  delusion,  as  we  are  assured  by  the  few  travellers  who  have 
ventured  to  penetrate  into  these  dreary  solitudes.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  desert 
comprised  between  the  Nile  and  the  depression  of  the  oases  is  a  plateau  of  nummu- 
litic  limestone  rising  to  a  height  of  830  feet  above  the  river  level.  The  limits  of 
this  plateau  are  indicated  by  escarpments,  while  its  surface  is  disposed  in  distinct 
sections  by  the  erosive  action  of  old  marine  waters.  Hillocks  of  uniform  elevation 
rising  here  and  there  above  the  plain  serve  to  indicate  the  primitive  level  of  the 
land.  The  base  of  all  these  promontories  was  undoubtedly  washed  in  pre-quater- 
nary  times  by  the  Mediterranean,  whose  waves  were  broken  into  surf  amid  these 
rocky  archipelagoes,  where  at  present  water  appears  only  in  the  form  of  delusw«h  < 
mirages. 

The  Mirage. 

Nowhere  is  this  remarkable  phenomenon  of  the  mirage  seen  to  gpreater  advan- 
tage than  in  the  Libyan  and  Arabian  deserts.  It  often  assumes  the  most  weird  and 
fantastic  forms,  the  outlines  of  lovely  landscapes,  hills  and  valleys,  verdant  plains, 
everywhere  interspersed  with  the  treacherous  appearance  of  broad  lacustrine  basins, 
glittering  under  the  torrid  rays  of  the  tropical  sun.  And  so  vivid  are  these  scenic 
effects,  that  the  most  experienced  travellers,  and  the  animals  themselves,  are  at 
times  deceived  by  the  pleasant  phantom  and  thus  beguiled  to  their  destruction. 

When  crossing  the  Arabian  Desert  in  the  year  1883,  Colonel  Colbome  tells  us 
that  on  one'  occasion  the  mirage  was  intensely  real.  Before  him  stretched  a  large 
lake,  its  blue  waters  laughing  in  the  sun,  studded  with  gem-like  islets  clad  in 
verdure,  and  bordered  by  castles,  high  pinnacles,  turrets,  and  battlements,  and  again 
by  gleaming  villages  and  smiling  hamlets — the  whole  scene  fairylike  in  its  beauty, 
while  presenting  a  most  painful  contrast  to  the  arid  sand  and  fierce  heat  and  con- 
suming thirst  from  which  the  traveller  was  suffering.  It  is  in  vain  that  we  rub 
our  eyes  and  seek  to  disabuse  ourselves  of  the  illusion.    The  spectacle  lies  before  us 


i  I 


NOBTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


undeniable,  apparently  solid  and  tangible.  We  know  it  is  mocking  us,  like  an  ignis 
fatuus ;  but  the  most  accurate  knowledge  of  the  physical  laws  which  govern  the 
phenomena  will  not  brush  the  image  from  the  retina. 

There  is  little  wonder  that  the  ignorant  and  inexperienced  should  have  frequently 
yielded  to  the  delusion.  But  life  is  always  the  price  paid  for  such  a  mistake.  Some 
years  ago  a  company  of  soldiers  perished  from  thirst  in  this  very  region.  Disre- 
garding the  warning  of  their  guides,  the  unfortunate  men,  fresh  from  Egypt,  and 
mad  with  thirst,  broke  from  the  ranks  and  rushed  towards  the  seeming  lakes  of 
transparent  water  which  were  presented  to  their  eyes  on  all  sides.  They  pressed  on 
eagerly  towards  the  ever-receding  phantom,  and  one  by  one  fell  prostrate,  to  leave 
their  bones  to  bleach  on  the  sands.  On  another  occasion  a  detachment  was  sent 
across  the  desert  to  Berber  on  its  way  to  Khartum.  The  soldiers,  refusing  to  be 
checked  by  the  guides,  consumed  all  their  supply  of  water  when  in  sight  of  the 
El-Bok  Mountains,  confident  of  their  ability  to  reach  the  imaginary  lake.  The 
heat  was  intense ;  the  men  grew  faint  and  in  a  few  hours  died  one  by  one  in 
horrible  agony.  It  is  not  surprising  that  by  the  Arabs  this  strange  phenomenon 
should  have  been  named  the  bahr-eah'Uheitan,  or  "  Devil's  Sea."  *  !ifLv.j^«  ?fej 
1  '  - "     '■"       ■■■'■■'  '"•'  -•■* ■■  «■'  ■;•»» Ai-> f,.     -  ♦«M;sf*iww.  '*-!5Fwii>  '*j;;»w.v;feS-4^  if^sfyjiimjj''  ■yi^.w:f^t?'^--Z 


Geological  Features. 


The  surface  of  the  Libyan  desert  is  completely  covered  with  sand,  which 
accumulates  in  vast  quantities  in  the  depressions,  leaving  only  the  higher  rocky 
eminences  partly  exposed.  In  few  places  are  the  cliffs  absolutely  bare,  being 
almost  everywhere  clothed  with  the  yellow  or  reddish  particles  of  disintegrated 
quarts.  These  quartzose  sands  are  certainly  of  foreign  origin,  for  the  plateau 
itself  presents  nothing  but  limestone  rooks  and  clays.  These  remains  of  primitive 
rocks  have  been  brought  from  distant  uplands  by  the  action  of  the  winds  and, 
possibly,  also  of  marine  waters.  By  their  ceaseless  movement  over  the  surface  the 
shifting  sands  have  imparted  a  remarkable  smoothness  to  the  surface  rocks,  which 
in  many  places  exhibit  the  lustre  of  polished  marble.  All  the  scattered  blocks  are, 
as  it  were,  varnished  by  the  sand,  which  has  rounded  off  their  angles  and  softened 
their  rugged  outlines.  Some  of  these  boulders  have  thus  acquired  such  brilliancy 
that  observers  have  mistaken  them  for  volcanic  obsidians. 

The  geolog^t  Zittel  supposes  that  the  incessant  friction  may  even  have 
tended  to  produce  a  chemical  modification  in  the  very  structure  of  the  rocks; 
for  a  large  number  of  flints  are  met,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  embedded  a  core 
of  nummulitic  limestone.  Hence  the  stone  has  been  apparently  transformed  from 
the  outside  inwardly,  a  phenomenon  which  can  be  attributed  only  to  the  constant 
friction  of  the  sand  on  the  surface.  Amongst  the  myriads  of  nummulites  covering 
the  ground  in  dense  layers,  all  those  occurring  on  the  surface  have  by  this  action 
of  the  arenaceous  particles  been  entirely  changed  to  flints,  assuming  a  bluish  or  even 
a  metallic  appearance,  whereas  those  lower  down,  being  protected  from  the  friction 
as  well  as  fronl  the  action  of  light,  remain  white  and  retain  their  limestone  formations. 

*  ■'  Wiih  Hicks  Ftiaha  in  the  Sudan,"  p.  244. 


ke  an  igma 
govern  the 

frequently 
ike.  Some 
n.  Disre- 
Lgypt,  and 
g  lakes  of 
pressed  on 
»,  to  leave 
it  was  sent 
sing  to  be 
ght  of  the 
lake.  The 
by  one  in 
henomenon 

und,  which 
igher  rocky 
bare,  being 
isintegrated 
the  plateau 
{  primitive 
winds  and, 
surface  the 
ocks,  which 
I  blocks  are, 
md  softened 
ih  brilliancy 

'  even  have 
the  rocks; 
added  a  core 
'ormed  from 
;he  constant 
ten  covering 
Y  this  action 
uish  or  even 
the  friction 
}  formations. 


I 


"rr- 


C'V 


THE  EGYPTIAN  PETBIEIED  EOBESTS. 


821 


But  whatever  be  the  chemical  forces  that  have  converted  the  nummulites  into 
flints,  these  do  not  remain  intact  after  their  transformation.  The  vicissitudes  of  the 
temperature,  which  beneath  these  cloudless  skies  varies  so  greatly  between  day  and 
night,  cause  the  stones  to  chip,  strewing  vast  spaces  with  their  fragments. 
Occasionally  the  breakage  of  these  flints  is  effected  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  them  a 
perfectly  regular  form.  Thus  in  a  wady  of  the  Arabian  range  west  of  Beni-Suef 
are  met,  scattered  about  in  considerable  quantities,  siliceous  fragments  resembling 
truncated  cones  and  presenting  eight  symmetrical  facets. 

To  the  sudden  changes  of  temperature  have  also  been  attributed  the  broken  and 
even-worked  flakes  that  have  been  found  in  various  prehistoric  workshops  through- 
out Egypt.  But  human  labour  is  so  clearly  stamped  on  these  specimens  that  it  is 
quite  impossible  to  confound  them  with  the  products  of  natural  causes.  In  the 
Libyan  desert  Zittel  sought  in  vain  for  any  naturally  produced  siliceous  chippings 
bearing  even  a  remote  resemblance,  to  the  spear  and  dart  heads  worked  by  the  men  of 
the  stone  age,  whether'  in  Egypt,  Europe  or  the  New  World.  Amongst  the  stones 
of  regular  form  found  in  the  Egyptian  deserts,  Cailliaud  and  Russegger  were  the 
first  to  call  attention  to  the  carnelians,  jaspers,  agates,  and  other  hard  stones  pre- 
senting the  form  of  lentils  or  discs  of  various  dimensions,  encircled  by  a  round  ridge 
somewhat  like  a  ring.  The  interior  of  these  natural  specimens  is  often  disposed  in 
concentric  circles,  and  such  concretions  are  very  frequently  found  associated  with 
fossil  wood. 


The  Egyptian  Petrified  Forests. 

•  •  •  ■'     , 

By  a  remarkable  contrast,  petrified  trees  are  known  to  occur  in  many  parts  of  a 
region  where  living  plants  have  become  so  very  rare.  On  the  east  slope  of  the 
Jebel-Mokattam,  not  far  from  Cairo,  is  found,  if  not  a  "  petrified  forest,"  as  it  is 
usually  called,  or  "  masts  of  shipwrecked  vessels,"  pierced  with  holes  by  phollades, 
and  covered  with  marine  deposits,  as  the  early  travellers  pretended,  at  least  a  number 
of  stems  transformed  to  blocks  of  flint  or  chalcedony.  But  by  penetrating  farther 
into  the  desert  we  come  upon  far  more  extensive  petrifications,  which  might  really 
deserve  the  name  of  "  forests."  In  a  depression  of  the  Arabian  plateau,  to  the  south- 
east of  Cairo,  the  trunks  of  trees  of  all  sizes  are  found  in  such  multitudes  that  certain 
tracts  are  exclusively  covered  with  the  siliceous  stems  or  fragments  of  fossil  wood. 

In  the  Libyan  desert,  west  of  the  Pyramids,  other  "  petrified  forests  "  contain 
stems  over  sixty  feet  long,  with  their  roots  and  branches,  and  even  with  the  bark 
still  perceptible  in  some  places.  Travellers  have  also  discovered  similar  masses  of 
fossil  wood  in  various  parts  of  the  Nubian  desert,  in  Sen&r  and  Eordof&n,  and  even 
on  the  upland  plateaux  of  Abyssinia.  In  all  these  regions  the  vegetable  remains 
so  petrified  belong  to  the  order  of  the  sterculiacese.  In  Egypt  the  prevailing  variety 
is  the  uicholia  NHotica,  and  a  species  of  bamboo  obtained  from  these  forests  is  also 
preserved  in  one  of  the  natural  history  collections  in  Cairo. 

Whence  come  all  these  stems  of  petrified  trees  ?  Some  geologists  have  suggested 
that  they  may  have  been  washed  up  by  the  sea  at  a  time  when  the  Mediterranean 

21— AF. 


NORTH-EAST  AFBICA. 


penetrated  much  farther  southwards  than  at  present.  But  in  that  case  it  is  difficult 
to  understand  how  these  fossil  woods  could  have  been  stranded  in  such  a  good  state 
of  preservotion,  ond,  moreover,  without  being  associated  with  ony  of  those  vegetable 
or  animal  marine  organisms  which  are  always  found  adhering  to  driftwood.  Nor 
is  any  theory  advanced  to  explain  how  this  flotsam  and  jetsam  could  have  been 
borne  over  lofty  mountains  to  the  upland  plateaux  of  Abyssinia. 

On  the  other  hand  it  is  impossible  to  suppose  that  these  petrifications  can  have 
been  brought  down  by  fluvial  currents  such  as  that  of  the  Nile,  because  they  are 
nowhere  associated  with  any  alluvial  deposits.  Hence  these  sterculiaceae  of  the 
Nilotic  basin  must  be  regarded  as  still  in  situ,  or  at  least  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  places  where  they  originally  flourished.  The  opinion  which  finds  greatest 
favour  with  geologists  is  that  the  vegetable  fibres  were  gradually  petrified  under 
the  action  of  thermal  waters,  such  as  still  occur  in  various  parts  of  Egj'pt,  and 
especially  in  the  region  of  the  oases.  Becoming  saturated  with  these  waters,  the 
fallen  trunks  would  be  gradually  changed  to  stone,  just  as  they  become  converted 
into  peat  or  turf  in  the  swampy  districts  of  more  northern  latitudes. 

Doubtless  the  petrifications  of  herbs  and  other  vegetation  at  present  going  on 
roimd  about  the  geysers  of  Iceland  and  of  Montana  in  North  America,  differ  from 
those  of  the  Egyptian  deserts  in  their  general  appearance  and  process  of  formation, 
for  in  these  districts  the  plants  are  changed  not  into  particles  of  quartz  but  into 
amorphous  flints.  But  allowance  should,  perhaps,  be  made  for  climatic  dif- 
ferences and  for  the  long  action  of  time.  Close  to  the  "  petrified  forest  "  of  Cairo 
is  observed  a  dome-shaped  sandstone  hill,  the  Jebel-el-Ahmar,  or  "  Red  Mountain," 
the  interior  of  which  is  easily  quarried,  thanks  to  the  softer  character  of  the  deeper 
strata.  May  not  this  sandstone  hill,  isolated  amid  the  surrounding  nummulitic 
limestones,  have  been  gradually  accumulated  by  the  action  of  some  ancient  geyser  P 
And  to  the  similar  action  of  thermal  springs  may  we  not  attribute  the  preservation 
of  the  trees  on  the  neighbouring  plain,  which  at  that  time  was  doubtless  thickly 
wooded?  v-.^'N-i  -;•:■:■:''-■■;■..::"  x-.- 


'   The  Western  Oases. 


.'•i'rf 


To  the  west  of  Egypt  as  well  as  to  the  west  of  Nubia  a  chain  of  oases  is 
developed  which  describes  a  curve  almost  parallel  to  the  course  of  the  Nile;  The 
first  of  these  oases  is  that  of  Eurkur,  which  although  scarcely  more  than  60 
miles  from  Assuan,  has  never  been  inhabited.  At  about  the  same  distance  in  a 
north-westerly  direction  stretches  the  so-called  "Great  Oasis"  of  the  ancients,  now 
known  as  that  of  Ehargeh,  from  the  name  of  its  chief  town.  Including  the  palm- 
groves  of  Boris,  it  occupies  a  depression  stretching  north  and  south  for  a  distance  of 
90  miles.  It  does  not,  however,  form  one  continuous  oasis,  but  rather  an  archi- 
pelago of  small  oases,  a  cluster  of  cultivated  islands  separated  from  each  other  by 
intervening  tracts  destitute  of  vegetation. 

West  of  Ehargeh  lies  the  oasis  of  Dakhel,  or  Dakleh,  that  is  to  say,  the 
"Interior,"  also  knoiwn  as  th&  Wah-el-Gharbieh,  or  "Western  Oasis."    Dakhel  is 


tmm&v  I 


THE  WESTERN  OASES. 


828 


is  difficult 
good  state 
3  vegetable 
^ood.  Nor 
have  been 

8  can  have 
se  they  are 
:ce8B  of  the 
ite  vicinity 
is  greatest 
ified  under 
EgjT)t,  and 
waters,  the 
B  converted 

it  going  on 
differ  from 
I  formation, 
tz  but  into 
limatic  dif- 
t "  of  Cairo 
Mountain," 
'  the  deeper 
nummulitio 
ent  geyser  P 
)reservation 
less  thickly 


of  oases  is 
NUe.  The 
re  than  60 
istance  in  a 
acients,  now 
ig  the  palm- 
El  distance  of 
er  an  archi- 
vch.  other  by 

to  say,  the 
Dakhel  is 


separated  by  a  limestone  wilderness,  partly  covered  with  shifting  sandn,  from  the 
oasis  of  Farafreh,  which  is  situated  120  miles  to  the  north-west.  The  labyrinth 
of  rocks  occupying  the  intermediate  space  between  Dakhel  and  Farafreh  is  one  of 
the  moot  remarkable  formations  of  the  kind  in  the  whole  wr)rld.  The  narrow 
fissures  winding  along  and  intersecting  each  other  at  variuos  angles  amid  the  still 
preserved  upright  rocky  masses  resemble  the  streets  of  some  weird  city  lined  with 
fantastic  monuments,  pyramids,  obelisks,  triumphal  arches,  sphinxes,  lions,  and 
even  statues  faintly  reproducing  the  outlines  of  the  human  figure.  One  of  the 
natural  gates  on  the  north  side  of  this  uninhabited  city  has  by  Rohlfs  been  named 
the  Bab-el- lasmund,  in  honour  of  a  fellow-countryman.  A  still  more  colossal  gate- 
way, which  stands  at  the  outlet  of  the  labyrinth  facing  the  Dakhel  oasis,  is  known  as 
the  Bab-el-Cailliaud,  in  memory  of  the  first  European  traveller  who  in  recent 
times  has  penetrated  into  these  inhospitable  regions. 

Several  oases  of  smaller  size. are  scattered  round  about  the  Wah-el-Farafreh, 
forming  an  archipelago  which  is  prolonged  in  a  north-easterly  direction  by  the 
oasis  of  Bakharieh,  probably  the  "Little  Oasis"  of  the  ancients.  It  is  one  of  those 
lying  nearest  to  the  Nile,  being  situated  not  more  than  90  miles  from  the  plains  of 
Minieh  in  the  fluvial  basin.  But  in  this  district  the  series  of  depressions  ramifies 
in  two  different  directions.  One  branch  continues  to  develop  itself  parallel  with 
the  Nile,  while  the  other  follows  the  line  of  the  Mediterranean  seaboard  west  of 
Alexandria.  Its  axis  intersects  the  depressions  of  the  Bahr-Bel&-mlL,  or  "  Water- 
less Lakes,"  and  other  dried-up  lacustrine  basins,  ultimately  terminating  in  the 
oasis  of  Siwah,  formerly  consecrated  to  Jupiter  Ammon. 

North  of  the  Siwah  depression  rise  the  rocky  escarpments  of  the  plateau  of 
Cyrenaica,  while  towards  the  south  an  isolated  system  of  coarse  limestones  is 
encircled  by  lofty  sand  dunes.  In  this  region  bordering  on  the  sea  and  already 
comprised  within  the  zone  of  winter  rain6,  the  water  develops  vast  lacustrine 
basins,  all  saturated  with  salt.  Amongst  them  is  thq  extensive  Lake  Sittra,  which 
floods  the  lowest  part  of  a  depression  lying  midway  between  the  Bahr-Bel&-m& 
and  the  Siwah  oasis.  But  this  "  sparkling  sapphire  set  in  gold,"  as  it  has 
been  described,  merges  in  one  direction  in  dreary  morasses.  Other  cavities  are 
now  empty.  Excavated  in  the  form  of  wells  to  a  depth  of  from  60  to  150  feet, 
they  still  retain  at  the  bottom  a  deposit  of  mud  mixed  with  salt  and  gypsum. 
Springs  even  continue  to  bubble  up  in  some  ;  but  the  banks  of  these  saline  waters 
are  everywhere  destitute  of  vegetation.  In  the  dried-up  lacustrine  hollows 
nothing  is  seen  except  a  little  scrub  in  places  where  the  saline  efflorescences  have 
been  overlaid  by  a  thick  layer  of  drifting  sands. 

Not  far  from  Lake  Sittra  stretches  the  now-abandoned  oasis  of  £1-Araj,  which 
is  being  gradually  swallowed  up  in  the  sands.  The  outer  zone  of  plantations  has 
already  partly  disappeared ;  the  half-choked-up  wells  now  contain  nothing  but  a 
scanty  supply  of  brackish  water ;  and  the  time  is  rapidly  approaching  when  the 
only  evidence  of  the  former  residence  of  man  in  this  district  will  be  tombs  in  the 
Egyptian  style  excavated  in  the  neighbouring  cliffs. 


^^P-M 


N0ETII-EA8T  AFRICA. 


ThK   SiWAH    Oa918. 

The  Siwah  oasis,  where  spoke  the  renowned  oruclo  of  Ammon,  consulted  on  one 
occasion  by  the  Maoodoniun  conqueror,  rivals  in  beauty  that  o|  Dakhel,  although 
the  limestone  hills  forming  its  outer  enclosure  connot  be  compared  with  the 
picturesque  heights  of  the  Bub-el- Cailliaud.  Nevertheless  thoy  present  scorcely 
less  fantastic  forms.  In  certain  parts  of  the  plateau  the  cliffs  terminate  in  flights 
of  steps  with  perfectly  horizontol  slabs  and  of  uniform  depth,  like  those  leading  to 
some  palatial  structure.  The  strange  effect  is  heightened  by  the  colour  of  the 
Btone,  which  contrasts  vividly  with  the  white  sand  strewn  over  the  steps.     In  the 


Fig.  07.— OuAiNH  OF  Oamk  Wmi  o»  Uutpt. 
Bod*  1 :  IJKOflOO. 


30' 


95' 


OASta  Of  afui/AM 


KatpFarafpa 


\-       * 


ZMJM  or  MIUritAM 


^'Z 


AfJMT  OfM/rMtt 


86" 


E  .   of  Greenwich 


.  laoHllaa. 


depression  enclosed  by  these  remarkable  cUffs  the  steep  heights  rise  to  the  level  of 
the  plateaux,  of  which  they  originally  formed  an  integral  portion.  They  now 
stand  isolated  amid  the  cultivated  plains  and  palm-groves,  some  crowned  with 
edifices,  others  disposed  in  ramparts  and  turrets  presenting  the  appearance  of 
fortifications.  The  blue  lakelets  scattered  over  the  verdant  plain  impart  to  the 
oasis  of  Jupiter  Ammon  the  aspect  of  a  pleasant  retreat  from  the  interminable 
wilderness.  But  the  traveller's  anticipations  are  presently  dashed  by  the  brackish 
taste  of  the  waters  and  by  the  miasmatic  exhalations  rising  from  th'e  surrounding 
marshy  tracts.     Near  the  saline  springs  flow  some  streams  of  fresh  water,  though 


— 1- — .ViKMiilimii^ji:..'  -- 


"«**~*w*'s»«®i!^ag^^Biil*'" 


ii^iWiHHu.  ii.i 


ORIGIN  OF  TIIE  OA8ES. 


026 


tod  on  one 
,  although 
with  the 
it  scarcely 
)  in  flights 
leading  to 
>ur  of  the 
».     In  the 


30* 


:^ 


for  the  most  part  thermal;  other  waters  contain  sulphur,  while  the  so-called 
fountain  of  the  "  Sun/'  said  to  be  alternately  cool  in  the  middle  of  the  day  and 
warm  at  night,  has  really  a  nearly  uniform  temperature  of  from  84°  to  86°  F. 
It  has  been  identified  with  the  spring  still  flowing  at  some  distance  from  the 
temple  of  Um-beidah.  At  the  same  time  it  is  easy  to  understand  that,  in  the 
absence  of  precise  measurements,  the  ancients  may  easily  have  been  deceived  as  to 
its  real  temperature,  and  thus  suppose  it  cold  by  contrast  under  the  burning  sun, 
and  hot  during  the  chilly  nights. 

With  the  date  groves  of  the  oasis  are  intermingled  the  olive,  the  apricot,  the 
pomegranate,  the  plum,  and  the  vine,  while  the  clearings  are  planted  with  onions. 
Although  annexed  to  Egypt  in  1820,  Siwah  is  rather  a  geographical  dependence 
of  Cyrenaica ;  for  it  is  connected  with  the  slopes  draining  to  the  Gulf  of  Sidra 
by  the  Faredgha  oasis  and  by  other  verdant  islets  surrounded  by  rocky  and  sandy 
wastes. 

Towards  the  north  another  depression  in  the  plateau  on  the  route  to  Alexan- 
dria is  occupied  by  the  oasis  of  Qara,  which  is  inhabited  by  some  forty  persons. 
According  to  a  local  tradition  this  number  of  forty  cannot  be  exceeded,  death 
inevitably  re-establishing  the  equilibrium  whenever  disturbed  by  an  excess  of 
births  or  by  too  great  an  inroad  of  immigrants. 


he  level  of 
They  now 
xmed  with 
earance  of 
art  to  the 
terminable 
le  brackish 
irrounding 
er,  though 


,  Origin  op  the  Oaaes. 

At  sight  of  the  chain  of  oases  diverging  from  the  Nile,  and  winding  through  a 
series  of  valleys  and  gorges  seawards,  it  was  only  natural  to  regard  these  low-lying 
and  fertile  tracts  as  the  remains  of  some  old  watercourse,  some  western  branch  of 
the  Nile  now  partly  obliterated  by  the  invading  sands.  The  natives  have  pre- 
served legends  recording  the  g^radual  desiccation  of  this  waterless  stream,  and 
down  to  a  recent  period  most  travellers  still  sought  the  traces  of  the  Nile  in  the 
oases  of  the  Libyan  desert.  Even  on  some  contemporary  maps  the  channel  of 
the  so-called  Bahr-Bel&-m&  is  drawn  from  valley  to  valley,  as  if  its  course  had 
actually  been  determined  by  local  surveys. 

It  is  in  any  case  highly  probable  that  at  some  remote  geological  age  fluvial 
or  marine  waters,  excavating  straits  and  valleys,  may  have  flowed  through  the 
region  now  occupied  by  the  oases.  But  during  the  present  epoch  no  branch  of 
the  Nile  or  inlet  of  the  Mediterranean  has  penetrated  into  these  depressions  of  the 
desert,  which  contain  neither  alluvia  of  fluvial  origin,  nor  marine  deposits  asso- 
ciated with  contemporary  molluscs.  Nevertheless  the  thermal  waters  of  the  oases 
contain  animal  species  belonging  both  to  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  Sea  fauna. 
Such,  for  instance,  are  the  two  little  fishes  called  cyprinodon  diapar  and  ct/prinodon 
cakritanua* 

But  if  in  their  formation  the  oases  are  independent  of  the  present  Nile,  they 
may  possibly  be  connected  with  it  through  the  waters  which  feed  their  date 
plantations.    Certainly  the  copious  springs  serving  to  irrigate  the  oases  of  Dakhel 

•  Zittal,"  Die  Sahara." 


BmwMiiwi 


i^n  m 


NORTTI-EART  AFRIOA. 


.,  and  Kitrufrrh  cannot  huvo  tluMr  uri^fin  in  tho  iliNtrictii  thomiiolvcN,  for  rain  in  huro 
tilt*  rarest  o(  phunonicna.  thv  nativoH  arc  thoroughly  convinctHl  that  thi<HO  wutorit 
ttro  derived  from  the  Nilo,  und  thoy  ovtui  pretend  to  havo  ohnorviHl  a  certain 
increnHO  in  their  volume  during  the  period  of  tho  ^rt^ut  inundations  But  thiH 
would  bo  very  nurpriHing  conniderin^  the  great  extent  of  Hundn  which  the  under- 
ground currentH  would  have  t«  filter  through.  Yet  the  explorern  Cailliaud  und 
HuHflegger  accepted  the  theory  of  the  nativoH  that  the  oaHeH  derive  their  supplies 
from  the  Nile.  Hut  Dukhel  being  at  a  much  higher  level  than  tho  main  Htream 
under  the  same  latitude,  the  source  of  its  springs  must  in  any  case  be  sought  in 
the  upper  reaches  of  tho  Nile.  Thoy  probably  come  from  the  southern  regions 
lying  within  the  zone  of  the  tropical  rains. 

But,  however  this  bo,  the  high  temperature  attained  by  the  current  during  its 
underground  passage  shows  that  it  must  flow  at  a  depth  of  several  hundred  yards 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  All  tho  springs  have  a  mean  temperature  of 
from  98°  to  100°  F.,  ond  they  ore  utilised  as  well  for  the  cure  of  certain  maladies 
as  for  irrigation  purposes.  Since  the  year  1850  their  volume  has  been  consider- 
ably increased  in  the  Farafroh  oaais,  thanks  to  the  intelligence  of  a  native,  who 
after  travelling  with  the  French  engineer  Lofobvre,  returned  to  his  home,  where 
he  sank  a  number  of  wells  and  carried  out  a  regular  system  of  irrigation.  Care 
was  also  taken  to  construct  underground  galleries  analogous  to  the  hinata  and 
khariz  of  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  other  parts  of  the  Iranian  plateau,  in  order  to 
prevent  excessive  evaporation.  So  far  tho  new  wells  do  not  appear  to  have  at  all 
diminished  the  abundance  of  the  old  sources,  so  that  the  underground  supply  seems 
to  be  practically  inexhaustible. 

In  the  oasis  of  Boris,  south  of  Ehargeh,  two  hundred  wells  have  been  choked 
with  the  sands.  But  there  still  remain  twenty-five  whose  thermal  water  ranging 
from  77°  to  86°  F.  is  highly  ferruginous,  and  is  found  only  at  a  depth  of  200  feet 
from  the  surface.  According  to  the  ancient  writers  some  of  the  wells  in  the  great 
oasis  had  in  former  times  been  sunk  to  a  depth  of  over  650  feet.  The  walls  of  tho 
shafts  are  supported  by  beams  of  acacia  wood  affording  access  to  tho  bottom.  But 
the  boring  of  new  wells  and  the  work  of  clearing  the  old  pits  of  their  accumulated 
sands  are  not  unattended  by  danger.  After  the  last  layer  of  sand  is  pierced, 
wherever  the  flow  is  abundant,  as  in  Dakhel  and  still  more  in  £hargeh,  the  water 
tends  to  spread  out  in  malarious  swamps.  j:  .       .>,.?•. 


■;-'.r- 


The  Natron  Lakes. 


-/A' 


North  of  the  Bahr-Bel&-m&,  and  parallel  witu  the  series  of  depressions  collec- 
tively known  by  this  name,  a  valley  of  mori  regular  form  running  south-east  and 
north-west  is  occupied  in  its  lowest  cavities  by  seven  shallow  morasses.  These 
are  the  so-called  "  Natron  Lakes."  Although  separated  from  the  nearest  bend  of 
the  Nile  by  a  shingly  desert  over  24  miles  broad,  the  El-Natrun  Valley  most 
probably  receives  its  supply  of  moisture  from  the  river.  During  the  three  months 
following  the  autumnal  equinox  the  water,  "of  a  dark  blood-red  colour,"  due 


TIIK  NATRON  I.AKFX 


8*27 


iiin  in  horo 
wm  wuten 
a  cortuiii 
But  this 
ihe  undcr- 
lliuud  und 
lir  8upplii!H 
uin  Htroum 
sought  in 
rn  regions 

during  its 
Ired  yards 
»eraturo  of 
n  maladies 
t  conaider- 
lative,  who 
>me,  where 
ion.  Caro 
kunats  and 
n  order  to 
lave  at  all 
pply  seems 

)en  choked 
)r  ranging 
}f  200  feet 
1  the  great 
'alls  of  tho 
;tom.  But 
;cimiul»tcd 
is  pierced, 
,  the  water 


!on8  coUeo- 
;h-east  and 
es.  These 
«t  bend  of 
alley  most 
ree  months 
iour,"  due 


{wrhujHi  to  tho  infuHoria  inhabiting  it,  oozes  up  to  tho  surface  from  tho  east  side 
uf  tho  valley,  whence  it  flows  in  rills  and  rivulets  down  to  tho  liikos. 

In  those  basins  tho  waters  increase  till  tho  end  of  DocrnilKT,  by  wliich  time 
they  have  ,i\  *  nined  a  depth  of  about  G  feet.  Then  they  sulwide,  leaving  some  of 
tho  cavities  quitu  dry.  Their  composition  varies  with  tho  different  basins.  In 
some  initi  Jne  salt  previnls,  in  others  carbonate  of  s<xia  ;  while  tho  sulphuto  of  soda 
is  intermingled  in  diverse  pjojwrtions.  Two  of  the  lakes,  presenting  a  reddish 
appearand  when  drit  <i  up,  leave  an  encircling  ring  of  red  or  bn)wn  salt,  which 
omits  the  pluuitant  fragrance  uf  the  rose.  The  decomposition  of  the  marino  salt  by 
the  carbonate  of  luno  coutaiuod  in  the  nioist  soil  produces  crystals  of  soda,  which 

Fif.  08.-  iHi  Natrun  Lakm. 

Scale  I  :  3SO,nOi). 


::~':*^. 


■  V';  'iA^  01  •it  ui  wl*""™!™^; 


SiltLAl(c9f^ 


;■  '■  'V«p«s-Saui4kn) ' •  i:: ; ;  ■■••■.• ; •'' : , j'. 
■■■■•'■■■:■  i  :••..■  ■■"5'-,'*-'/'-' •■'• 


30'I0' 


50'DO  E  .  of  Creenwich 


.6MUM. 


are  deposited  in  a  greyish  layer,  and  which  are  collected  by  the  natives  of  Terraneh, 
a  village  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rosettu  branch  of  the  Nile.* 

A  few  springs  of  fresh  water,  which  have  their  source  in  the  neighbouring 
rocks,  help  to  support  a  scanty  vegpetation,  mainly  comprising  Mediterranean 
species  and  a  few  sickly  palm-trees.  The  only  inhabitants  of  the  Natron  district 
are  the  inmates  of  the  Baramus,  Saint  Macarius,  and  other  convents  founded  in 
the  fourth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  at  a  time  when  thousands  of  monks  took 
refuge  in  the  caves  und  valleys  of  this  rocky  and  sandy  region.  Like  the  old 
anchorites,  the  recluses  of  the  Natron  Valley  are  forbidden  to  consume  the  pvo- 


*  Natron  of  the  Terraneh  lakes,  nccording  to  BerthoUet : — 
Cliloride  of  sodium       .  62  per  cdut.     I    Sand 

Carbonate  of  Roda         .  i'A      „  I    Carbonate  of  lime 

Sulpibate  of  soda  .  11      „  |    OxiJeofiroa 


3  per  cent. 
0-9        „ 
0-2        „ 


gn 


828 


N0ETH-EA8T  APBICA. 


ducts  of  their  own  gardens,  so  that  all  their  supplies  have  to  be  brought  from 
Egypt.  However,  the  spirit  of  abnegation  has  nowadays  little  to  do  with  the 
peopling  of  these  monasteries  of  the  wilderness,  most  of  their  inmates  being  in  fact 
exiles  condemned  to  a  lingering  death. 

No  remains  of  ancient  monuments  are  found  in  these  solitudes,  with  perhaps 
the  single  exception  of  the  traces  of  a  glass  manufactory,  which  may  be  recognised 
by  the  ruins  of  some  brick  furnaces  and  the  fragments  of  scoriee  and  vitrified 
sands  strewn  about.  Before  the  recent  events,  which  have  brought  about  the 
British  occupation  of  Egypt,  it  was  proposed  to  survey  the  region  west  of  the 
Nile,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  it  might  not  be  possible  to  construct 
a  canal  from  the  main  stream,  or  from  the  Bahr-Yusef  to  the  Bahr-Bel&-m& 
depressions,  and  thus  bring  500,000  acres  under  cultivation.  / 


GFeneral  Features  op  the  "Western  Oases.     ,?,/ 

The  level  of  the  oases  does  not  present  a  regular  slope  from  the  frontiers  of 
Nubia  to  the  Mediterranean  sefvboard.  Cailliaud's  barometrio  measurements  had 
already  shown  that  the  region  of  the  depressions  falls  from  the  Dakhel  oasis  to 
that  of  Farafreh,  again  rising  towards  that  of  Bakharieh,  beyond  which  it  sinks 
in  the  Siwah  district  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  operations  executed  by 
Jordan  in  1873  and  1874  with  more  care  and  with  better  instruments  have  con- 
firmed this  general  conclusion,  while  slightly  modifying  the  figures  given  by  the 
French  explorer.  There  is  now  no  longer  any  doubt  that  the  palm-groves  of 
Siwah  stand  at  a  lower  level  than  the  Mediterranean,  while  the  oasis  of  Araj  would 
appear  to  be  even  some  150  feet  still  lower.* 

Farther  on  the  chain  of  oases,  which  was  perhaps  a  marine  inlet  during  a 
former  geological  epoch,  is  continued  south  of  the  plateau  of  Cyrenaioa  through  the 
Faredgha,  Jalo,  and  Aujila  oases.  The  whole  series  seems  to  be  also  below  the 
level  of  the  sea,  a  barrier  of  reefs  and  sand  dunes  alone  preventing  the  marine 
waters  from  penetrating  into  the  depression.  Its  mean  level  seems  to  be  about 
100  feet  below  the  Mediterranean.  After  having  determined  this  g^graphical 
fact  engineers  began  to  discuss  the  project  of  converting  the  whole  of  Cyrenaica 
into  a  larg^  island  by  introducing  the  sea  into  the  region  of  the  oases.  In  the 
same  way  it  has  been  proposed  fo  create  a  vast  "  inland  sea  "  farther  west  beyond 
the  Syrtes. 

The  term  oasis  at  ouce  suggests  the  idea  of  an  earthly  Eden,  diversified  with 
running  waters  and  verdant  plains.  By  the  ancients,  the  Egyptian  oases  were 
called  "  Isles  of  the  Blest,"  as  if  a  residence  in  these  palm-groves  in  the  midst  of* 


*  Altitude  of  the  oases,  Recording  to  Gailliaud  and  Jordan : 

OBUUand. 

.^      ■         Khargeh  .     ^-V^vijr-'-'' .v^j^^flvf  sv 
Dakhel     ....... 

Farafreh 

■■-■'■■■":       Bakharieh        .        .        ■.        .        .       'v,  ^ 
Arty  ....    ■•■  i"  •■  ■•  ,      ■  .  „ 

Siwah       .  .       i,iv   V-   f.        .-—110 


R«t.,. 
848  V 

182    .  , 
no  f  • 


Jordan. 

Feet. 
226 

330 

262 

378 

—266 

—120 


THE  LIBYAN  DESEET. 


829 


ought  from 
lo  with  the 
sing  in  fact 

ith  perhaps 
recognised 
id  Titiified 
about  the 
rest  of  the 
'jo  construct 
hr-Bel&-m& 


frontiers  of 
sments  had 
lel  oasis  to 
ch  it  sinks 
zecuted  by 
\  have  con- 
iven  by  the 
o-groves  of 
Araj  would 

it  during  a 

Hirough  the 

}  below  the 

the  marine 

0  be  about 
eographical 

1  Cyrenaica 
es.  In  the 
rest  beyond 

irsified  with 

oases  were 

lie  midst  of* 


the  wilderness  were  a  special  favour  of  heaven.  Nevertheless  the  sovereigns  of 
Egypt,  and  after  them  the  Roman  and  Byzantine  emperors,  were  well  aware  that 
these  oases  were  not  the  happy  abodes  sung  by  the  poets,  for  thither  they  banished 
their  enemies  to  perish  of  weariness  and  inanition.  Thousands  of  Christians,  exiled 
by  their  fellow-Christians  of  different  theological  opinions,  yielded  to  home-sickness 
in  these  dreary  "  convict  stations."  Some  of  the  oases',  amongst  others  that  of 
Dakhel,  possess  the  romantic  beauty  imparted  by  a  superb  rampart  of  cliffs,  with 
their  fantastic  towers  and  embattlements  rising  from  800  to  1,000  feet  above  the 
hamlets  and  palm-groves.  But  the  traveller's  admiration  is,  even  here,  due  mainly 
to  the  impression  of  contrast  presented  by  the  patches  of  verdure  to  the  dismal 
waste  of  bare  rocks  and  sand  encircling  them.  He  is  naturally  enraptured  when, 
after  traversing  the  waterless  desert,  the  constant  sport  of  the  mirage,  he  at  last 
comes  upon  real  streams  of  water,  flowing  beneath  the  shade  of  leafy  groves.  But 
then  comes  the  inevitable  feeling  of  oppression  produced  by  the  narrow  limits  of 
these  garden-plots,  everywhere  surrounded  by  boundless  wastes,  stretching  in  all 
directions  beyond  the  horizon. 

The  Libyan  Desert.    '  '' 

The  sands  of  the  desert  form  shifting  dunes  like  those  on  the  Mediterranean  and 
Atlantic  coasts.  Between  the  Nile  Valley  and  the  chain  of  oases  several  ranges  of 
these  dunes  are  disposed,  nearly  all  in  the  direction  from  the  south-oast  to  the  north- 
west, parallel  with  the  course  of  the  river  between  Assuan  and  Minieh.  The  sand- 
hills do  not  attain  an  elevation  comparable  to  those  of  the  French  landes ;  doubtless 
the  laboratory  where  rocks  are  weathered  into  minute  particles  are  more  remote, 
while  the  winds  are  less  powerful.  A  few  stunted  shrubs,  especially  the  tamarisk 
plant,  are  the  chief  instruments  employed  by  nature  in  binding  the  sand  in  compact 
masses.  Behind  these  obstacles  a  little  heap  is  formed,  the  horns  of  its  crescent 
curving  forward  with  the  wind.  Soon  the  plant  is  enveloped,  and  would  in  a  short 
time  be  entirely  swallowed  up,  if  its  growth  did  not  keep  pace  with  the  rising 
sands.  • 

Thus  are  formed  hillocks,  whose  mean  height  scarcely  exceed  12  or  14  feet, 
and  on  the  crest  of  which  is  visible  the  foliage  of  a  tamarisk  or  some  other  shrub. 
A  peculiar  physiognomy  is  imparted  to  the  Libyan  desert  by  these  low  eminences, 
which  in  form  and  colour  resemble  eroded  cliffs,  but  all  of  which  bear  a  plant  of 
some  kind  on  their  summits  or  slopes.  The  sands  do  not  pass  beyond  any  rocky 
heights  exceeding  the  mean  elevation  of  the  plateau ;  they  are  also  arrested  before 
'the  Pyramids  on  the  edge  of  the  limestone  rocks  skirting  the  valley  of  the  Nile. 
Hence  arose  the  otherwise  groundless  and  absurd  hypothesis  that  the  huge  tombs 
of  the  Pharaohs  were  erected  to  protect  Egypt  from  the  invading  sands  of  the 
desert.  ^a» 

When  the  west  wind  prevails,  thousands  of  small  streams  of  red  or  golden  sands 
overflow  from  the  rocky  battlements  of  the  plateau,  forming  long  ridges  which 
here  and  there  encroach  on  the  cultivated  lands.     In  this  way  the  course  of  the 


880 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


Bahr-Yusef  has  been  gradually  deflected  eastwards  by  the  ranges  of  dunes  skirting 
the  left  bank.  But  the  progress  of  the  sands  is  extremely  slow,  and  may  perhaps 
bo  compensated  by  the  erosions  caused  by  the  action  of  the  current  along  the 
right  bank  of  the  Nile.  Moreover  the  sands  themselves  may  be  cultivated  like 
other  lands,  wherever  they  can  be  brought  within  the  reach  of  the  irrigating  waters, 
bringing  down  the  rich  alluvia  of  the  stream. 

West  of  the  oases,  the  Libyan  desert  has  not  yet  been  traversed  by  any  explorers 
in  the  direction  of  the  Euf  ra  oasis  and  of  Fezzan.  An  inhospitable  region  at  least 
400,000  square  miles  in  extent,  inaccessible  even  to  travellers  provided  with  all  the 
resources  of  modem  industry,  occupies  this  part  of  the  continent,  completely  separa- 
ting Eg^t  and  Cyrenaica  from  the  lands  comprised  within  the  Tsad  basin.  The 
natives  of  the  Egyptian  oases  are  unable  to  g^ve  strangers  any  information  regard- 
ing these  mysterious  and  terrible  regions  bounding  their  horizon,  and  into  which 
they  are  careful  not  to  penetrate.  A  few  confused  legends  destitute  of  all  historic 
value  are,  however,  kept  alive  amongst  them  regarding  strange  events  supposed  to 
have  occurred  in  these  frightfid  solitudes. 

In  the  year  1874,  Rohlfs,  Zittel,  and  some  other  German  explorers,  vainly 
attempted  to  make  their  way  in  a  straight  line  across  this  region  to  Fezzan.  In 
anticipation  of  a  long  journey  they  organised  a  whole  caravan  of  camels,  carrying 
water  in  iron  chests  lined  inside  with  tin.  But  after  a  six  days'  march  from  Dakhel, 
they  became  convinced  that  it  would  be  impossible  for  the  camels  to  traverse  the 
endless  ranges  of  dunes  barring  the  route  in  the  direction  of  Fezzan.  Hence  they 
turned  northwards  to  seek  a  refuge  in  the  Siwah  oasis.  This  point  was  reached 
twenty-two  days  after  leaving  the  last  watering-place,  and  throughout  the  whole  of 
this  expedition  nothing  was  met  except  sand  and  rocks,  and  the  "  devil's  water  " 
shown  by  the  mirage. 

The  part  of  the  Libyan  desert  Ijdng  nearest  to  the  Egyptian  oases  resembles 
that  skirting  the  Nile  Valley.  Here  the  surface  is  still  varied  by  a  few  limestone 
hills,  interspersed  with  ranges  of  dunes  and  stunted  scrub.  But  when  the 
traveller  reaches  the  region  of  quartzose  sandstones  all  vestiges  of  vegetation 
disappear.  Nothing  now  meets  the  eye  except  sand  and  stratified  rocks,  alternating 
with  deposits  of  a  very  rich  iron  ore.  The  land  rises  gradually  in  the  direction 
of  the  west,  and  towards  the  parting-line  between  the  limestones  and  sandstones 
the  plateau  attains  an  elevation  of  1,460  feet.  Here  begins  the  ocean  of  sand, 
which  stretches  for  unknown  distances  in  the  direction  of  Fezzan.  In  the  north 
it  extends  for  no  less  than  240  miles  towards  the  Siwah  oasis. 

The  vast  dunes  of  this  region,  produced  by  the  weathering  of  the  sandstone 
rocks,  have  a  mean  altitude  of  over  300  feet,  hence  exceed  in  elevation  the  largest  • 
sand-hills  of  Europe.  Some  are  even  said  to  attain  a  height  of  500  feet.  Disposed 
in  the  direction  from  south  to  north,  or  from  south-south-east  to  north-north-west, 
perpendicularly  to  the  polar  winds,  the  ranges  follow  each  other  like  the  ocean 
waves  under  the  regular  action  of  the  trade-winds.  Secondary  systems  of  dunes, 
which  may  be  compared  with  the  false  cones  occurring  on  the  flanks  of  Etna,  are 
developed  by  the  irregular  atmospheric  currents,  and  these  are  usually  disposed 


CLIMATE  OF  EGYPT. 


881 


38  skirting 
iy  perhaps 
along  the 
vated  like 
[ng  waters, 

Y  explorers 
ion  at  least 
rith  all  the 
ely  separa- 
asin.  The 
ion  regard- 
into  which 
all  historic 
nipposed  to 

ers,  vainly 
izzan.  In 
8,  carrying 
om  Dakhel, 
raverse  the 
Bence  they 
[as  reached 
le  whole  of 
il's  water  " 

resembles 

V  limestone 
when  the 
vegetation 

alternating 
e  direction 
sandstones 
m  of  sand, 
I  the  north 

sandstone 
the  largest  • 
Disposed 
north-west, 

the  ocean 
IS  of  dunes, 
f  Etna,  are 
ly  disposed 


transversely  or  obliquely  to  the  normal  ranges.  The  bottom  of  the  trough  between 
two  parallel  ridges  presents  a  tolerably  good  footing  to  the  wayfarer ;  but  progress 
is  extremely  difficult  on  the  slopes  of  the  crumbling  sandhills.  No  springs  rise 
at  the  foot  of  the  dunes ;  no  living  thing  dwells  in  this  region  of  death,  where 
travellers  themselves  plodding  wearily  and  silently  through  the  sands  seem  like 
phantoms  to  each  other. 

Climate  of  Egypt. 

The  climate  of  Egypt,  although  very  different  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  in  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Upper  Nile  skirted  on  both  sides 
by  the  escarpments  of  the  desert  plateaux,  is  remarkable  especially  for  the 
uniformity  of  its  phenomena,  the  regular  course  of  the  atmospheric  currents,  and 
the  dryness  of  its  atmosphere.  In  its  meteorological  conditions,  the  valley  of  the 
Nile,  that  is  to  say,  Egypt,  resembles  the  Red  Sea.  As  in  all  mountain  gorges, 
the  aerial  currents  which  penetrate  into  this  marine  basin  follow  it  regularly  in  the 
direction  of  its  length.  Here  they  become  changed  either  into  the  shemal,  or  wind 
of  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  or  else  into  the  assiab,  or  wind  of  the  Oulf  of  Aden.  Thus 
the  north-east  monsoon,  which  in  the  Indian  Ocean  prevails  from  October  to 
March,  changes  its  direction  on  entering  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  where  it  becomes  a 
south-east  wind.  So  also  the  khamsin,  which  comes  from  the  Libyan  desert — that 
is,  from  the  west— on  reaching  the  Red  Sea  is  deflected  northwards  parallel  with 
both  coasts.  In  the  same  way  the  western,  northern,  and  north-eastern  currents 
from  the  Mediterranean,  all  alike  take  a  direction  contrary  to  that  of  the  south- 
east monsoon.  On  the  other  hand,  the  land  and  sea  breezes,  which  alternate  with 
such  remarkable  reg^ularity  on  most  of  the  tropical  coast  lands,  play  a  very  feeble 
part  along  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea.  Utilised  to  a  limited  extent  by  sailing 
vessels  for  a  few  hours  of  the  day,  they  are  borne  now  to  the  north,  now  to  the 
south  in  the  general  current  of  the  atmosphere.  They  acquire  a  little  influence 
only  at  the  change  of  seasons  in  q)ring  and  autumn. 

Under  the  action  of  the  alternating  northern  and  southern  breezes,  a  correspond- 
ing movement  takes  place  in  the  Suez  Canal,  where  in  summer  the  Mediterranean 
waters  are  driven  towards  the  Red  Sea,  in  winter,  those  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez 
towards  the  Bay  of  Felusium.  About  14,000,000,000  cubic  feet  of  water  thus  ebb 
and  flow  from  season  to  season,  at  a  velocity  varying  from  6  to  26  inches  per 
second.  In  the  Nile  Valley,  as  in  the  long  trough  of  the  Red  Sea,  all  the  winds, 
whatever  their  original  direction,  change  in  the  same  way  to  currents  setting  north 
and  south.  In  Lower  Egypt  alone,  where  no  obstacle  intervenes  to  obstruct  their 
course,  they  blow  from  all  quarters  of  the  compass,  according  to  their  original 
direction  and  modifying  local  influences. 

The  alternation  of  the  aerial  currents  is  regulated  in  the  Nile  Valley  with  less 
uniformity  than  in  the  Red  Sea.  In  this  longitudinal  basin  they  succeed  each 
other  in  almost  rhythmical  order.  In  winter  the  south-east  monsoon,  which  rushes 
impetuously  into  the  Strait  of  Bab-el- Mandeb,  acquires  the  ascendancy,  and  makes 
itself  felt  at  times  as  far  as  the  neighbourhood  of  Suez.      In  summer,  on  the 


882 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


m 


contrary,  the  north-west  winds  prevail  almost  as  fur  south  as  the  entrance  of  the 
Gulf  of  Aden.  In  order  to  avoid  this  opposing  current,  mariners  from  India  or 
from  the  Hadramaut  coast  found  it  convenient  to  land  their  cargoes  at  some  port 
more  easily  accessible  than  the  Gulf  of  Suez.  To  this  cause  was  due  the  great 
importance  acquired  by  the  ports  of  Berenice  and  Myos  Hormos,  inducing  the 
Ptolemies  and  the  Caesars  to  open  up  highways,  provided  with  watering  stations, 
across  the  desert  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea. 

In  Egypt  also  the  northern  currents  prevail  normally  during  the  hot  season, 
thus  tending  to  temper  the  excessive  summer  heats.  Their  prevalence  is  due  to  the 
higher  temperature  of  the  surrounding  sandy  deserts,  and  to  the  same  cause  must 
be  attributed  the  predominance  of  the  same  winds  even  in  winter.  From  the  end 
of  March  to  the  beginning  of  May  alone,  a  struggle  takes  place  between  the 
opposing  currents.  Buiing  this  season  Egypt  is  frequently  exposed  to  the  influence 
of  the  so-called  "  fiCty  days'  wind,"  although  it  seldom  prevails  for  such  a  length 
of  time ;  nor  is  it  ever  felt  during  the  night.  Everything  becomes  parched  by  the 
hot  breath  of  the  khamsin,  which  is  charged  with  particles  of  dust,  aocordmg  to 
Fictet,  in  the  proportion  of  one  gramme  to  36  cubic  feet  of  air.  At  times  this 
pestilential  wind  deserves  the  name  of  rimun,  or  "  poip jn,"  and  numerous  instances 
are  recorded  of  caravans  and  travellers  who,  even  in  Lower  Egypt,  have  lost  their 
pack-animals,  killed  by  the  deadly  blast  of  the  khamsin. 

A  graphic  description  is  given  by  Mrs.  Speedy  of  one  of  these  frightful  sand- 
storms, by  which  her  party  were  nearly  overwhelmed  in  the  Arabian  desert.  "  On 
the  horizon  coming  up  behind  us  was  a  dense  wall  of  impenetrable  dust  and  sand. 
It  had  been  scarcely  visible  in  the  morning,  and  even  at  the  time  I  am  now 
speaking  of  it  was  only  rising  into  view.  But  the  keen  Arabs,  children  of  the 
desert,  had  descried  lihe  long  dark  line  as  it  lay  almost  immovable  in  the  early 
morning,  and  scented  the  possible  danger.  Should  the  wind  rise  it  would  be 
brought  up  rapidly,  and  might  sweep  over  us  before  we  could  reach  Tokar. 

"  "We  were  soon  going  like  the  wind.  "We  on  our  camels,  and  the  Arab  on  foot, 
fled  before  that  sandstorm  at  the  rate  of  between  seven  and  eight  miles  an  hour  for 
over  three  hours,  doing  nearly  four-and-twenty  miles  in  that  time.  We  had  not 
gone  half-way  when  I  insisted  on  stopping,  fearing  that  the  man  would  be  utterly 
exhausted ;  and  it  was  during  that  rest  that  I  discovered  the  real  state  of  the  case. 

"  We  dismounted  and  sat  down  among  the  imdulating  ridges  of  sand  on  the  vast 
plain,  when  I  turned  my  head  and  clearly  perceived  what  we  were  flying  from. 
The  whole  truth  broke  upon  me,  and  for  the  moment  I  felt  almost  paralysed.  The 
wind  was  rising,  coming  up  as  the  day  advanced,  and  we  were  yet  a  long  way  from 
Tokar.  There  was  but  one  thing  to  be  done.  Up  again  and  press  on  as  before. 
I  think  we  scarcely  spoke  again  before  we  reached  Tokar;  the  one  absorbing 
thought  was  to  get  forward. 

"  Shortly  before  we  arrived  at  the  town,  however,  the  Arab  slackened  his  pace 
and  turned  round.  He  made  us  turn  too,  and  pointed  out  that  the  wind  had 
unexpectedly  changed,  and  swept  the  storm,  which  had  at  first  set  out  in  our 
direction,  another  way.      The  great  thick  wall,  which  might  have  imprisoned  us 


•PMIH   l««nii  I 


EAINFALL. 


888 


ance  of  the 
im  India  or 
t  some  port 
le  the  great 
iducing  the 
ng  stations, 

hot  season, 
9  due  to  the 
cause  must 
■om  the  end 
letween  the 
lie  influence 
oh  a  length 
ched  hv  the 
iccording  to 
t  times  this 
as  instances 
re  lost  their 

^htf  ul  sand- 
(sert.  "  On 
it  and  sand. 
I  I  am  now 
Idren  of  the 
n  the  early 
t  would  he 
kar. 

rab  on  foot, 
an  hour  for 
Ve  had  not 
L  be  utterly 
of  the  case. 
[  on  the  vast 
flying  from, 
lysed.  The 
ig  way  from 
>n  as  before, 
e  absorbing 

aed  his  pace 

e  wind  had 

out  in  our 

iprisoned  us 


had  turned  southwards,  and  was  now  travelling  over  the  desert  away  from  us,  I 
earnestly  hoped,  to  expend  itself  in  space  before  meeting  witL  any  unfortunate 
victims.  Inexpressibly  thankful  was  I  as  we  entered  the  town,  for  I  could  not 
but  feel  that  it  had  perhaps  been  a  race  for  life.  It  was  now  over  and  we  were 
safe ;  but  it  was  several  hours,  or  I  may  more  truly  say  days,  before  the  effect  on 
my  overstrung  nerves  passed  entirely  away."  * 

On  an  average,  northern  breezes  are  six  times  more  frequent  at  Cairo  than 
those  from  the  south.  But  as  we  ascend  the  Nile  and  approach  the  eqiiatorial 
regions  the  equilibrium  tends  to  be  established  between  the  conflicting  currents, 
and  in  Nubia  the  northern  or  winter  are  about  fairly  balanced  with  the  southern 
or  simuner  winds,     iij^.-'r.  "-/■'«,  'V  ■>■'■  -'',;.-;■,■   ;;■  ;;^-.' 

,       ^  Rainfall. 

The  region  of  the  Egyptian  delta  is  comprised  within  the  Mediterranean 
climatic  zone.  Winter  and  summer  here  succeed  each  other  as  in  Southern 
Europe,  the  only  difference  being  that  the  intermediate  seasons  of  spring  and 
autumn  are  reduced  to  much  narrower  limits.t  The  Egyptian  summer,  during 
which  the  Nile  waters  rise  and  spread  over  the  land,  is  accompanied  by  the 
clearest  skies ;  yet  the  atmosphere  is  then  heavily  charged  with  moisture,  often 
almost  to  the  point  of  saturation.  On  the  Red  Sea  coast  especially,  the  traveller 
finds  himself  at  times  enveloped  as  in  a  vapour  bath. 

Winter  is  the  rainy  season,  but  it  is  seldom  attended  by  much  humidity, 
although  in  the  lower  delta  the  rainfall  often  suffices  to  interrupt  the  communica- 
tions. The  banks  of  the  canals,  here  the  only  highways,  are  changed  by  the 
slightest  showers  into  quagmires  of  treacherous  and  slippery  mud.  Even  in 
Alexandria,  lying  as  it  does  within  the  influence  of  the  moisture-bearing  clouds 
from  the  Mediterranean,  the  mean  annual  rainfall  is  only  7  inches  according  to 
Russegger,  or  8  inches  according  to  more  recent  observers  ;  that  is  to  say,  one-third 
of  the  quantity  received  by  Paris,  and  one-fifth  of  the  average  for  the  whole  of 
France.^  At  Cairo,  where  the  marine  vapours  arrive  already  deprived  of  much 
of  their  humidity,  the  mean  discharge  is  much  less,  amounting  to  no  more  than 
about  1\  inch,  or  the  fiftieth  part  of  the  discharge  at  Cherra-Ponji  in  British 
India. 

The  anoi^at  Egyptians  called  themselves  the  inhabitants  of  the  "Pure  Region." 
Nevertheless  the  sky  is  overcast  at  Cairo  for  over  three  months  in  the  year,  and 
at  times  the  downpours  have  been  heavy  enough  to  flood  the  streets.  In  1824, 
and  again  in  1845,  several  houses  were  destroyed  by  these  sudden  freshets.  In 
the  Arabian  and  Libyan  deserts  south  of  the  delta,  the  rains  are  still  lighter, 
although  not  altogether  unknown,  as  is  so  often  asserted.      Tremendous  discharges 


*  "  Wanderings  in  the  Sudan,"  toI.  ii.,  p.  250 

t  Mean  temperature  of  Egypt      .  .    Alezandiia,  0)8°  F.     Cairo,  70  F. 

„  .,    in  August  (hottest  month)  „  7U' F.        „      86°  F. 

„  „    in  January  (coldest  month)  „  54"  F.        „      60°  F. 

Highest  recorded „        lll'F.         .,    116°  P. 

X  Mean  nnniial  niin&ll  at  Alexandria  <rom  1873  to  1881,  8-5  inches. 


Port  Said,  71°  F. 


884 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


were  experienced  both  by  Cailliaud  in  the  Siwah  oasia,  and  by  Rohlfs  in  that  of 
Dakhel  farther  west.  In  the  Arabian  desert  the  sudden  rains  on  one  occasion 
swept  away  the  village  of  Desam,  nuar  Atfieh  which  was  afterwards  rebuilt  on  a 
site  farther  removed  from  the  bed  of  the  wady. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  has  been  at  times  a  total  absence  of  rain.  Not  a  drop 
fell  for  the  space  of  six  yuars  in  the  district  between  Eosseir  and  Keneh;  all 
vestiges  of  herbage  disappeared  from  the  valleys,  and  of  trees  the  acacia  alone 
resisted  the  effects  of  this  protracted  drought.  Nevertheless  the  cisterns,  which 
were  fed  by  rain  water  along  the  old  highway  between  Coptos  and  Berenice,  are 
sufficient  proof  that  this  district  does  not  lie  within  the  absolutely  rainless  zone.  In 
certain  places  natural  cisterns  or  basins  are  met,  formed  by  the  subsidence  of  the 
nummulitic  rocks,  and  here  the  water  is  collected  on  an  impermeable  bed  of 
siliceous  formations.  These  so-called  mgheta,  which  differ  greatly  from  the  surface 
springs,  usually  known  by  the  name  of  el-din,  nearly  always  contain  excellent 
water,  the  existence  of  which  the  surrounding  tribes  endeavour  carefully  to 
conceal  from  Europeans. 

But  however  slight  is  the  winter  rainfall,  it  nevertheless  suffices,  even  without 
the  aid  of  irrigation,  to  impart  to  the  vegetation  an  appearance  of  freshness  and 
vitality,  which  again  disappears  during  the  summer  months.  In  this  respect  the 
Eg^tian  winter  season  presents  the  most  striking  contrast  to  that  of  temperate 
Europe.  In  the  delta,  however,  the  rainfall  represents  a  part  only  of  the  actual 
discharge.  Here  the  night  dews  are  tolerably  abundant,  especially  during  the 
prevalence  of  the  marine  breezes,  when  they  are  heavy  enough  to  regularly 
moisten  the  roofs  and  balconies  of  the  houses  in  Alexandria.  But  the  amount  of 
dew  diminishes  in  direct  proportion  to  the  distance  from  the  Mediterranean,  and 
in  the  Nubian  desert,  there  is  a  slight  discharge  only  in  the  vicinity  of  the  river. 
In  the  heart  of  the  Egyptian  solitudes,  where  the  bare  rocks  and  white  sands  cause 
the  heat  of  the  sun  to  radiate  into  space  during  the  night,  it  often  happens  that  the 
dew  freezes  towards  the  morning.  At  its  rise  the  sun,  which  will  in  a  short  time 
raise  the  temperature  of  the  ground  to  over  100^  F.,  begins  by  melting  the 
slight  layer  of  hoar-frost  covering  the  desert.  Even  on  the  arable  lands  the  plants 
are  occasionally  frozen,  and  Mr.  Maspero  picked  up  an  icicle  on  the  route  between 
Edfu  and  Esneh.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  although  less  considerable  than 
in  Nubia,  are  nevertheless  very  great  in  Upper  Egypt.  They  increase  g^dually, 
proceeding  from  the  north  southwards,  ranging  in  this  direction  between  the 
isothermal  lines  of  20°  and  25°. 


Climatic  Changes  during  the  Historic  Period. 

Eg)pt  is  one  of  those  regions  whose  climate  must  have  undergone  the  greatest 
changes  within  the  historic  period.  To  judge  from  the  bas-reliefs  decorating  the 
walls  of  the  Saqqarah  necropolis,  probably  the  oldest  in  the  world,  the  habits  of 
the  people  at  that  time  were  not  those  of  a  nation  everywhere  hemmed  in  by  the 
wilderness.     They  had  no  knowl«^ge  of  the  camel,  a  domestic  animal  without 


AjiMyiw 


CIJMATIC  CHANGES  DUBINO  THE  HISTORIC  TKRIOD. 


885 


I  in  that  of 
le  occasion 
'ebuilt  on  a 

Not  a  drop 
^eneh;  all 
cacia  alone 
jms,  which 
Brenice,  are 
8  zone.  In 
ence  of  the 
,ble  bed  of 
the  surface 
a  excellent 
arefully  to 

ren  without 
ishness  and 
respect  the 
temperate 
the  actual 
during  the 
3  regularly 
I  amount  of 
ranean,  and 
if  the  river, 
sands  cause 
ens  that  the 
El  short  time 
melting  the 
s  the  plants 
ute  between 
lerable  than 
e  gradually, 
)etween  the 


the  greatest 
corating  the 
he  habits  of 
id  in  by  the 
nal  without 


which  the  Arab  of  our  days  coidd  not  venture  to  penetrate  into  the  burning  wastes. 
3efore  the  arrival  of  the  Ilyksos  they  were  even  unacquainted  with  the  horse  or 
the  sheep,  and  possessed  the  laborious  ox  alone. 

The  Egyptians  of  that  remote  epoch  had  not  yet  become  the  herd  of  serfs,  such 

Fig.  90. — Isothermal  Linbb  and  IUinfall  of  Egypt. 
Scale  t :  ll.goo.COO. 


f:vs 

F^^S^y 

Under  4  Incbe*. 

Over  4  Inches 
—  IfiO  Miles. 

as  they  are  depicted  on  the  bas-reliefs  and  wall-paintings  of  subsequent  times. 
They  were  still  a  light-hearted  peasantry,  lovers  of  feasts  and  the  dance,  ignorant 
of  the  hateful  arts  of  war.    All  this  would  seem  to  justify  the  hypothesis  that  they 


KJajs«<^v 


'mm 


880 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


I 


lived  in  a  climate  different  from  that  of  our  days.  Oscar  Fraas  goes  even  so  far 
as  to  assert  positively  that  "  the  desert  was  not  yet."  *  Such  an  assertion  is 
doubtless  exaggerated  ;  but  it  is  at  the  same  time  certain  that  water  was  formerly 
far  more  abundant  in  the  now  arid  valleys  of  the  Libyan  and  eastern  uplands.  In 
many  places  the  traces  may  still  be  observed  of  ancient  cascades,  which  flowed 
perennially  in  these  now  all  but  waterless  regions.  At  that  epoch  the  woodlands 
still  yielded  sufRcient  timber  to  work  the  mines,  which  now  lie  idle  for  lack  of 
fuel.  To  bake  their  bread,  the  fellahin  use  nothing  but  cakes  of  dung  mixed 
with  mud  and  dried  in  the  sun. 

But  while  the  supposition  of  a  considerable  change  in  the  Egyptian  climate 
since  the  dawn  of  history  may  be  accepted  as  highly  probable,  the  statements  of 
several  travellers  and  meteorologists  regarding  certain  climatio  modifications, 
supposed  to  have  occurred  since  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  cannot  be 
admitted  as  yet  demonstrated.  It  is  often  asserted  that  the  plantations  of  mul- 
berries and  other  trees  made  by  Mohammed  All  have  directly  tended  to  bring 
about  an  increase  of  moisture,  and  the  great  progress  in  ag^culture  made  during 
the  present  generation  is  supposed  to  have  had  a  like  result.  But  these  statements 
rest  entirely  on  personal  impressions,  which  have  not  yet  been  confirmed  by 
systematic  observations. 

It  may  also  be  questioned  whether  the  local  climate  of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  has 
really  undergone  any  slight  modification  at  all  since  the  construction  of  the  fresh- 
water and  marine  canals.  These  works,  however  gigantic  in  the  eyes  of  man,  still 
remain  too  insignificant,  compared  with  the  extent  of  the  surrounding  seas,  to  have 
produced  any  appreciable  change,  except  perhaps  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
canal.  They  can  scarcely  have  had  any  general  influence  in  moderating  the 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  rendering  the  atmosphere  more  humid,  or  increasing 
the  abundance  and  duration  of  the  rainfall.  ^, 

Flora  of  Egypt. 

Few  regions  of  the  globe  beyond  the  polar  zones  possess  a  flora  so  poor  in 
vegetable  species  as  that  of  Egypt.  The  uniformity  of  its  plains,  the  lack  of 
variety  in  the  chemical  composition  of  its  soil,  the  absence  of  well-watered  hills 
and  uplands,  the  monotonous  character  of  the  agriculture,  everything  tends  to 
produce  this  result.  Thoxisands  of  years  ago  the  peasantry  had  already  destroyed 
the  forests,  unless  the  tracts  be  regarded  as  such  which  are  still  partly  covered 
with  the  sunt  (^acacia  Nihtka),  the  formerly  sacred  tree  used  by  the  Israelites  to 
build  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant.  So  valuable  is  timber  in  Egypt  that  the  boatmen 
use  cow-dung  kneaded  with  clay  and  chopped  straw  instead  of  planks  to  deck  their 
barges. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  Egyptian  flora  presents  a  mixture  of  European,  Asiatic, 
and  African  species.  But  the  last  mentioned  are  the  most  prevalent,  at  least 
beyond  the  region  of  the  delta.  The  characteristic  aspect  of  the  Egyptian  land- 
;,.;•(  •  "Aiudem  Orient." 


>mmmmK^0'f0ii'90it»ii^^ 


'i0fkmn 


FLORA  OP  THE  OASES. 


887 


even  so  far 
issertion  ia 
,8  formerly 
(lands.  In 
lich  flowed 
woodlands 
for  lack  of 
ung  mixed 

ian  climate 
itements  of 
xlifications, 
,  cannot  be 
ms  of  mul- 
)d  to  bring 
lade  during 
)  statements 
ofirmed   by 

of  Suez  has 
'  the  fresh- 
>f  man,  still 
leas,  to  have 
inity  of  the 
.erating  the 
r  increasing 


1  so  poor  m 
the  lack  of 
watered  hills 
ng  tdnds  to 
ly  destroyed 
rtly  covered 
Israelites  to 
the  boatmen 
to  deck  their 


scapes  is  duo  especially  to  the  prevailing  African  vcgotation,  lioro  represented  by 
the  tarfa  {tamaria  Niloticn),  the  date,  und  sycomore.  The  dCltn-pulm,  which, 
however,  nowhere  grows  spontimeously  in  Kgypt,  is  met  in  the  gardens  only  above 
Esneh.  Formerly  the  Fayum  bore  the  name  of  "  Sycamore  Land ; "  und  one  of  the 
ancient  appellations  of  Egypt  itself  was  "  Lp  '  of  the  liek  Tree,"  probably  a 
species  of  palm. 

All  the  villages  have  still  their  avenues  of  palms  encircling  the  walls,  or  fring- 
ing the  banks  of  the  canals,  and  everywhere  the  people  gather  in  the  evening 
beneath  the  shade  of  the  broad -branching  sycamore.  The  sycamore,  a  very 
different  species  from  the  plant  known  by  that  name  in  Europe,  was  formerly  far 
more  common  in  Egypt  thon  at  present.  Its  wood,  supposed  to  be  "incorruptible," 
was  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  costly  furniture,  and  especially  of  the  coffins 
placed  in  the  sepulchral  chambers.  After  a  lapse  of  three  thousand  years,  the 
boards  recovered  from  these  tombs  still  retain  their  firmness  and  delicacy  of  texture, 
thanks  to  the  excessive  dryness  of  the  atmosphere.  The  fruit  of  the  sycomore  was 
regarded  by  the  ancients  as  one  of  the  choicest,  whence  the  saying  that  "  the  man 
who  had  once  tasted  it  could  not  fail  to  return  to  Egypt."  On  this  account  it  was 
customary  on  setting  out  for  foreign  lands  to  eat  of  these  figs,  in  order  thereby  to 
secure  the  traveller's  return  to  the  Nilotic  plains.  Now,  however,  the  fruit  of  the 
Egyptian  sycamore  is  regarded  as  fit  food  only  for  the  ass.  Has  its  flavour 
deteriorated,  or  has  the  taste  of  the  Egyptians  themselves  undergone  a  change 
since  those  times  P 

But  if  some  species  would  seem  to  have  been  modified,  others  are  known  to 
have  entirely  disappeared.  The  dug-out  tree  stems  in  which  the  dead  were  laid 
during  the  eleventh  dynasty  belong  to  varieties  which  are  now  met  only  in  Sudan. 
The  fruit  of  the  dClm-palm,  which  is  no  longer  found  north  of  Upper  Egypt,  and 
that  of  the  arg^n,  now  confined  to  Nubia,  occur  in  great  abundance  in  the  old 
Egjrptian  burial-places.  And  what  has  become  of  the  papyrus,  whose  name  is 
associated  more  intimately  than  any  other  with  Egyptian  civilisation  itself  P  Salt, 
Drovetti,  Reynier,  Minutoli,  have  discovered  it  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Damietta ; 
but  it  is  no  longer  found  in  any  other  part  of  Egypt.  Thus  it  has  all  but  disap- 
peared from  its  original  home,  while  still  flourishing  in  Syria  and  in  Sicily,  whither 
it  was  introduced  from  the  Nile  Valley. 

Where  also  are  the  masses  of  pink  lotus,  with  its  broad-spreading  leaves, 
beneath  which  the  people  of  Alexandria,  in  the  time  of  Strabo,  floated  on  the  still 
waters,  enjoying  the  cool  zephyrs  and  perfume  of  the  flowers  P  The  white  lotus, 
formerly  diffused  throughout  the  whole  land,  is  no  longer  met  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  delta.  Beeds  and  the  pink  epilobium  are  now  the  plants  most  frequently 
occurring  on  the  shores  of  the  lakes  and  meres  in  liower  Egypt. 


)ean,  Asiatic, 
lent,  at  least 
;yptian  land- 


Flora  of  the  Oases.  V;!  ■  V  ;' 

The  flora  of  the  oases,  separated  from  that  of  the  Nile  Volley  for  an  unknown 
cycle  of  ages,  presents  some  remarkable  features.      Thus  while  the  Egyptian 

22— AF. 


NOllTU-EAST  AFllICA. 


plants  aro  inuinly  of  African  orif?in,  those  of  tlio  oases,  whether  cnltivated  or 
growing  in  the  wild  state,  are  njostly  of  I'luropeun  descent.  Hence  the  inference 
that  these  depnssions  wore  in  direct  contact  with  the  west  Mediterranean  lauds  at 
un  epoch  antecedent  to  their  relations  with  Kgypt  properly  so  called. 

The  greater  the  extent  of  the  oases,  the  greater  is  naturally  found  to  be  the 
voriety  of  their  flora.  In  that  of  Farafreh  Aschersou  collected  ninety-one  species, 
more  than  double  that  number  in  Dakhel,  and  aa  many  as  two  hundred  in  Khargoh. 
But  the  widely  diffused  plauta<ja  major,  found  both  in  Farafreh  and  Khargeh,  is 
unaccountably  absent  from  the  intervening  oasis  of  Dakhel.  In  the  Arabian 
desert  the  characteristic  plant  on  the  slopes  and  uplands  is  the  ratama,  a  species  of 
broom  resembling  that  of  the  Canary  Islands.  The  mugwort  flourishes  in  all  the 
depressions  and  along  the  banks  of  the  wadies ;  in  other  respects  the  flora  of  this 
steppe  region  is  allied  to  that  of  Palestine. 


Fauna. 

Like  its  flora,  the  Egyptian  fauna  is  more  African  thaa  European.  If  some 
domestic  animals  have  been  associated  with  the  ass,  which  is  seen  figured  on  the 
ancient  monuments  of  Egypt,  the  camel,  the  sheep  and  th'.*  horse,  the  latt«r  a 
"  Turanian  "  variety  introduced  by  the  Hyksos,  have  reached  tlie  Nile  Valley  from 
Asia.  Most  of  the  wild  beasts  have  disappeared  from  the  region  of  the  Lower 
Nile,  where  they  have  retreated  before  the  advance  of  human  culture.  The 
monkeys,  which  are  represented  on  the  old  bas-reliefs  as  associating  familiarly  with 
man  himself,  are  no  longer  found  in  Egypt.  The  lion  and  the  leopard  have  also 
moved  southwards,  while  the  hippopotamus  and  even  the  crocodile  have  retired  to 
the  Nubian  reaches  of  the  Nile.     None  are  now  found  farther  north  than  Ombos. 

Hyocnas  are  still  common  on  the  skirts  of  tVe  desert ;  but  of  other  wild  animals 
scarcely  any  have  survived  except  the  smaller  species,  such  as  the  caracal,  the 
jackal,  fox,  "cat  of  the  steppe,"  supposed  to  be  the  ancestor  of  our  domestic  cat,  the 
ferret,  and  the  ichneumon,  or  "  Pharaoh's  rat."  The  fox-dog  figured  on  the  bas- 
reliefs  of  the  temples,  and  on  the  paintings  of  the  sepulchral  chambers,  lives  freely 
in  Egypt,  venturing  even  as  far  as  the  skirts  of  the  desert.  The  species  of 
greyhounds  sculptured  on  the  old  monuments  have  also  survived  to  the  present 
time.  On  the  other  hand  the  wild  boar,  although  not  represented  .on  the  ancient 
bas-reliefs,  now  infests  the  reed  thickets  in  the  Lower  Nile  region. 

In  the  solitudes  bordering  on  the  arable  land,  antelopes  descended  from  varieties 
which  the  Egyptians  had  formerly  tamed,  are  still  numerous.  They  are  here 
represented  by  several  species,  nearly  all  of  which  have  adapted  themselves  to  their 
surroundings,  assuming  almost  the  identical  coloui'  of  the  ground  now  inhabited 
by  them.  The  mice  and  all  other  rodents,  as  well  as  the  reptiles  and  insects,  have 
also  a  grey  or  yellowish  tint,  causing  them  to  be  easily  confused  with  the  sands 
and  rocks  of  the  wilderness. 

The  Egyptian  avifauna  is  very  interesting,  owing  to  its  European  species,  such 
as  the  stork  and  quail,   lliese  birds  of  passage  cross  the  Mediterranean  twice  every 


-  .^a<wa8ifta8i'»K'j>MBBiBMy«g^^ 


PAUNa 


am 


tiviitod  or 
3  inference 
m  luuds  at 

I  to  bo  the 
lue  apecies, 
1  Khurgeh. 
[hargch,  is 
le  Arabian 
1  spccios  of 
8  in  uU  the 
ora  of  this 


If  Home 

ired  on  the 

bo  latter  a 

i'^alley  from 

the  Lower 

ture.     The 

iliarly  with 

•d  have  also 

e  retired  to 

xn  Oinbos. 

'ild  animals 

aracal,  the 

stic  cat,  the 

on  the  bas- 

lives  freely 

species  of 

the  present 

the  ancient 

)m  varieties 
y  are  here 
ves  to  their 
V  inhabited 
nsects,  have 
the  sands 

pecies,  such 
twice  every 


year,  flying  in  spring  north  tn  Europe  to  er  loy  tthe  tn  nenti  of  the  tompeiMhr 
climutcH,  returning  in  autumn  to  reoccupy  <  ir  nests,  \  leti  Htn '>  It  itluug  th  ^ 
banks  of  the  Nile  us  fur  south  as  the  foot  of  the  Ain  'uia,  I  '  iidM.  I  t 
stationary   birds   in    Kgypt    th(>ro   are   numerous   sjufics,  h<  vcr  m  which  *"-i* 

distinguJNheil  for  their  rare  beauty.  The  white  eagle  Huars  iuli  t  lighnr  lu-  Mi 
regions;  while  the  nectarine  with  its  metallic  sheen,  lovely  as  the  h  loiuff-l.^rnl  of 
the  New  World,  flits  and  darts  urn  id  the  garden  flowers. 

The  I'/uiiwIi'ius  ^(jyptiaciit,  supposed  by  the  ancients  to  be  the  faithful  companion 
of  the  crocodile,  still  enlivens  the  banks  of  the  Egyptian  Nile,  from  which  the 
great  saurian  has  long  retreated  to  the  Nubian  waters.  With  him  also  the  ibis 
has  departed  for  the  southern  solitudes ;  but  pigeons  still  flutter  in  dense  clouds 
above  the  cultivated  plains.  In  fact  this  bird  forms  everywhere  a  characteristic 
feature  of  the  landscape  in  the  inhabited  parts  of  the  country.  "  Every  village  has 
its  pigeon-houses,  looking  like  great  mud  cones,  and  in  the  evening  the  owners  go 
out  and  call  them  in.  An  amusing  instance  of  the  usual  Egyptian  dishonesty  was 
told  me  the  other  day.  When  a  man  wants  to  get  hold  of  extra  pigeons,  he  goes 
out  of  an  evening ;  but  instead  of  calling  them  he  frightens  the  pigeons  away. 
They  do  not  understand  this ;  keep  circling  above,  and  swoop  down  now  and  then 
towards  their  houses.  Other  pigeons,  seeing  this  commotion,  join  them,  and  as  soon 
as  the  man  sees  there  are  enough,  he -hides.  The  whole  of  the  birds,  old  and  new, 
then  go  into  the  house,  and  the  man  returning,  shuts  them  in.  This  would  be  a 
fine  business  if  it  were  not  that  all  of  them  do  the  same  thing,  and  therefore  each 
gets  caught  in  his  turn.  They  know  this  perfectly  well,  but  no  Egyptian  fellah 
could  resist  the  temptation  of  cheating  his  neighbour."* 

The  waters  of  the  lakes  and  lagoons,  throughout  the  delta  region,  are  also 
frequented  by  myriads  of  aquatic  fowl.  Amongst  the  commonest  species  here  met 
are  the  flamingo,  pelican,  heron,  crane,  and  duck.  Some  of  these  birds  are  captured 
by  the  hand.  Concealing  his  head  in  an  empty  gourd,  which  seems  to  float  casually 
on  the  surface,  the  fellah  swims  stealthily  towards  the  bird  keeping  guard,  and 
seizing  it  suddenly  by  the  feet  from  below,  draws  it  under  before  it  has  time  to 
give  the  alarm.  Then  the  flock  being  more  easily  surprised,  may  be  taken  in  large 
numbers. 

Like  the  aquatic  birds  on  the  sedgy  banks,  fish  teem  in  multitudes  in  the  waters 
of  Menzaleh  and  the  other  lakes  of  the  lower  delta.  The  annual  opening  of  the 
fishing  season  is  celebrated  by  a  feast,  which  coincides  with  the  arrival  of  the 
mullets  from  the  Mediterranean  in  the  Gemileh  lagoon.  All  the  channels  leading 
into  the  interior  of  the  basin  are  closed  by  a  long  line  of  nets ;  then  at  a  given 
moment  the  fishermen  get  their  boats  ready,  armed  with  hooks  and  harpoons,  while 
on  the  neighbouring  beach  the  feast  is  prepared  by  the  women.  Presently  the  sea 
begins  to  glitter ;  the  shoal  of  fish,  pursued  by  the  porpoises  and  other  voracious 
animals,  crowd  about  the  entrance,  causing  the  water  to  sparkle  with  a  thousand 
prismatic  tints.  A  suppressed  murmur,  as  of  many  voices,  caused  by  the  rush  of 
the  living  masses  and  splash  of  the  troubled  waters,  gradually  increases,  and 
•£.  SartoriuB,  •' Three  Months  in  the  Sudan,"  p.  32. 


II W  m 


B40 


NORTII-EAHT  AFUK^A. 


iM'comes  mingltMl  with  tho  nlioutn  of  the  men,  and  tho  Hhrickii  of  women  and 
obildron.  Now  the  terrified  hIiouIh  get  pent  up  in  theniirrow  piiHmigeund  uiitungled 
in  the  netn.  Hero  they  ure  cuMiiy  captured  in  inyriadM,  and  in  a  few  hourn  all  tho 
HHliing-HniaekH  an;  fiUed  to  the  gunwalen.  Hut  after  tliiH  Hrnt  take  tho  fish  are 
uHowe<l  for  tlio  rent  of  tho  m>u8ou  to  enter  freely  into  tho  lagoon,  where  thoy  uro 
bunted  in  tho  open  waters. 

In  the  Nile  itnelf  the  most  common  Bpecies  i«  the  ho- called  shnbal,  a  fish  anned 
on  the  back  with  three  sharp  and  barbed  spines,  which  inflict  painful  wounds  on 
ihom  who  touch  it.  Tho  sbabal  is  amongst  tho  very  few  species  that  utter  a  faint 
cry  when  taken  from  tho  water.  Tho  sound  resembles  somewhat  the  chirp  of  the 
cicada,  although  not  quite  so  loud. 

A  largo  number  of  tho  Nile  and  Red  Sea  species  have  been  represented  on  tho 
ancient  monuments  with  such  truth  to  nature  that  Hussegger  has  succeeded  in 
identifying  all  of  them.*  The  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  has  been  followed  by  a 
partial  intermingling  of  tho  Mediterranean  and  Red  Soa  fauna,  which  had  hitherto 
remained  quite  distinct.  Fishes,  molluscs,  and  other  marine  fornjs  have  passed  from 
one  basin  to  tho  other,  while  shoals  of  various  species  havo  mot  midway  in  tho 
Bitter  Lakes.  Tho  free  navigation  from  sea  to  sea  is  obstructed  by  several  causes, 
such  as  tho  exclusively  sandy  nature  of  the  canal  bed  nd  embankments,  the 
currents  setting  in  and  out,  the  excessive  salinity  of  tht  water,  the  incessant 
passage  especially  of  steamers.  The  carnivorous  species  do  not  penetrate  to  any 
great  distance  into  the  canal,  owing  to  the  absence  or  rarity  of  the  fish  they  prey 
upon.  Nor  has  the  Mediterranean  yet  been  reached  by  the  various  corals  which 
are  so  richly  represented  in  the  Red  Sea. 

One  of  the  Egyptian  insects,  the  atettchua  aaeer,  or  sacred  beetle,  has  acquired 
in  tho  history  of  myths  the  symbolic  sense  of  creation  and  renewed  life.  An  image 
of  the  sun  and  of  all  the  heavenly  orbs  in  virtue  of  her  globular  form,  she  also 
creates  a  little  world  or  microcosm  of  her  own  with  the  clay  in  which  she  deposits 
her  eggs,  and  which  she  rolls  with  untiring  efforts  from  the  river-bank  to  the  edge 
of  the  desert,  where  she  buries  it  in  the  sands.  She  dies  immediately  her  work  is 
accomplished ;  but  as  soon  as  hatched,  the  young  scaraba^i  resume  their  creative 
functions.  This  particular  variety  appears  to  have  migrated  southwards,  like  so 
many  other  animal  and  vegetable  species  in  Egypt.  While  still  very  common  in 
Nubia,  it  is  now  seldom  met  below  Assuan,  although  a  certain  number  were  lately 
seen  by  M.  Maspero  at  Saqqarah.  The  cause  of  its  almost  total  disappearance  from 
Upper  Egypt  is  perhaps  to  be  attributed  to  the  greater  breadth  of  the  cultivated 
zone  which  in  many  places  now  intervenes  between  the  banks  of  the  Nile  and  the 
skirt  of  the  desert.  In  Nubia  the  distance  the  beetles  have  to  traverse  with  their 
precious  burdens  is  usually  much  less.  The  Coptic  mothers  often  suppend  round 
their  sick  child's  neck  a  living  scarabaeus  wrapped  in  a  rag  or  enclosed  in  a  nut- 
shell. 

*  "  Reisen  in  Guropa,  Aaien,  und  Afrika." 


INUAblTANTS  OF  EOYIT— THE  COITS. 


Ml 


mmon  and 
i  outungU'il 
mrit  ull  tho 
ho  tiHh  uro 
ro  they  uro 

AhH  annod 

wouiuIm  on 

itter  a  fuint 

hirp  of  the 

ntod  on  the 
uccceded  in 
llowed  by  a 
lad  hitherto 
pasHod  from 
.way  in  the 
breral  causes, 
knients,  the 
le  incessant 
)trate  to  any 
^h  thoy  prey 
lorols  which 

has  acquired 
An  image 
»rm,  she  also 

she  deposits 
:  to  the  edge 

her  work  is 
heir  creative 
cards,  like  so 
Y  common  in 
r  were  lately 
saronce  from 
he  cultivated 
Nile  and  the 
se  with  their 
ippend  round 
sed  in  a  nut- 


Inmaiutanth  ok  K<i\rr. 

Tho  present  Egyptian  dowiondants  of  the  ancient  U»tu  Htill  greatly  n«mu»blo  their 
forofuthorH,  although  during  the  lust  four  thousand  yearH  muny  fori^ign  elements 
have  tenilwl  to  nuxlify  tho  original  type,  at  least  in  tho  delta  and  Middle  Kgypt. 
Tho  Copts  oHjKJcially  may  \)c  regarded  as  of  comparatively  pure  stock,  and  are  in 
fact  still  often  known  as  tho  "  People  of  Farftn,"  that  is,  of  "  Pharaoh."  Under 
tho  dynuHty  of  the  Ptolemies,  and  later  during  the  Roman  period,  they  must  have 
doubtlt'HH  become  diversely  intermingled  with  the  neighbouring  races  on  tho 
Mediterranean  seaboard.  But  since  their  conciuest,  over  twelve  centurion  ago,  by 
the  Mohomniedans,  religious  hatred  has  erected  a  borrier  between  these  (Christians 
and  the  invaders,  so  that  amongst  them  the  national  type  has  been  better  preserved 
than  amongst  the  other  Egyptian  communities. 

Thk  Copts. 

The  Copts  are  much  more  numerous  than  has  till  recently  been  supposefl. 
According  to  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria  quesfc'oned  on  this  subject  by  Yansleb  in 
1671,  they  appear  at  that  time  to  have  numbered  not  more  than  10,000,  or  at  the 
most  16,000  souls.  But  they  were  a  few  years  ago  estiniatcd  at  150,000,  while 
the  census  of  1882  returned  them  at  no  less  than  400,vU)(i,  or  about  one-fifteenth  of 
the  entire  population.  More  than  any  other  section  o£  he  community,  these  Copt6 
have  the  right  to  the  title  of  Eg^yptians.  The  very  name  of  Copt,  or  Kubt,  appears 
to  be  a  more  corruption  of  the  ancient  name  of  Mv  nphis,  H&-ka-Ptuh,  or  "  Abode 
of  Ptah,"  corrupted  by  the  Greeks  to  Aiguptos,  a  term  applied  indifferently  to  the 
river  and  the  country.  However,  this  appellation  of  Copt  has  also  been  referred  to 
tho  name  of  Guft,  or  Ooptos,  a  town  where  tLey  are  still  very  numerous.  The  des- 
truction of  this  Christian  city  by  Diocletian  is  the  starting-point  of  the  Coptic  era. 

The  Copts  are  concentrated  chiefly  in  Upper  Egypt,  in  the  districts  of  Assiut, 
and  in  the  Fayum,  where  they  possess  whole  villages  all  to  themselves.  In  certain 
places  they  have  taken  for  their  habitations  the  so-called  der  or  deir,  partly  fortified 
monasteries,  whose  former  inmates  were  devoted  to  celibacy.  In  these  remote 
regions,  far  removed  from  the  capital  and  situated  at  some  distance  from  the  main 
routes  of  trade  and  conquest,  they  have  succeeded  in  preserving  thoir  customs  and 
the  monophysite  form  of  Christianity  which,  like  the  Abyssinians,  they  had 
received  from  the  early  Byzantine  Church.  In  the  Nile  Valley,  north  of  Assiut, 
they  are  found  only  in  the  towns  as  artisans,  money-changers,  and  employes. 
Since  the  spread  of  religious  tolerance  they  have  taken  advantage  of  the  right  to 
establish  themselves  in  all  parts  of  Egypt.  But  none  of  them  have  ever  occupied 
high  political  fimctions,  like  the  Turks,  Armenians,  and  even  the  Jews.  Before 
they  had  acquired  equal  civil  rights  with  the  Mussulmons,  constant  inroads  were 
made  on  their  numbers  by  Islam,  especially  through  mixed  marriages.  Most  of 
the  Copts  being  circumcised,  in  accordance  with  the  old  Egyptian  custom  long 
antecedent  to  the  time  of  Mob  .mmed,  their  entrance  into  the  mosque  suflSces  to 


842 


NORTH-EAST  AFBIOA. 


i 


make  them  be  regarded  as  Mussulman  converts.  Formerly  the  men  were  dis- 
tinguished by  the  colour  of  their  turban,  the  women  by  that  of  their  veil,  from  the 
Mohammedan  fellahin  ;  and  even  then  the  Copts  woxild  often  affect  the  white  turban 
and  general  costume  of  their  neighbours,  in  order  to  command  greater  personal 
consideration.  '' 

At  present  there  are  one  hundred  and  twenty  Coptic  churches  in  the  various 
provinces  ;  but  in  many  districts  where  the  Copts  are  no  longer  found,  the  ruins  of 
religious  edifices'attest  the  survival  of  Christianity  down  to  comparatively  recent 
times.  The  Christian  communities  are  now  once  more  normally  increasing  by  the 
natural  excess  of  births  over  deaths ;  for  the  Copts,  who  usually  marry  later  than  the 
other  Egyptians,  pay  more  regard  to  the  family  ties,  and  bestow  greater  care  on 
their  children.         ■"  .•    ;;-----•-     --P.-    -■    ■  '■;■  .rff^t^-J-jf.'^-^:;:  i*o.v 

But  if  the  religion  of  Mohammed  has  failed  to  triumph  over  that  of  the  cross, 
the  language  of  the  Arab  Mussulmans  now  everywhere  prevails  in  Egypt.  The 
old  Coptic  tongue,  which  has  afforded  the  key  to  the  interpretation  of  the  hierogly- 
phics, thus  restoring  the  speech  of  the  Pharaohs,  from  which  it  differs  little,  is  no 
longer  anywhere  current.  Most  of  the  Copts  learn  the  ancient  language  only  for 
the  purpose  of  reciting  the  prayers  of  a  liturgy  the  sense  of  which  they  do  not 
always  imderstand.  Some  of  their  religious  books  are  even  now  written  in  Arabic. 
The  Coptic  writing  system  is  merely  a  modified  form  of  the  Q-reek  alphabet,  to 
which  have  been  added  a  few  letters  borrowed  from  the  cursive  or  demotic  forms  of 
the  national  hieroglyphic  writing.  The  oldest  document  in  the  Coptic  language 
dates  from  the  middle  of  the  third  century  of  the  vulgar  era ;  in  the  tenth  century 
it  was  still  currently  spoken  by  all  Egyptians  except  their  rulers.  But  since  the 
seventeenth  century  Arabic  has  become  the  general  language  throughout  Egypt, 
although  a  great  number  of  old  Egyptian  terms  still  survive  in  the  local  dialects. 
Ancient  rites,  undoubtedly  long  anterior  to  the  introduction  of  the  foreign  religions, 
have  also  been  maintained  among  the  Copts.  Thus  their  tombs  are  still  built  in  the 
form  of  houses,  and  each  family  continues  to  assemble  once  a  year  in  the  mausoleum 
for  a  funeral  banquet.  One  of  the  names  frequently  given  at  baptism  is  Menas,  which 
recalls  that  of  Mena  or  Menes,  true  or  pretended  foimder  of  the  first  Egyptian 
dynasty. 

Those  of  the  Copts  who  have  received  some  education  usually  display  a  remark- 
able talent  for  keeping  accounts  and  managing  money  matters.  They  are  the 
worthy  descendants  of  those  ancient  Retu  whose  day-books,  and  ledgers,  and 
treatises  on  arithmetic,  with  simis  in  fractions,  rules  of  partnership  in  business, 
equations  of  the  first  degree,  have  recently  been  brought  to  light.'*  Under  the 
government  of  the  Mameluks  the  administration  of  the  finances  was  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  the  Copts,  who  by  means  of  a  specially  devised  system  of  book-keeping  had 
rendered  the  public  accounts  so  incomprehensible  to  all  others,  that  they  had 
secured  an  absolute  monopoly  of  this  department.  But  the  introduction  of  European 
financial  methods,  and  especially  the  continually  increasing  immigration  of  the 
Syrian  Catholics,  no  less  skilful  intriguers  and  even  more  instructed,  with  a  wider 

*  The  "Rhind  Papyriu"  in  the  Britiah  Museum. 


sji^vw^'i' 


E**^S8Wl 


THE  COPTS. 


843 


a  were  dis- 
til, from  the 
trhite  turban 
ter  personal 

the  various 
the  ruins  of 
ively  recent 
.siug  by  the 
,ter  than  the 
iter  care  on 

)f  the  cross, 
gypt.  The 
he  hierogly- 

little,  is  no 
ige  only  for 
they  do  not 
n  in  Arabic, 
alphabet,  to 
>tic  forms  of 
tic  language 
mth  century 
ut  since  the 
liout  Egypt, 
cal  dialects, 
gn  religions, 

built  in  the 
e  mausoleum 
f  enas,  which 
St  Egyptian 

»y  a  remark- 
hey  are  the 
ledgers,  and 
in  business, 
Under  the 
itirely  in  the 
keeping  had 
at  they  had 
of  European 
ation  of  the 
with  a  wider 


knowledge  of  Arabic  literature,  gradually  deprived  the  native  Christians  of  the 
chief  administrative  functions.     The  inferior  positions  of  scribes  and  notaries  are, 

Fig.  100. — EoTfPTiAN  Type  :  Bas-Rbubf  ornambntino  the  Tomb  or  Suukh  ABD-Bi/-QuaNAa, 

AT  Thbbbs. 


however,  still  left  in  the  hands  of  the  Copts,  and  the  Egyptian  bureaucracy  com- 
prises altogether  more  Christians  than  Mohammedans. 

The  Coptic  clerk,  we  are  told  by  Mr.  ^tanley  Lane-Poole,  is  even  "  practically 
the  judge  of  first  instance,  for  it  depends  upon  his  favour  whether  the  peasant's 


fV^^Tif-^SfSf." 


844 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


suit  over  reaches  the  governor's  or  judge's  ears  at  all,  and  this  favour  is  only  to  be 
obtained  by  hard  cash,  so  that  unless  the  peasant  has  enough  money  about  him  to 
bribe  the  Coptic  intermediary  he  never  wins  audience  of  the  judge  himself  at  all. 
The  only  plan  is  to  '  square '  the  scribe,  and  thus  you  obtain,  not  necessarily 
justice,  but  your  suit.  These  Coptic  scribes  are  foimd  in  every  town,  and  at  some 
places,  such  as  Girgey,  a  large  proportion  of  the  population  is  Coptic.  The  black 
turban  and  kaftan  would  always  distinguish  them,  but  a  glance  at  their  face  is 
generally  enough.  It  is  difficult  to  say  exactly  in  what  they  differ  in  appearance 
from  Mohammedans,  but  one  is  seldom  wrong  in  identifying  them.  They  constitute 
the  lower  official  class,  and  are  decidedly  more  corrupt  and  voracious  than  the 
Turkish  governors  themselves.  There  is  an  exceedingly  good  understanding 
established  between  the  two  orders  of  thieves,  so  far  resembling  that  which  exists 
between  a  local  justice  of  the  peace  and  the  clerk  of  the  justices,  that  it  is  really 
the  clerk  who  knows  and  administers  the  law,  while  the  great  man  takes  the  credit 
of  it.  Probably  any  other  official  class  would  prove  as  venal  as  the  Coptic  scribes 
— indeed  the  experiment  has  been  tried  with  native  Muslims  without  improving 
matters — but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  so  long  as  our  friend  Girges  or  Hanna 
holds  the  clerkly  inkstand  and  portfolio  there  will  be  no  justice  in  the  land."  * 


The  Fellahtn.  :; 

The  fellahin,  or  peasantry,  belong,  like  the  Copts,  to  the  indigenous  race,  more 
or  less  modified  by  crossings.  Those  living  away  from  the  great  cities  of  Cairo  and 
^Uexandria  call  themselves  Aulad-Masr,  that  is  to  say,  "Children  of  Masr,"  or 
"  Egyptians."  Like  their  ancestors,  both  Copts  and  fellahin  are  in  general  of 
mean  height,  5  feet  6  inches  to  5  feet  7  inches,  with  pliant  body,  straight  and 
strong  limbs.  The  head  is  of  a  fine  oval  shape,  the  forehead  broad,  the  nose  regular 
and  rounded  at  the  tip,  the  nostrils  dilated,  the  lips  full  but  finely  designed,  the 
eyes  large,  black,  and  soft,  with  the  lids  slightly  raised  outwardly.  Most  of  the 
children  are  of  sickly  constitution  and  sullen  temperament,  with  dull  eyes,  wan 
complexion,  and  full  paunch.  But  such  as  escape  the  ravages  of  endemics  grow 
up  handsome  and  robust  figures.  The  stranger  wonders  how  such  fine  young  men 
and  women  could  have  developed  in  the  wretched  hovels  of  these  villages.  Men  are 
frequently  met  of  really  grand  forms,  recalling  the  characteristics  of  the  sphinx, 
and  most  of  the  young  women  are  endowed  with  an  agreeable  figure,  a  graceful  and 
haughty  carriage.  There  is  no  more  pleasant  sight  than  that  of  a  young  mother 
carrying  her  naked  babe  astride  across  one  shoulder,  as  is  their  habit. 

In  the  rural  districts  the  women  do  not  veil  themselves  so  closely  as  in  the 
towns.  Nearly  all  paint  the  lips  a  deep  blue,  and  tattoo  a  floral  device  on  the  chin. 
Some  even  decorate  the  brow  and  other  parts  of  the  body  in  the  same  way.  All  but 
the  abjectly  poor  also  wear  diadems  and  necklaces  of  true  or  false  pearls,  coins,  or 
gilt  discs,  the  whole  family  fortune  being  thus  at  times  lavished  on  them.  The 
fellah  has,  so  to  say,  no  other  want  except  this  superfluous  wealth,  which  he 

•"  Social  Life  in  Egypt,"  pp.  62-3. 


JSt_ 


THE  FELLAH'lN. 


846 


only  to  be 
ut  him  to 
self  at  all. 
necessarily 
id  at  some 

The  black 
eir  face  is 
ippearance 

constitute 

than  the 
erstanding 
lich  exists 
t  is  really 

the  credit 
tic  scribes 
improving 
or  Hanna 
nd."  • 


race,  more 

Cairo  and 

Masr,"  or 

general  of 

'aight  and 

Dse  regular 

signed,  the 

ost  of  the 

eyes,  wan 

imics  grow 

'oung  men 

Men  are 

tie  sphinx, 

acef  ul  and 

ig  mother 

as  in  the 
1  the  chin. 
'.  All  but 
9,  coins,  or 
lem.  The 
which  he 


bestows  on  his  partner  in  life.  His  dwelling  is  a  mere  mud  hut,  a  heap  of  clods 
dug  out  of  t  neighbouring  ditch.  His  only  dress  is  a  pair  of  drawers,  a  blue 
cotton  shirt,  and  the  tarbush  or  felt  cap.  A  few  cakes  of  durrah,  to  which  the 
wealthy  classes  add  beans,  lentils,  onions,  and  dates,  suffice  to  nourish  bim.     Peace 

Fig.  101.— ViLLAoa  HvT8. 


he  loves  above  all  things,  and  in  no  other  country  where  the  conscription  has  been 
introduced  are  cases  of  voluntary  mutilation  of  such  frequent  occurrence,  the 
peasantry  making*  themselves  cripples,  maimed  of  one  hand,  or  blind  of  an  eye,  in 
order  to  escape  military  service. 

The  Egyptian  is  generally  of  a  simple,  kindly  disposition,  cheerful,  obliging. 


846 


NORTH-EAST  AFBIOA. 


and  as  hospitable  as  his  misery  will  permit  him.  Even  if  he  has  recourse  to  fraud 
or  falsehood,  the  usual  weapons  of  the  weak  against  their  oppressors,  he  seldom 
succeeds.  His  little  tricks  and  subterfuges  are  easily  seen  through,  and  frequently 
serve  only  to  redouble  the  brutal  treatment  of  his  masters.  The  Copt  is  as  a  rule 
more  adroit  in  this  respect  than  the  Mussulman  fellahin ;  for  he  has  not  only  had 
to  endure  all  kinds  of  hardships,  like  his  Mohammedan  neighbours,  but  has  had 
over  and  above  to  cringe  and  play  the  hypocrite  in  order  to  escape  from  religious 
persecution.  To  avoid  wholesale  plunder  he  has  had  to  conceal  f  lie  few  effects 
laboriously  scraped  together,  carefully  economising  the  fruits  of  a  life  condemned 
to  ceaseless  toil,  stratag^n,  and  beggary. 

r ,   :;  The  Asabs  op  Egypt.  i 

The  Semitic  element  has  been  largely  represented  amongst  the  Egyptian  popu- 
lations, even  from  times  long  anterior  to  the  Arab  conquest.  Thus,  according  to 
Mariette,  the  indigenous  communities  settled  ou  the  southern  shore  of  Lake 
Menzaleh  are  possibly  the  direct  descendants,  with  but  little  intermixture,  of  the 
Ilyksos,  those  "  people  of  low  race,"  who  overran  Egypt  over  forty  centuries  ago. 
Their  type  is  said  exactly  to  resemble  that  of  the  royal  statues  and  sphinxes'  heads 
discovered  at  San,  the  ancient  Tanis,  amid  the  alluvia  of  the  lake.  These  supposed 
Asiatics  inhabit  the  townships  of  Menzaleh,  Matarieh,  Salkieh,  and  the  neighbour- 
ing villages.  They  are  described  as  of  tall  stature  and  strong  muscular  development, 
with  very  broad  features  in  comparison  with  the  round  cranium,  large  nose,  prominent 
cheek-bones,  very  open  facial  angle,  high  forehead,  intelligent  glance  and  smile. 
According  to  Bayard  Taylor,  the  descendants  of  the  Hyksos  would  appear  to  be  also 
very  numerous  in  the  Fayum  depression. 

But  to  the  Arab  and  Syrian  Mussulmans  who  arrived  imder  the  leadership  of 
Amru,  the  population  of  Egypt  is  indebted  for  the  largest  proportion  of  its  Semitic 
blood.  Doubtless  th^se  Arabs  have  nowhere  preserved  themselves  in  a  perfectly 
pure  state  amid  the  Egyptian  communities;  but  they  and  their  successors  were 
numerous  enough  profoundly  to  modify  the  aboriginal  element,  especially  in  the 
towns,  where  all  the  Muslims  who  are  neither  Turks  nor  Circassians  are  uniformly 
spoken  of  under  the  general  appellation  of  Arabs. 

On  the  Red  Sea  coast  the  Abs,  the  Awasim,  the  Irenat,  and  other  more  recent 
immigrant  tribes  from  Arabia,  live  on  fishing  and  the  coasting  trade.  In  the  rural 
districts  on  the  verge  of  the  desert,  many  Bedouin  tribes  collectively  known  as  Ahl- 
el-Wabar,  or  "  People  of  the  Tents,"  have  proudly  preserved  their  lineage  intact, 
tracing  their  genealogies  back  to  the  early  conquerors.  The  Arab  will  no  doubt  at 
times  take  a  wife  from  the  family  of  a  fellah,  but  will  never  condescend  to  give 
him  a  daughter  in  return.  Leading  a  half-nomad  life  between  the  reclaimed  lands 
and  the  wilderness,  he  despises  the  wretched  peasant  condemned  to  ceaseless  labour 
in  the  furrow.  Should  he  himself  abandon  his  wandering  habifs,  he  would  be  at 
once  looked  upon  by  the  nomad  Bedouins  as  a  mere  fellah,  like  all  the  rest.  But 
he  usually  dwells  in  the  settled  village  communities  only  during  a  portion  of  the 


III 
llil 


^ 


./' 


THE  ARABS  OF  EOYFl. 


847 


year,  returning  to  the  desert  after  harvest-tide.     Thus  their  manner  of  life  rather 
than  their  racial  descent  distinguishes  the  various  sections  of  the  population. 

Nevertheless  after  settling  down  as  sedentary  colonists,  the  children  of  the  desert 
continue  to  enjoy  great  privileges,  and  for  generations  are  exempt  from  the  ccrv^e 
and  conscription.  At  the  same  time  the  Bedouins  of  Egypt  are  by  no  means  politi- 
cally independent.  Separated  into  two  distinct  groups  by  the  Nile  valley,  those  of 
the  Arabian  desert,  no  less  than  their  kindred  of  the  Libyan  oases,  occupy  districts 
easily  commanded  on  all  sides.  Hence  they  are  completely  dependent  on  their 
neighbours  for  their  supplies  of  all  kinds.     They  are  moreover  divided  into  some 


102.— A  BxuouiN. 


fifty  different  tribes,  several  of  which  live  in  a  constant  state  of  hostility  amongst 
themselves.  No  instance  has  yet  been  recorded  of  all  the  Bedouins  of  the  desert 
making  common  cause  in  defence  of  their  common  freedom. 

One  of  the  most  powerful  tribes  of  the  Arabian  desert  is  that  of  the  Maazeh,  or 
"  Goatherds,"  who,  according  to  Maspero,  are  the  ancient  Maziu  Libyans  assimilated 
to  the  Arabs  within  a  recent  period.  They  are  the  hereditary  foes  of  the  Ababdeh, 
who  are  of  Beja  stock,  and  who  dwell  to  the  south  of  Eossei'r,  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Cataract  range,  and  in  Lower  Nubia.  The  Ababdeh  live  mainly  on  milk  and  durrah, 
the  latter  eaten  either  raw  or  roasted,  or  made  into  unleavened  cakes.     Their  chief 


848 


N0RTII-EA8T  AFRICA. 


employment  is  stock-breeding  and  camel-driving.  They  keep  comels,  goats,  and 
sheep,  but  never  horses.  Pasture  is  available  only  during  the  winter  rains,  so  that 
in  the  dry  season  the  herdsman  has  often  to  make  long  journeys  to  the  hills  in 


Fig.  103.— Arab  Tribbs  in  Eoyft. 

Soal«  1 :  6,000,000. 


icr 


25' 


£9' 


54'         L  '.  of  Greenwich 


196  Bliles. 


search  of  fodder.  He  is  occasionally  even  compelled  to  diminish  his  flocks  or  hire 
himself  out  for  a  time  to  till  the  land  in  the  Nile  Valley,  always  returning  to  the 
steppe  when  it  is  again  clothed  with  verdure.  Although  all  are  excellent  dromedary 
riders,  the  people  dwelling  along  the  Nile  are  now  more  frequently  employed  than 


a^tfl,  and 
iiH,  so  that 
e  hills  in 


THE  AUAUDKUS  AND  TURKS  OP  EGYPT. 


849 


the  Ahabdeh  as  camol-d rivers  in  large  caravans  But  some  still  live  close  to  the 
trade  routes,  and  besides  keeping?  stock,  earn  somethinj?  from  the  services  of  various 
kinds  which  they  render  to  passing  caravans.  They  are  also  stationed  hero  as  road- 
watchers,  receiving  a  little  payment  from  their  chiefs  for  this  service. 


The  Auabuehs  and  Turks  of  Egypt. 

The  Ababdeh,  wlio  number  about  30,000  altogether,  are  governed  by  an  here- 
ditary "  chief,"  who  nominally  controls  and  deposes  subordinate  sheikhs  for  the 
different  districts.  Although  nominally  a  vassal  of  the  Khedive  he  pays  no  tribute, 
but  on  the  contrary  receives  a  sort  of  subsidy  from  a  portion  of  the  road  dues 


Fig.  104.— A  ViLLAoa  Shbikh. 


?K 


wich 


cks  or  hire 
ling  to  the 
dromedary 
loyed  than 


levied  on  the  caravans  which  pass  through  his  territory.  The  chief  and  his  repre- 
sentatives, jointly  with  the  tribal  elders,  settle  all  internal  disputes,  so  that  the 
Eg}'ptian  Government  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  clansmen,  neither  imposing  taxes 
nor  forcing  them  into  the  array.  The  chief  is,  however,  personally  responsible  for 
the  safe  conduct  of  travellers  along  the  caravan  routes  traversing  his  coimtry.  He 
furnishes  camels  and  guides,  and  living  himself  in  the  Nile  Valley,  is  held  a 
hostage  for  the  security  of  the  desert  roads.  Mohammed  Ali  introduced  this 
system  of  hostages  among  the  Bedouins,  and  the  result  of  this  wise  measure  has 


:  :3t;:  'Z:- 


860 


NOBTU-EAST  AFllICA. 


boon  profound  "peaco  and  abnoluto  security  in  thoso  inhoHpitable  tractfl.  Before 
this  time,  those  and  all  other  He.iouinH  wore  much  drcadu<l  inaruuders.  They  made 
inroads  from  time  to  time  into  the  cultivated  territories,  and  the  merchants  and 
pilgrims,  as  late  evou  as  the  time  of  IJurckhardt's  visit,  never  ventured  to  cross  the 
wilderness  except  when  armed  and  banded  together  in  large  caravans.  All  this 
has  now  been  so  much  changed  for  the  better  that  articles  even  lost  on  the  road 
may  now  l)e  recovered  by  giving  due  notice  to  the  Ababdeh  sheikhs.  "  * 

In  the  Libyan  desert  west  of  the  Nile  delta,  the  dominating  tribe  is  that  of  the 
Aulad-Ali.  The  Ilowarahs  of  Upper  Egypt,  who  furnish  to  the  Egyptian  army 
nearly  all  its  irregular  cavaliy,  are  of  Tuareg  (Berber)  origin.  According  to  the 
census  of  1882,  the  number  of  all  the  nomad  and  semi-nomad  Bedouins,  hitherto 
estimated  at  from  70,000  to  100,000 at  the  utmost,  was  found  to  be  about  246,000,  with 
a  con  iiderable  preponderance  of  the  male  sex.  The  men  were  said  to  outnumber  the 
womon  by  11  per  cent.,  a  proportion  nowhere  else  presented  by  any  country  where 
rcgulai  returns  have  been  made,  except  in  certain  districts  of  the  Japanese  Archi- 
pelago.t  But  it  may  be  presumed  that  in  several  instances  inaccurate  statements 
were  made  by  the  Arabs  to  the  Government  ofRcials. 

The  Turks,  although  the  official  masters  of  the  country  since  its  conquest  by 
Sultan  Selim  in  1517,  are  still  looked  upon  as  strangers.  They  have  always  held 
aloof  from  the  mass  of  the  people  either  in  their  military  or  bureaucratic  capacity. 
They  are  far  from  numerous,  numbering  according  to  the  various  estimates  from 
about  12,000  to  20,000.  But  the  statement  currently  made  that  the  offspring  of 
these  strangers  are  con  lemned  by  the  climate  to  a  premature  end  appears  to  be 
groundless.  No  doubt  infantile  mortality  is  excessive  in  families  imperfectly 
acclimatised;  but  the  issue  of  mixed  marriages  almost  invariably  follows  the 
nationality  of  the  mothers.  It  becomes  Egyptian  in  the  physical  type  as  well  as  in 
speech,  and  the  name  of  the  foreigner  merges  in  the  local  element.  Accurate 
statistics  have  shown  that  the  former  Mameluks  had  very  small  families.  But  that 
all  the  Mameluks,  whether  Georgians,  Circassians,  or  Albanians,  did  not  become 
extinct  is  evident  from  the  case  of  Mohammed  Ali,  the  very  man  who  pitilessly 
massacred  these  mercenaries.  Although  himself  an  Albanian  from  a  Macedonian 
island  ho  left  a  numerous  progeny,  founding  in  his  own  family  the  dynasty  which 
is  still  supposed,  to  rule  in  Egypt. 

The  Levaktines,  Europeans,  and  Nttbians.  • 

Even  the  Levantines,  that  is  to  say,  the  Syrian,  Greek,  Italian,  or  Spanish 
Christians  long  settled  in  the  country,  have  certainly  established  themselves  for 
several  generations  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  as  have  also  their  rivals  in  trade,  the 
Yahud,  or  Jews.  Although  for  many  centuries  marrying  only  within  their  own 
circles,  they  have  in  no  respect  lost  their  vital  energies.  The  Europeans  also  settled 


.    •  Klunziarer,  "  Upper  Egypt,"  p.  265. 

t  Proportion  of  the  BextB  amongBt  tho  indigenous  inhabitants  of  Egypt  in  1882  :  men,  3,210,247; 
women,  3,262,869.  i'  '    7-^-  vr^   i  #:^   -r  %   /^-*r  >>-' 


iiiig& 


THE  "PLAGUES  OF  EOYIT." 


861 


I.  Before 
rhoy  mudc 
shunts  and 
)  cro8S  the 
All  thia 
a  the  roud 

that  of  the 
)tiun  urmy 
ing  to  the 
[R,  hitherto 
5,000,  with 
iiuuher  the 
itry  where 
lese  Archi- 
statementa 

mquest  by 
[ways  held 
0  capacity, 
aates  from 
ff spring  of 
lears  to  be 
mperfeotly 
oUows  the 
swell  as  in 
Accurate 
But  that 
lot  become 
0  pitilessly 
llacedonian 
asty  which 


at  Cairo  and  in  the  other  large  towns  bring  up  their  children  successfully,  provided 
they  are  careful  to  obHorvo  the  ordinory  laws  of  health.  Infant  mortality  is  even 
loHS  amongst  thum  than  amongnt  the  natives,  whose  poverty  fur  the  most  part  pre- 
vents them  from  bestowing  the  necessary  cure  on  their  offspring.*  Nevertheless 
the  foreign  colony,  in  which  the  men  are  far  more  numerous  than  the  women, 
increases  not  by  un  excess  of  births  over  deaths,  but  only  by  immigration. 

At  present  the  Kuropean  element  is  represented  in  Kgypt,  or  at  least  in 
Alexandria  and  Cairo,  by  much  more  numerous  communities  than  those  of  the 
Turks.t  In  1882  it  exceeded  90,000,  and  will  probably  acquire  still  further 
expansion  now  that  the  country  has  been  placed  under  the  protectorate  of  u  Western 
power.  Thanks  to  their  greater  intelligence,  strength,  and  resources,  the  Euro- 
peans rather  than  the  Turks  are  the  true  masters  of  the  land. 

To  this  immigration  of  conquerors  from  the  north  corresponds  that  of  the 
Nubian  Bar&bra  or  Barbarins  from  the  south.  These  Bar&bra,  engaged  almost 
exclusively  in  menial  occupations,  are  the  "Auvergnatsof  Cairo."  ^  The  figures  of 
Nubians  carved  on  the  ancient  Egyptian  monuments  show  that  this  immigration 
has  been  going  on  for  ages.  There  remain  to  be  mentioned  the  Ghagars,  those 
Hindu  tribes  to  whom  the  Spaniards  and  English  have  given  the  name  of  Qitunos 
and  Gypsies,  that  is,  "  Egyptians,"  and  who  are  still  found  in  the  Nile  Valley. 
Amongst  these  wandering  communities  the  men  are  chiefly  horse-dealers,  tinkers, 
mountebanks,  and  fortune-tellers.  They  also  supply  the  tattooers  and  serpent- 
charmers,  as  well  as  the  dancing  dervishes,  who  are  usually  but  wrongly  supposed 
to  be  zealous  disciples  of  the  Prophet.  Notwithstanding  their  Asiatic  type  and 
wild  penetrating  glance,  by  which  the  Gypsies  are  everywhere  distinguished,  they 
all  claim  to  be  pure  Arabs,  pretending  to  have  migrated  at  first  towanls  West 
Africa,  whence  they  returned  to  Egypt  many  centuries  ago.  The  most  "  noble  " 
tribe  of  the  Ghagars  even  takes  the  name  of  Barmecides,  though  more  commonly 
known  by  the  appellation  of  GhawAzi,  whence  may  possibly  be  derived  the  terms 
GabaohoB  and  Gavaches,  applied  in  Spain  and  in  the  south  of  France  to  the  Gitanos 
and  even  to  all  despised  immigrants.  Amongst  the  Ghaw&zi  are  chiefly  recruited 
the  dancing-girls,  who  are  not  to  be  confused  with  the  more  respectable  class  of  the 
Almeh,  or  singing-women. 


or  Spanish 
nselves  for 
1  trade,  the 
L  their  own 
also  settled 

en.  3,210,247; 


The  "Plagues  of  Egypt." 

The  numerous  population  of  Eg3rpt,  which  has  increased  threefold  since  the 
beginning  of  the  century,  and  which  is  progressing  at  the  mean  yearly  rate  of 
about  50,000,  is  a  sufficient  proof  of  the  salubrity  of  the  olimate.§  In  Upper 
Egypt  especially,  where  the  atmosphere  is  not  charged  with  moist  exhalations, 
the  climate  is  very  healthy  notwithstanding  its  high  temperature.      It  is  even 

*  Mortality  o(  children  under  ten  years  in  1878 :  Enropeims,  39-97  per  cent. ;  natives,  65-65  per  cent, 
t  Europeans  in  Eg^ypt,  according  to  the  census  of  1882  :    men,  49,054  ;  women,  41,832. 
t  Edmund  About.  •'  Ahm^d  le  Fellah." 

$  Popultition  of  E^ypt  in  1800,  under  the  French  occupation  :  603,70  houses,  or  2,514,400  souls, 
reckoning  8  per  houde.    A veragii  mortality,  26  to  27  per  lif^UO.  ^^,.    . 


•  Kt.  , 


HS2 


NORTII-KART  AKUI(!A. 


I 


bettor  Htill  in  the  dcHcrt,  aa  wuh  nhown  by  the  medical  Htatidtics  tnkon  while  the 
heavy  worku  wore  in  progresn  for  the  conHtruction  of  the  Suez  ('unul.  Egypt  is 
even  visited  in  winter  by  u  number  of  Euro|)ean  invulidfl,  especially  those  suifering 
from  nffectiouH  of  the  chest.  JJut  the  lurgo  cities  of  Cuiro  and  Alexandria,  where 
the  streets  are  constantly  swept  by  whirlwinds  of  dust,  do  not  appear  to  be  the 
best  places  of  residence  for  i)er8on8  subject  to  these  complaints.  Here  in  fact 
consumption  commits  great  ravages  amongst  immigrants  from  the  Upper  Nile,  and 
every  year  carries  off  numerous  victims,  oven  amongst  the  natives.  In  Cairo  a 
seventh  jmrt  of  the  mortality  is  duo  to  pulmonary  affections,  an«l  in  the  military 
hospitals  as  many  as  one-third  of  the  deaths  has  sometimes  been  caused  by  tuber- 
culosis. Hut  the  maladies  Europeans  have  most  to  dread  are  dysentery  and,  in 
certain  parts  of  the  delta,  marsh  fevers.  Hepatitis,  a  "  specific  poisoning  of  the 
liver,"  almost  unknown  amongst  the  Mohammedans,  who  abstain  from  alcoholic' 
drinks,  is  very  common  among  Europeans,  owing  to  their  less  careful  habits. 

The  chief  disorders  of  the  natives  are  such  as  may  be  attributed  to  their  abject 
poverty.  Tht  plague,  formerly  so  terrible,  and  which  in  1834  and  1835  carried 
off  45,000  persons  in  Alexandria,  and  75,000  in  Cairo,  has  ceased  its  ravages  in  the 
Nile  Valley.  Even  cholera,  which  in  1883  converted  Damietta  into  a  vast 
hospital,  now  confines  its  periodical  visitations  td  a  very  restricted  area.  But  on 
the  other  hand  anemia,  caused  by  insufRcient  nourishment,  is  everywhere  endemic 
and  fatal,  especially  to  children.  In  no  other  country  are  blind  and  one-eyed 
persons  so  numerous  as  in  Egypt.  On  landing  at  the  quays  of  Alexandria  the 
Btranger  is  at  once  struck  by  the  effects  of  contagious  ophthalmia  amongst  the 
crowds  clamouring  around  him,  and  this  first  impression  is  confirmed  by  his  sub- 
sequent observations  and  supported  by  statistical  returns.*  Poverty  of  blood,  the 
reflection  of  the  light  on  the  white  walls  and  on  the  surface  of  the  river,  the 
sudden  changes  of  temperature,  and  especially  the  saline  and  nitrous  dust  formed 
by  the  decomposition  of  the  Nilotic  mud  and  raised  in  whirlwinds  by  the  breeze, 
are  the  chief  causes  to  which  must  be  attributed  these  dangerous  ophthalmic 
affections.  Nevertheless  the  Bedouins  of  the  desert  are  nearly  all  endowed  with 
excellent  sight.  The  flies,  the  "  plague  of  Egypt,"  certainly  contribute  much  to 
foster  and  aggravate  these  disorders.  "  When  one  sees  the  normal  fly-ridden 
countenances  of  the  Egyptian  children,  it  is  impossible  to  be  surprised  at  the 
enormous  proportion  of  blind  or  one-eyed  adults.  Ophthalmia  arises  in  various 
ways  ;  but  it  is  undoubtedly  propagated  by  flies,  and  to  the  carelessness  and  pre- 
judice of  mothers  and  the  uncleanness  of  infants  must  be  ascribed  a  good  deal  of 
its  prevalence.  The  women  think  it  is  unlucky  to  wash  a  baby's  face,  and  prefer 
to  let  him  go  blind  all  his  life  to  removing  the  pestilential  flies  that  cover  his  eyes 
like  a  patch  of  court-plaster."!  Tliey  lose  even  the  strength  to  drive  away  the 
swarms  of  their  tormentors,  and  patiently  wait  for  sleep  to  relieve  them  from  their 
sufferings. 

Leprosy,  although   less  common  than   in  Syria,  has  unfortunately  not  dis- 

*  Proportion  of  persons  sufferintc  from  ophthalmic  disorders  in  Egypt,  acrording  to  Amici :  1 7  per  cent, 
t  "  8<iciul  Life  in  Egypt,"  page  69. 


i 


llKIilUION-TUE  MOHAMMEDANS. 


868 


n  whilo  the 
Egypt  is 
HO  Huifcring 
idria,  where 
r  to  he  the 
lore  in  fact 
cr  Nile,  and 

In  Cairo  a 
.he  military 
kI  by  tuber- 
tory  and,  in 
ning  of  the 
>m  alcoholic' 
labits. 

their  abject 
835  carried 
vragea  in  the 
into  a  vast 
}a.  But  on 
ere  endemic 
id  one-eyed 
xundria  the 
imongst  the 
by  his  sub- 
f  blood,  the 
le  river,  the 
dust  formed 
r  the  breeze, 

ophthalmiu 
idowed  with 
ate  much  to 
1  fly-ridden 
rised  at  the 
es  in  various 
3S8  and  pre- 
good  deal  of 
I,  and  prefer 
)ver  his  eyes 
ve  away  the 
n  from  their 

ely  not  dis- 
lid:  17{)ercent 


appeared  from  Kgypt.  The  Hpocios  of  gastric  fovor  known  in  the  I'ast  by  fho 
nunio  of  (iniy  in  uIho  very  urovulont,  while  the  elephant iuwiH  of  the  ArabM  frequently 
attacks  the  nativoH,  ospcciiiUy  in  the  delta.  Another  skin  diHeaHo,  the  Ho-called 
"  button  "  of  the  Nile,  analogous  to  the  "  date  "  of  Hagdad  and  the  "  button  "  of 
Aleppo  and  lliskra,  is  endemic  in  the  country  Most  of  the  inhubitunts  us  well  as 
strangers  suffer  from  this  sore  once  during  life  or  during  their  rcHideneo  in  Egypt, 
although  for  the  most  part  under  a  somewhat  mild  form  of  the  niuludy. 

Religion. — The  Mohammedans. 

Upwards  of  nine-tenths  of  the  Egyptians  are  Mohammedans.  But  in  a  land 
where  religions  have  succeeded  each  other  like  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the  Nile, 
the  people  have  not  had  time  thoroughly  to  conform  themselves  to  the  official  cult. 
Hence  more  than  one  observer  has  discovered  in  the  legends  and  ceremonies  of 
the  fellahin  traces  of  the  religion  which  formerly  attracted  multitudes  of  wor- 
shippers to  the  vestibules  of  the  great  temples  at  Thebes  and  Memphis.  Thus  the 
nocturnal  feast  attended  by  the  peasantry  in  the  expectation  of  a  visit  from  the 
golden  cow  in  the  ruine<l  sanctuary  of  Denderah,  recalls  the  solemn  processions 
made  in  honour  of  the  divine  heifer  Hathor.*  In  truth  the  Egyptians  are 
Mussulmans  only  on  the  surface,  and  compared  with  the  indi£Fercnt  masses,  very 
few  are  those  who  scrupulously  observe  the  prescriptions  of  the  Prophet.  The 
mosques  are  little  frequented ;  the  fellah  does  not  always  perform  his  ablutions  in 
the  canal  flowing  by  his  dwelling,  nor  does  the  Bedouin  stop  in  the  wilderness  to 
carry  out  the  prescribed,  formality  with  sand  in  the  absence  of  water. 

During  the  last  fifty  years  the  spirit  of  religious  tolerance  has  made  rapid 
strides  in  Egypt.  However  intense  the  zeal  of  the  most  ardent  hajis,  none  of 
them  came  forward  to  oppose  the  English  imtil  the  •'  holy  war  "  was  proclaimed* 
and  even  then  none  of  the  few  volunteers  who  entered  the  ranks  were  natives  of 
Lower  Egypt.t  However  proud  of  belonging  to  the  chosen  people,  the  Egyptian 
Muslims  have  forfeited  the  right  any  longer  to  despise  aliens  to  their  faith,  with 
whom  they  have  not  dared  to  try  issues,  and  who  confront  them  with  all  the 
marks  of  intellectual  superiority  and  all  the  resources  of  material  strength. 
Nevertheless  within  the  limits  of  Egyptian  territory  is  found  the  very  centre  of 
the  hostile  movement  against  the  Christians.  The  formidable  Mussulman  brother- 
hood of  the  Mahdi,  or  "  Guide,"  Sidi  Mahommed  Ben  Ali-es-Sendsi,  has  its  metro- 
politan convent  at  SerhAb,  or  Jarahdb,  in  the  oasis  of  Faredgha.  But  the  Guide 
himself,  allied  apparently  with  the  Mahdi  who  raised  the  Arab  tribes  of  Kordof&n 
and  the  Upper  Nile,  is  a  native  of  Algeria,  and  from  Mauritania  come  nearly  all 
the  faithful  that  have  rallied  round  him.  The  choice  of  this  place  was  due  to  two 
distinct  advantages  which  it  presented — an  almost  central  position  for  the  pro- 
paganda in  the  Mussulman  world,  and  its  remoteness  from  all  military  and  trading 
stations  in  the  hands  of  Europeans.      Here  he  has  been  able  almost  secretly  to 


•  Q.  Maspet'O,  "Manuscript  Notes." 

f  Mackenzie  Wallace,  "  Egypt  and  IbeKsryptian  Question." 


28— AF. 


854 


NOETH-EAST  AFRICA. 


I 


develop  hia  projects  during  the  past  twenty  years  free  from  the  danger  of  inter- 
ference from  foreign  states. 

In  accepting  their  religion  from  the  Arabs  the  Egyptians  have  also,  notwith- 
standing their  great  numerical  superiority,  adopted  the  language  of  their  con- 


Fig.  106.— Rei-ioions  of  Eoypt. 
Goale  t  :  6,000^000. 


■FTafrati 


.K^»rPnHhtt 


8»l«m«g»i* 


L    .  of  Green w'lc^i 


•  Towns  where  the  Oopts  and  other  Chrietiane  ikre  nameroni. 

0  Coptic  monaeteries.   The  names  of  Benusicommanities  are  underlined. 


120lliles. 


querors.  Arabic  is  spoken  with  purity  in  Egypt,  and  the  University  of  El-Azhar 
at  Cairo  is  even  one  of  the  places  where  are  discussed  and  regulated  the  most 
delicate  questions  of  Arabic  grammar  and  literature.  The  only  differences 
between  the  local  idiom  and  that  current  in  Hejaz  are  the  use  of  a  few  Coptic  and 
Turkish   terms,  and   a  peculiar   manner  of  pronouncing  certain  letters  of  the 


■W^^l%.'y[  '-'■"fy-fmi  '>-','Sr^s^H«^p*^^^f^.^pSt? 


SOCIAL  USAGES. 


865 


Br  of  inter- 

K),  notwith- 
their  con- 


s'" 


S6* 


of  El-Azhar 
3d  the  most 
'  differences 
V  Coptic  and 
tters  of  the 


alphabet.  But  if  they  are  now  Arabs  in  religion  and  speech,  the  Egyptians  have 
become  Turks  in  their  political  organisation,  administration,  and  absence  of  a 
hereditary  aristocracy. 


Social  Usages. 

In  their  social  institutions  they  have  also  to  a  large  extent  assimilated  them- 
selves to  their  Arab  and  Turkish  rulers.  More  readily  even  than  by  the  Turks 
polygamy  has  been  adopted,  especially  amongst  the  governing  classes ;  while  mono- 
gamy is  still  universal  among  the  peasantry.  Divorce  is  more  generally  practised 
than  in  any  other  Mussulman  country,  and  nearly  half  of  the  marriages  are  sflid 
to  be  followed  sooner  or  later  by  repudiation.  In  certain  Coptic  circles  it  is 
customary  to  contract  temporary  alliances  even  for  so  short  a  period  as  a  few 
weeks.  Yet  the  priests  bless  these  unions  with  the  same  solemnity  as  those  of  a 
permanent  character.  At  the  same  time  such  temporary  marriages  may  be 
made  binding,  should  the  contracting  parties  so  desire.  Cousins  are  frequently 
betrothed  from  the  cradle,  and  marry  on  arriving  at  the  age  of  puberty.  Adul- 
tery is  of  rare  occurrence  in  the  Egyptian  family. 

A  curious  account  is  given  by  Mr.  Lawrence  Oliphant  of  a  Coptic  wedding 
witnessed  by  him.      "The  ecclesiastic  who  performed  the  ceremony  occupied 
evidently  a  very  subordinate  position  in  the  Church,  and  his  principal  object 
seemed  to  be  to  finish  the  operation  as  speedily  as  possible,  and  get  paid  for  it. 
He  seated  himself  on  a  low  chair  in  front  of  the  happy  couple,  pulled  a  Coptic 
prayer-book  out  of  his  breast,  and  gave  the  signal  to  his  attendants  to  commence 
operations,  on  which  a  man  squatting  on  his  heels  behind  the  chair  clashed  a  huge 
pair  of  cymbals,  and  half-a-dozen  others  in  a  like  attitude  set  up  a  lugubrious 
chant  in  a  loud  nasal  voice.     Whenever  they  paused  the  women  ranged  on  the 
benches  burst  forth  in  a  shrill  scream,  with  a  quaver  or  ululation  resembling  the 
note  of  the  screech-owl.     It  had  a  wild  barbaric  effect,  as  from  time  to  time  it 
broke  in  upon  the  uncouth  chanting  and  clanging  cymbals  of  the  choir.     Then 
the  priest  took  up  his  part  and  read  the  service  at  a  racing  speed.     All  this  time 
the  men  were  talking  and  laughing  loudly,  babies  were  crying,  and  every  now  and 
then  the  priest  would  stop,  apparently  to  hold  a  little  conversation  with  those 
nearest  to  him  on  the  topics  of  the  day.     Anything  more  irreverent  or  less  like  a 
religious  ceremony  it  would  be  difficult  to  imagine.      In  the  midst  of  it  all  the 
priest  seized  the  bridegroom's  left  hand  and  put  a  ring  on  his  little  finger.    After 
some  more  chanting,  reading,  screeching,  and  general  conversation  he  took  a  phial, 
which  I  presumed  contained  holy  water,  and  crossed  the  foreheads  of  the  bride 
and  bridegroom  with  its  contents.     Again  after  an  interval  he  produced  a  black 
cord  which  he  bound  round  the  body  of  the  bridegroom  under  his  outer  garment, 
and  tied  a  piece  of  scarlet  thread  round  his  head,  and  did  the  same  to  the  bride, 
who  must  long  since  have  been  nearly  stifled.    In  spite  of  the  rapidity  with  which 
the  service  was  read,  what  with  chanting  and  talking  at  least  an  hour  elapsed 
before  the  priest  seized  the  heads  of  the  bride  and  bridegroom,  pressing  them 


856 


NOBTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


I 


ii 


I 


m 


against  one  another  and  waving  his  hand  over  them,  which  I  preanine  was  a 
blessing.  He  then  untied  the  cords  and  threads,  meaning  I  suppose  that  another 
spiritual  knot  had  been  tied,  and  then  abruptly  snatched  the  handkerchief  out  of 
the  bridegroom's  mouth  and  spread  it  over  his  own  knees.  For  the  first  time 
there  was  a  silence  as  of  hushed  expectation ;  then  some  silver  coins,  amounting  I 
shoidd  say  to  about  ten  shillings,  were  dropped  into  the  handkerchief,  and  the 
priest  rose  suddenly,  put  some  of  the  money  into  his  pocket,  and  proceeded  to 
distribute  the  rest  among  the  minor  officiab,  on  which  arose  the .  most  furious 
clamour  and  dispute  how  the  filthy  lucre  should  be  divided.  But  order  was  some- 
how at  last  restored  and  the  bridegroom  got  up  and  walked  to  the  door.  The 
bride,  however,  seemed  more  difficult  to  deal  with.  Her  mother  and  two  or  three 
other  women  seemed  to  be  packing  her  up  in  some  mysterious  way  against  her 
will,  rolling  her  about  on  the  bench  like  some  bale  of  goods.  At  last  in  the  midst 
of  her  struggles  a  man,  I  presume  her  father,  rushed  in,  put  her  on  his  shoulder, 
and  carried  her  off,  followed  by  the  rest  of  the  women."*  „        ,,. 


Slavery. 


.--VSili 


.■^<*»%:• 


*.5V-- 


Officially  slave-dealing  is  strictly  prohibited  in  Egypt  as  well  as  in  the 
dependent  territory  of  the  Upper  Nile  basin.  In  virtue  of  previous  conventions 
made  with  England  personal  servitude  should  have  already  been  completely 
abolished  by  Aug;ust  4,  1884,  within  the  limits  of  the  Ehedival  possessions.  But 
the  articles  of  these  treaties  have  remained  a  dead  letter,  and  the  representatives 
of  Great  Britain,  now  paramount  in  Egypt,  have  limited  their  action  to  the 
despatch  of  a  circular  recalling  the  law  imposed  on  the  £hedive.  It  seems  pro- 
bable that  they  will  observe  in  this  respect  the  same  reserve  that  Gordon  did  in 
Egyptian  Sudan,  leaving  to  the  owners  the  absolute  possession  of  the  men  and 
women  acquired  by  capture  or  by  purchase.  If  the  slave-markets  are  closed  the 
traffic  goes  on  all  the  same,  while  the  grandees  always  find  the  means  of  procuring 
eunuchs  to  look  after  the  women  of  theii*  harems.  The  maintenance  of  slavery  in 
Egypt  is  necessitated  by  these  very  harems,  whose  mysterious  regime  could  not  be 
enforced  with  servants  free  to  break  their  contracts  at  pleasure.  At  the  same  time 
it  is  certain  that  outside  the  palaces  of  the  highest  Mohammedan  circles,  domestic 
service  is  gradually  replacing  slavery.  All  Negroes  who  apply  to  the  police  for 
their  "  paper  of  freedom"  obtain  it,  and  may  take  up  any  industry  in  any  place 
they  choose.  Thus  the  Western  conquerors,  like  their  Arab  and  Turkish  predeces- 
sors, have  introduced  a  new  social  organisation. 

"  It  should  also  be  stated  that  in  Egypt,  as  in  most  other  Mohammedan  countries, 
the  slaveb  are  usually  treated  with  great  kindness.  They  are  i-egarded  as  useful 
members  cf  the  household  by  the  head  of  the  family,  whose  interest  it  is  to  look 
after  their  health,  and  make  them  feel  as  satisfied  as  possible  with  their  position. 
The  more  content  with  their,  lot,  the  more  willing  they  are  to  work,  and  they  thus 
g^radually  learn  to  identify  their  interests  with  those  of  their  masters.  Hence  they 
.j.;tr        V     ,     .,,j  •  "Tho  Land  of  Khemi,"  p.  164  *<»«}. 


LAND  TENUBE. 


857 


ume  was  a 
bat  another 
chief  out  of 
le  first  time 
.mounting  I 
ef,  and  the 
roceeded  to 
aost  furious 
r  was  some- 
door.  The 
wo  or  three 
against  her 
in  the  midst 
lis  shoulder, 


L  as  in  the 
conventions 
I  completely 
issions.  But 
presentatives 
ction  to  the 
b  seems  pro- 
ordon  did  in 
the  men  and 
ire  closed  the 
of  procuring 
of  slavery  in 
<  could  not  be 
he  same  time 
jles,  domestic 
he  police  for 
in  any  place 
dsh  predeces- 

ian  countries, 
led  as  useful 
it  is  to  look 
;heir  position, 
ind  they  thus 
Hence  they 


soon  give  up  all  desire  of  returning  to  their  tribal  homes,  and  begin  to  despise  their 
kindred,  regarding  them  as  savages  and  '  infidels.'  •  Hero  we  are  well  cared  for 
by  our  kind  father,'  said  some  slaves  of  the  Dinka  nation  from  the  country  south  of 
Sen&r ;  'he  clothes  us,  and  when  meal- time  comes  we  sit  under  his  roof  and  eat  our 
fill,  and  at  night  we  have  good  bedding  and  shelter.  When  we  desire  it  he  gives 
us  money  to  go  to  the  bazaar ;  and  what  belongs  to  him  belongs  to  us.  We  are  of 
his  family.  Why  should  we  wish  to  return  to  the  misery  and  incertitude  of  our 
early  life  P  * 

"Such  appears  to  be  the  general  feeling  of  those  in  servitude.  They  become,  so 
to  speak,  members  of  the  household  of  their  masters.  They  benefit  largely  by  the 
civilisation,  such  as  it  is,  that  surrounds  them.  They  form  ties  and  affections.  They 
marry  and  have  children,  and  they  become  thoroughly  identified  with  the  country 
and  surroundings  of  those  who  own  them. 

"The  female  slaves,  if  really  they  can  be  called  so,  seem  to  sit  as  high  at  their 
dress  tables  as  the  lighter-coloured  mistress  whom  they  serve.  Of  ornaments  they 
have  plenty,  silver  and  gold  coins  being  woven  into  their  innumerable  thinly-plaited 
tresses.  Amber,  coral,  and  jasper  necklaces  fall  in  rows  over  their,  when  young, 
statuesque  bosoms,  here,  as  is  the  custom  of  the  country,  left  untrammelled  by  robe 
or  corset. 

"  To  sum  up  briefly,  the  curse  of  slavery  is  not  the  actual  holding  of  slaves,  but 
the  misery  caused  by  the  destruction  of  villages,  the  severing  of  family  ties,  and 
the  cruelties  perpetrated  in  the  work  of  capture.  People  are  dragged  miles  and 
miles  without  water,  chained  by  the  neck ;  in  fact,  the  trails  of  the  capturers  may 
be  followed  by  the  skeletons  of  the  captives  left  on  the  line  of  route.  Hence,  what- 
ever may  be  the  kindness  shown  by  the  master  to  his  bondman,  all  must  rejoice 
that  the  days  of  slavery  seem  at  last  to  be  numbered  in  all  Mussulman  countries 
brought  under  European  influences.  The  Qovemment  of  the  Khedive,  rightly 
influenced,  is  determined  to  stamp  it  out ;  and  the  presence  of  English  officers  now 
in  the  service  of  His  Highness  in  the  distant  provinces  of  the  Sudan  will  undoubt- 
edly aid  in  effecting  the  extinction  both  of  domestic  slavery  and  of  the  slave 
traffic  throughout  Eastern  Africa."  *  .  ;  , 

Land  Tenure.  ' ' 

The  administration  of  landed  estates  is  also  being  modifled  through  the  inter- 
vention of  Europeans  in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  country.  According  to  the 
strict  letter  of  the  Mussulman  law  the  community  of  the  faithful,  represented  by 
the  beit-el-mdl,  or  public  treasury,  is  the  sole  owner  of  the  land,  which  can  only  be 
held  temporarily  by  private  persons  such  as  mortgagees,  who  have  come  to  inherit 
it  by  custom  rather  than  legal  right.  However,  this  principle  has  long  fallen  into 
abeyance,  and  as  in  Europe,  private  proprietary  rights  have  been  established  over  a 
large  portion  of  the  Egyptian  territory.  Since  this  revolution,  which  allows  the 
free  exchange  of  land,  its  value    has   been    greatly  enhanced.     The  present 

«  "  With  Hioks  Puha  in  the  Sudan." 


858 


NOETH-EAST  APEICA. 


proprietors  themselves,  who  no  longer  pay  the  taxes  in  kind,  have  certainly 
benefited  by  the  new  order  of  things.  At  the  same  time  a  new  social  class  has 
been  constituted,  that  of  the  agricultural  proletariates,  a  multitude  of  hand  to  mouth 
labourers,  who  have  no  longer  any  share  in  the  land,  and  who  are  obliged  to  accept 
employment  on  any  terms  in  order  to  live.*  The  lands  of  dispossessed  peasants, 
nearly  all  confiscated  for  non-payment  of  taxes,  have  enlarged  the  personal  domain 
of  the  sovereign,  of  various  members  of  his  family,  and  of  many  high  dignitaries 
of  State.  The  Suez  Canal  Company  has  also  become  one  of  these  large  landed 
proprietors.    All  the  estates  that  under  sundry  titles  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of 

Fig.  106. — Domains  of  the  Dairah  in  thb  Dblta. 
SmJ«  1 :  iftOOfiOO. 


EitatM  of  the  Kbediw. 


aoiCiiM. 


the  khedival  family  are  estimated  at  about  one-fourth  of  all  the  arable  land  in 
Egypt.  Between  Assiut  and  Bedrashein  nearly  all  the  soil  belongs  to  the  Khedive. 
Another  fourth  of  the  land  consists  of  the  so-called  ushuri,  or  "  tithing^,"  held  in 
absolute  right  by  those  cultivating  them.  On  the  other  hand  the  lands  of  the  poor, 
divided  into  small  lots  round  the  villages,  and  comprising,  with  the  commercial 
possessions,  about  half  of  the  country,  are  burdened  with  the  karaj,  a  variable  tax, 
which  may  be  increased  at  the  pleasure  of  the  Government,  but  which  still  averages 
about  one-fifth,  as  in  the  time  of  Joseph.  On  paying  this  tax  the  occupier  of  the 
*  Average  wages  of  the  peasant  labourer :  fourpence  to  sevenpence,  according  to  the  season. 


u 


iiiiViii*if)W*il^^iT 


THE  KHEDIVAL  DOMAIN. 


869 


e  certainly 
ial  class  has 
lid  to  mouth 
ed  to  accept 
ed  peasants, 
)nal  domain 
I  dignitaries 
large  landed 
the  hands  of 


land  still  remains  none  the  less  at  the  mercy  of  the  State.  He  holds  it  only  on 
sufEerance,  nor  are  the  rights  of  his  heirs  acknowledged  until  they  show  them- 
selves capable  of  cultivating  the  estate  bequeathed  to  them  and  paying  the  imposts. 
If  they  want  to  change  their  karajieh  lands  to  an  absolute  property,  they  can  do 
BO  only  on  condition  of  paying  in  advance  a  nix  years'  tax,  either  in  a  lump  sum  or 
by  instalments.  Besides  a  safe  title,  these  anticipated  disbursements  relieve  them 
in  future  from  half  of  the  land-tax.  The  tmkf  ^wakuf)  estates  belonging  to  the 
mosques  or  schools  will  probably  ere  long  change  hands  in  part,  if  not  altogether. 
The  confiscation  of  this  mortmain  property  might  enable  the  Government  to  cover 
the  present  annual  deficits. 


5i* 


50 


The  EHEDivAii  Domain. 

Officially  the  largest  landed  estate  in  Egypt  might  seem  to  be  that  of  the 
Khedive.  But  this  domain,  the  so-called  dairah-sanieh,  having  been  mortgaged  to 
European  lenders  since  the  year  1878,  is  administered  by  a  commission,  whose 
headquarters  are  not  in  Egypt,  and  the  real  owners  are  at  present  the  European 
bankers.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  estate  is  rented  to  speculators,  who  sub-let 
to  the  peasantry.  Certain  parcels  are  directly  ceded  to  the  labourers ;  but  a  large 
paii;  of  the  dairah,  which  would  certainly  be  brought  under  cultivation  if  in  the 
hands  of  the  fellahin,  is  allowed  to  lie  fallow.  For  direct  exploitation  the  creditors 
of  the  Khedive  have  recourse  either  to  hired  labourers,  or  to  agents  and  "  middle- 
men," who  arrange  with  the  village  headmen  for  the  hands  required  to  till  the  land. 
Their  work  is  remunerated  by  a  regular  pittance,  or  by  personal  gifts  made  to  the 
gangers.  All  systems  of  payment  are  nicely  graded,  from  the  giatuitous  corvee  to 
the  amount  of  direct  wages  freely  determined  between  employer  and  labourer. 
But  so  many  intermediaries  have  to  receive  a  share  of  the  profits  in  the  cultivation 
of  the  khedival  domain,  so  many  interests  claim  compensation  for  their 
"  disinterested  "  services  in  the  "  regeneration  of  JEgypt,"  that  the  revenues  of 
these  otherwise  extremely  fertile  lands  are  frittered  away  to  little  over  twenty 
shillings  an  acre.  There  is  even  a  yearly  deficit  if  to  the  current  expenses  be  added 
the  interest  due  on  previous  debts.* 


urable  land  in 
the  Khedive, 
ings,"  held  in 
[s  of  the  poor, 
le  commercial 
I  variable  tax, 
L  still  averages 
3cupier  of  the 
the  season. 


Irrigation — The  Inundations  of  the  Nile. 

To  the  contrast  between  the  estates  of  large  proprietors  and  the  karajieh  holdings 
of  small  owners  corresponds  in  many  places  the  contrast  between  the  systems  of  irri- 
gation.    In  this  respect  it  is  necessary  carefully  to  distinguish  between  the  so-called 

*  State  of  tlie  Khedival  domain  at  the  date  of  the  ceasion,  October  31,  1878 : — 

Acres  directly  cultivated 192,660 

„    leased 134,300 

„    grunted  to  the  peasantry 37,670 

„    waste  or  l>illow .  82,360 

446,880 


I  n||inln'W*llii 


860 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


II 


I 


i 


srji  and  nili  lands.  The  latter,  as  indicated  hy  the  name  itself,  comprise  all  thoso 
tracts  that  would  be  flooded  by  the  annual  inundation  but  for  the  retaining  dykes, 
as  well  as  those  reached  through  infiltration  by  the  deep  waters  derived  either  from 
the  main  stream  or  from  natural  or  artificial  channels  excavated  at  a  slight  depth 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  lowest  dykes  derive  their  waters  at  a  depth 
of  about  13  feet  below  the  cultivated  lands,  and  are  flushed  only  during  the 
period  of  the  inundations,  remaining  dry  for  the  rest  of  the  year.  During  the  last 
century  the  whole  of  Egypt  was  watered  exclusively  by  means  of  basins  disposed 
at  different  elevations  along  both  banks  of  the  river,  and  receiving  their  supplies 
through  the  nili  canals,  and  over  three-fourths  of  the  cultivated  tracts  in  Upper 
Egypt  are  subject  to  the  same  method  of  irrigation. 

The  sefi,  that  is,  "  summer  "  canals,  all  of  recent  origin,  are  excavated  below 
the  mean  low-water  level  from  26  to  30  feet  below  the  surface,  so  that  they  are 
reached  by  the  stream  even  at  the  very  height  of  the  dry  season.  In  Upper  Egypt 
they  are  disposed  parallel  with  the  river  and  at  a  very  slight  incline,  so  as  to  bring 
them  at  once  to  the  level  of  the  lands  to  be  irrigated.  But  in  Lower  Egypt,  from 
which  the  system  of  irrigating  basins  has  entirely  disappeared,  the  sefi  canals 
remain  everywhere  ot  a  lower  level  than  the  fields,  to  which  the  water  must  be 
raised  by  means  of  steam-engines,  sakiehs,  or  shadufs.  One  of  these  sefi  canals  is 
the  famous  Mahmudieh  channel,  which  derives  its  water  from  the  Nile  in  order  to 
irrigate  the  tracts  skirting  the  desert  as  far  as  the  city  of  Alexandria,  and  which 
serves  at  the  same  time  as  a  great  navigable  highway.  But  having  become  partly 
choked  by  the  mud,  it  is  no  longer  deep  enough  to  admit  a  regular  current,  hence 
has  to  be  partly  filled  by  means  of  steam-engines  established  at  Atfeh,  on  the 
Bosetta  branch  of  the  Nile.  The  Damietta  branch  also  feeds  numerous  summer 
canals,  thanks  to  its  relatively  high  elevation  above  the  plains  of  the  delta. 

The  sefi  system  was  first  introduced  under  Mohammed  Ali,  when  the  cultivation 
of  Jumel  cotton  was  begun.  By  this  method  are  still  almost  exclusively  raised  the 
larger  and  more  important  crops,  such  as  sesame,  sugar,  and  cotton,  which  are  thus 
watered  for  three  months  continuously  before  the  period  of  the  ordinary  inundation. 
So  it  happens  that  the  small  holdings  have  no  share  in  the  benefits  reserved  for  the 
large  estates  irrigated  during  the  period  of  low  water.  The  high  State  functionaries 
and  rich  money-lenders  alone  derive  any  advantage  from  growing  these  larger 
industrial  crops.  Yet  they  are  not  the  only  contributors  to  the  maintenance  of 
the  works,  the  cost  of  which  is  enormous,  owing  to  the  mud  constantly  accumu- 
lating in  the  ditches  and  gradually  filling  them  up  in  many  places.  A  single  year 
would  suffice  to  convert  a  sefi  canal  into  a  simple  nili  channel  but  for  the  numerous 
gangs  of  fellahtn  employed  for  weeks  and  months  together  on  the  work  of 
excavation.  The  sefi  canals  taken  collectively  represent  a  quantity  of  deposits 
about  half  as  much  again  as  that  of  the  Suez  Canal,  and  every  year  the  amount  of 
mud  and  earth  required  to  be  again  displaced  to  keep  open  the  dykes  is  not  less 
than  one-third  of  the  original  deposits. 


e  all  thosp 
ing  dykes, 
ither  from 
ght  depth 
at  a  depth 
uring  the 
ig  the  last 
.8  disposed 
ir  supplies 
I  in  Upper 

ited  below 
it  they  are 
per  Egypt 
18  to  bring 
?ypt,  from 
ie&  canals 
Br  must  be 
fi  canals  is 
in  order  to 
and  which 
9me  partly 
■ent,  hence 
feh,  on  the 
us  summer 
ta. 

cultivation 
raised  the 
:h  are  thus 
nundation. 
red  for  the 
nctionaries 
lese  larger 
itenance  of 
ly  accumu- 
single  year 
!  numerous 
B  work  of 
of  deposits 
amount  of 
is  not  less 


I 


-;■''  '«:■': 


'.-x^^ 


■^ji'fiP  W'"l^i'"'  '."^Pil"'" 


V".-.-~,i.V 


'   K 


I 


V. 


N 


THE  FORCED  LABOUE  OB  COBVfiE  SYSTEM. 


Thk  Forced  LAnoirR  or  Corv£e  System. 


Ml 


For  these  vas*  works  the  combined  labour  of  the  whole  population  is  needed. 
As  the  daily  labour  of  the  fell&h  scarcely  sufKccs  on  the  average  to  displace  half  a 
cubic  yard  of  earth,  or  three-quar*'>r8  at  the  utmost  under  favourable  conditions,  the 
days  of  labour  on  these  works  must  be  reckoned  at  tens  of  millions.  In  1872 
Linant  de  Bellefonds  estimated  at  450,000  the  number  of  hands  employed  on  un 
average  for  two  months  every  year  in  clearing  out  the  sefi  canals.  Each  felllih 
has,  moreover,  to  attend  to  the  nili  canals  of  his  commune,  as  well  as  to  tho 
particular  canal  bringing  water  to  his  own  fields.  On  the  Mahmudieh  Canal  alone, 
Mohammed  Ali  employed  313,000  under  the  corvee  system  of  labour. 

Nor  is  this  uU.  The  exceptionally  high  inundation  f  the  Nile  might  be  the 
cause  of  widespread  disaster  were  the  dykes  not  carefully  maintained,  and  even 
under  dangerous  circumstances  raised  to  a  higher  level.  In  1874  all  the  summer 
crops — sugar,  cotton,  durrah,  maize — were  threatened  with  complete  destruction, 
and  the  whole  wealth  of  the  land  would  have  been  engulphed,  had  not  the 
entire  population,  animated  by  a  sense  of  the  common  danger,  kept  up  an  inces- 
sant struggle  with  the  rising  waters.  For  over  a  whole  month  700,000  men 
laboured  to  repair  and  strengthen  the  embankments,  so  as  constantly  to  make 
head  against  the  swollen  stream.  Frequently  a  third  of  the  population  has  been 
simultaneously  engaged  in  this  struggle  with  the  Nile,  and  even  in  normal  years 
tho  Government  calls  out  160,000  men  under  the  corv^  system,  drawn  in  about 
equal  proportions  from  Upper  and  Ijower  Egypt. 

These  constant  efforts  to  adapt  the  land  to  the  fluvial  conditions  have  seldom  a 
spontaneous  character.  Summoned  under  the  corv^,  and  receiving  from  the 
authorities  nothing  but  a  shovel  and  a  basket,  the  peasantry  pre  jent  themselves  in 
gangs  at  the  works,  preceded  by  their  Sheikh-el-Beled,  or  village  headman,  and 
often  accompanied  by  their  women  and  children.  Temporary  encampments  are 
established  along  the  embankments,  and  the  men  enter  the  canal  to  dredge  and 
bring  up  a  little  mud,  gradually  heaping  it  to  a  height  of  30  or  40,  and  even 
50  feet,  over  the  side  of  the  dyke.  The  women  do  the  cooking — that  is,  prepare 
a  few  cakes  of  durrah  in  the  fire;-  the  children  tumble  about  in  the  sand,  while  the 
armed  pickets  tramp  silently  up  and  down  the  embankment.  It  is  doubtless  natural 
and  reasonable  that  all  the  inhabitants  should  take  their  share  in  the  maintenance 
of  the  canals.  From  the  mud  of  the  Nile  springs  all  the  wealth  of  Egypt,  and  in 
this  respect  the  whole  population  has  a  common  interest.  The  canals,  also,  which 
distribute  the  fertilising  waters,  and  but  for  which  the  riverain  peoples  would  be 
reduced  to  starvation,  represent  an  amount  of  labour  far  beyond  the  resources  of 
private  enterprise.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  seems  only  fair  that  this  work,  to 
which  all  hands  contribute,  should  be  really  carried  on  in  the  interest  of  all.  It 
should  tend  to  promote  the  prosperity  not  only  of  a  few  large  domains,  but  also 
that  of  the  smaller  village  holdings.  It  should  certainly  not  weigh  as  a  heavy 
burden  exclusively  on  the  labourers  who  are  too  poor  to  purchase  exemption  or 
find  substitutes  for  the  onerous  task.    Nor  should  the  wretched  victims  of  the 


■■■«'«W1©W?i«-s. 


P|i  II  i^iwnii.1  'ij ,  I  ii|i.iiM  I.  1 1  >jjiritiiiil.ifii>)iiiMi!ijMiiia)|««  - 


862 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


corvdo,  wallowing  in  the  beds  of  the  canulH,  bo  allowed  to  suffer  hunger  or  bo  deci- 
mated by  epidemics,  or  be  made  to  writhe  under  the  lash  of  tin;  cruel  kurbash. 
The  very  monuments  of  Egypt  have  recorded  for  six  thousand  yeors  the  sad  fate 
of  tho  fell&h,  bent  beneath  his  load  of  'Jiud  while  the  overseer  stands  flourishing  the 
scourge  above  his  head.  The  names  may  change,  but  this  ancient  form  of  slavery 
still  HurvivoM.  As  Amru  soid  to  the  Caliph  Omar,  the  Egyptian  people  "  seem  des- 
tined to  toil  only  for  others,  without  themselves  deriving  any  benefit  from  their 
labour." 

Conservatism  and  Proores 

There  are  few  other  countries  where  the  old  usages,  adapting  themselves  with 
difficulty  to  modern  times,  contrast  more  strikingly  with  the  methods  introduced  by 
Western  civilisation.  While  the  ancient  method  of  cultivation  remains  unchanged, 
and  while  the  peasantry,  regulating  their  work  according  to  the  yearly  inundations, 
sow  and  reap  always  at  tho  same  period,  make  use  of  the  same  implements,  gather 
the  same  cereal  crops,  eat  the  same  bread,  modem  agriculture  draws  the  water  by 
means  of  steam-engines  directly  from  the  river,  cultivates  the  exotic  plants  of  Indui 
and  the  New  World,  employs  improved  ploughs,  reaping,  threshing,  and  sifting 
machines.  To  manure  their  fields  the  peasantry  still  rely  on  the  most  precarious 
refuse  from  their  farms  and  pigeon-houses,  while  the  scientific  cultivators  import 
from  Europe  and  America  chemically  analysed  phosphates  and  guanos.  Railways 
run  close  to  the  old  mud  hovels;  skilfully  constructed  iron  or  steel  bridges  span  the 
canals  and  the  great  branches  of  the  Nile,  while  elsewhere  the  fellAh  must  swim  or 
wade  through  the  stream,  his  timio  gathered  like  a  turban  round  his  head,  or  else 
crosses  over  seated  on  a  mat  of  palm-leaves  floated  on  inflated  skins  or  calabashes, 
or  on  a  string  of  tufted  foliage,  which  he  propels  by  converting  his  shirt  into  a 
sail.  And,  again,  on  the  very  sands  and  marshes  skirting  the  wilderness,  lighthouses 
with  electric  burners,  the  "  suns  of  the  Christians,"  as  the  natives  call  them,  light 
up  between  the  Mediterranean  and  Rod  Sea  the  great  navigable  highway  which, 
even  in  these  days  of  colossal  undertakings,  stands  out  as  one  of  the  most  stupen- 
dous works  of  human  industry. 

But  amid  all  these  strange  contrasts  between  the  old  conservatism  and  the  new 
ideas,  the  clearest  signs  of  material  and  intellectual  progress  are  everywhere 
conspicuous.  "Nothing,"  remarks  the  distinguished  traveller,  Charles  Beke, 
"  surprised  me  more  in  my  present  journey,  though  I  have  visited  Egypt  frequently 
since  1840,  than  the  many  changes  for  the  better  that  were  observable  in  the  whole 
country.  When  one  has  passed  the  Mareotis  Lake,  and  the  barren  district  west  of 
the  Rosetta  arm  of  the  Nile,  the  land  presents  most  distinct  evidences  of  higher 
and  more  extended  culture. 

"  I  was  told  that  in  this  part  of  Egypt,  where  in  185G  only  100,000  acres  of 
land  were  under  cultivation,  now  double  that  extent  is  planted.  The  cotton  harvest 
is  now  just  over,  and  the  fields  are  being  ploughed.  Once  I  aw  what  I  have 
never  seen  before,  a  camel  drawing  the  plough.  Far  and  wide  there  waves  a  green 
sea  of  cornfields  or  of  rich  pasture-land,  on  which  cattle,  asses,  sheep,  and  goats 


•»     *'H»f«!p*wip(A'*" 


THE  SUEZ  CANAL. 


86» 


or  bo  (leci- 
cl  kurbaRh. 
ho  sod  fate 
inHhing  the 
1  of  Hlavery 
"  soem  do8- 

from  their 


iselves  with 
Produced  by 
unchanged, 
aundations, 
mts,  gather 
le  water  by 
nts  of  Indui 
and  sifting 
I  precarious 
tors  import 
Bailways 
^8  span  the 
list  swim  or 
ead,  or  else 
calabashes, 
ihirt  into  a 
lighthouses 
them,  light 
way  which, 
ost  stupen- 

nd  the  new 
jverywhere 
Ties  Beke, 
frequently 
t  the  whole 
rict  west  of 
8  of  higher 

00  acres  of 
ton  harvest 
lat  I  have 
p-es  a  g^een 
,  and  goats 


are  grazing.  TrooH  have  boon  plnntod,  and  not  only  along  the  rouds  ;  somo  placon 
have  been  sot  ao  thickly  as  ulmoHt  to  apiK^ur  like  little  forests.  Tho  route  across  the 
delta,  on  tho  clear  sunny  day  on  which  I  travcUiHl,  was  indeed  chnniiing,  and  I 
had  often  to  remind  myself  that  I  was  really  in  Egypt,  so  totally  changoil  was  the 
picture ;  for  here  and  there,  also,  tho  tall  chimney  of  some  manufactory  was  to  bo 
seen  rising  abovo  the  trees  or  over  tho  villages.  Egypt  will  soon  belong  only 
geographically  to  Africa ;  in  everything  else  it  is  becoming  European. 

"  The  condition  of  tho  lower  classes,  also,  shows  a  marked  improvement. 
Ophthalmia,  perhaps  tho  most  painful  scourge  of  Eg^pt,  is  now  neither  so  wide- 
spread nor  so  intense  as  formerly  ;  and  if  the  people  are  not  better  fed  than  they 
used  to  be,  they  have  at  least  sufficient  for  their  wants.  Those  inhabiting  tho 
towns  are  remarkably  improved.  In  Cairo  there  are  not  nearly  so  many  barefooted 
people  as  formerly ;  and  they  are  not  contented  with  slippers,  but  wear  European 
boots.  The  fellahs,  or  peasants,  also  are  decidedly  improved.  Their  mud  huts  are 
better  built,  and  especially  better  roofed ;  indeed,  here  and  there  peasant  houses  of 
quite  European  type  are  now  to  be  seen. 

"  No  doubt  this  rapid  progress  in  Egypt  has  its  shadow  side.  Like  the  children 
of  Israel  of  old,  the  people  do  not  work  for  themselves,  but  are  in  heavy  bondage 
almost  beyond  their  powers.  Yet  this  development  under  high  pressure  is 
undeniably  to  the  advantage  of  tho  country.  The  greatest  and  most  important, 
because  most  universally  active  change,  is  certainly  that  of  the  improvement  in 
the  climate,  brought  about  by  the  more  extended  cultivation,  and  especially  by  the 
numerous  plant&tions  of  trees.  Egypt  is  in  a  fair  way  to  overturn  its  proverbial 
rainlessness.  In  Alexandria  rain  now  falls  even  to  excess ;  and  Cairo,  of  which 
the  prophet  of  all  travellers,  Miirray,  in  his  handbook,  still  maintains  that  it  enjoys 
at  most  five  or  six  light  showers  in  the  course  of  the  year,  had  to  record  not  fewer 
than  twenty-one  such  in  the  past  year.  I  myself  experienced  a  rainy  day  there 
quite  as  wet  as  any  known  in  England.  The  consequences  of  it  were  thot  the 
unpaved  streets  were  covered  ankle-deep  with  mud,  and  all  traffic  except  that  in 
carriages  was  at  an  end. 

"  Naturally  the  ignorant  Arabs  ascribe  these  changes  to  supernatural  agencies, 
and  since  the  year  corresponds'  with  that  of  the  ascent  of  Mohammed  Ali  to  the 
throne,  the  witchcraft  it;  supposed  to  emanate  from  him  and  his  dynasty." 


:  :.  i*. 


'  The  Suez  Canal. 

The  channel  between  the  two  seas,  after  having  perhaps  existed  as  a  natural 
artery  for  a  short  period  during  quartemary  times,  is  known  to  have  been  indirectly 
restored  by  the  Pharaohs  of  the  nineteenth  dvnasty,  over  thirty-three  centuries  ago. 
A  tradition  recorded  by  Strabo  attributes  the  construction  of  the  canal  to  Sesostris. 
Herodotus  also  tells  us  that  Nekos,  son  of  Psammaticus,  began  near  Bubastes  a  canal 
which  skirted  the  quarries,  that  is,  the  hills  now  known  as  the  Jobel-Mokattam, 
thence  trending  eastwards  to  the  Red  Sea.  A  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  hands 
had  already  perished  on  these  works  of  canalisation  between  the  Nile  and  the  coast. 


«e4 


NORTH- KAHT  AFRICA. 


m 


when  thoir  further  prognwH  wan  iirroHttMl  by  an  oraolo  which  dcdarofl  that  thoy 
woro  Innng  executed  "  for  the  benefit  of  a  barbarian." 

And  it  was,  in  fact,  a  foreigner,  Kinpf  Darius  of  PefHin,  who  opentttl  the  com- 
munication between  the  Nile  and  the  Gulf  of  Arsinoe,  consequently  between  tho 
Mediterranean  and  lltxl  Sea,  by  a  well-constructed  canal,  wide  enough,  says 
IlerodotuH,  to  allow  two  triremcH  to  pass  each  other  in  mid-Htreain.  According  to 
DiodoruH  SiculuH,  tho  same  king  oven  entertained  the  idea  of  cutting  a  canal  from 
Hea  to  Hoa,  between  the  Qulf  of  Pelusium  and  tho  Red  Hea.  The  works  seem  to 
have  even  been  begun,  for  tho  banks,  some  16  feet  high,  are  still  to  be  seen  of  a 
ditch  from  160  to  180  or  200  feet  wide,  running  from  Lake  Timsah  by  the  Qisr 
towards  El-Kantara.  But  it  was  feared  that  the  "  waters  of  tho  Red  Hea,  standing 
at  a  higher  level  than  the  plains  of  Egypt,"  would  floo^l  all  the  land,  and  for  thia 
reason  the  works  woro  discontinued.  Monuments  bearing  inscriptions  in  four 
languages — Persian,  Medo-Scythian,  Assyrian,  and  Egyptian — were  erected  on  the 
banks  of  tho  canal  near  Suez.  These  inscriptions  record  the  fi-uitless  attempts 
made  by  Darius  to  accomplish  the  work  successfully  carried  out  in  our  days.  The 
fear  entertained  by  the  Persian  monarch — a  fear  still  shared  by  most  engineers 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century — is  all  the  more  easily  understood 
when  it  is  considered  that  the  mean  level  of  the  southern  waters  does  in  fact  exceed 
that  of  the  Mediterranean  at  Pelusium.  At  ebb  there  is  scarcely  any  perceptible 
difference,  but  at  flow  the  Red  Sea  is  considerably  higher,  in  exceptional  cases 
as  much  as  90  or  100  inches.  In  the  time  of  Darius  the  current  setting  north- 
wards in  consequence  of  this  difference  of  level  would  have  even  been  stronger  than 
at  present,  for  the  channel  was  narrower. 

But  the  old  canal  derived  from  the  Nile  gradually  silted  up,  and  the  ditch  cut 
across  the  isthmus  became  choked  with  sand  and  mud.  Nevertheless  the  memory 
of  the  work  accomplished  did  not  perish,  and  more  than  one  Egyptian  ruler 
continued  to  regard  the  project  of  uniting  the  two  seas  as  an  enterprise  glorious 
beyond  all  others.  Ptolemy  II.  is  said  to  have  restored  the  canal,  and,  arguing 
f  rbm  certain  somewhat  obscure  passages  in  Strabo  and  Oiodorus,  some  writers  have 
even  asserted  that  the  cutting  was  effected  directly  from  gulf  to  gulf.  Skilfully 
constructed  sluices  gave  access  to  vessels  without  flooding  the  surrounding  low-lying 
tracts.  However,  the  trafiic  between  the  two  marine  basins  was  doubtless  insufficient 
to  pay  for  the  maintenance  of  the  banks  and  sluices,  and  it  has  been  supposed  that 
in  the  reign  of  Cleopatra  the  navigable  highway  must  already  have  been  again 
closed.  At  least,  according  to  Plutarch,  the  Egyptian  queen  endeavoured  to  have 
her  ships  transported  overland  to  the  Red  Sea,  in  order  to  escape,  with  all  her 
treasures,  from  Octavius  after  the  battle  of  Actium.  Nevertheless  it  is  quite 
possible  that  the  canal  may  even  then  still  have  existed,  if  not  permanently  at  least 
during  the  Nilotic  inundations.  The  time  when  she  wanted  to  escape  happened  to 
coincide  with  the  period  of  low-water,  when  the  canal  would  have  been  dry. 

After  the  Ptolemies  the  Roman  conquerors  took  up  the  dream  of  uniting  the 
two  seas.  Trajan,  who  tried  his  hand  at  so  many  great  enterprises,  set  to  work 
also  on  this  project,  and  under  the  reign  of  Hadrian  boats  were  navigating  the 


j^iiiT»j<H»i|pi 


TUE  HUEZ  CANAL. 


B66 


that  ther 

tho  ooiit' 
tweon  tho 
ugh,  says 
ionling  to 
anal  from 
:8  seom  to 

seen  of  a 

tho  Qisr 
,  Htanding 
id  for  this 
i8  in  four 
tod  on  the 

attempts 
ays.  The 
engineers 
mderatood 
act  exceed 
terccptible 
onal  cases 
ng  north- 
)nger  than 

)  ditch  cut 
le  memory 
tian  ruler 
ie  glorious 
i,  arguing 
riters  have 
Skilfully 
low-lying 
usufficient 
posed  that 
)een  again 
ed  to  have 
th  all  her 
t  is  quite 
;ly  at  least 
ippened  to 
iry. 

initing  the 
et  to  work 
gating  the 


•o-coUod  "  River  of  Trojan,"  excnvotod,  llko  tho  older  river  of  Nokon,  betwoon  tho 
Nile,  tho  TiiUMith,  und  tho  Hitter  I^ukoN,  iutohh  tho  donort  /.ouo  skirting  tho  iiriiblo 
lundH.  An  fiotronix!  huH  ohHt^rvofl,  tho  oxploitution  of  tho  grout  [Hirphyry  quarrioN 
ut  Mount  (iiiudiim  would  have  l)een  uniiitolligiblo,  uhIohn  Moriio  wutorwuy  oxiHtod 
botweon  tho  twa  and  tho  river  for  forwarding  tho  hugo  nionolithN  oxtractod  from 
the  mountain.  Thoy  could  not  certainly  huvo  Wn  traiiMportod  to  the  Nile  Valley 
over  tho  intervening  hills  and  ro<;kH  of  thi^  Arabian  range. 

Like  most  ol  tho  works  oxocuto<l  by  tho  KomunH,  Trajan's  Canal  was  made  to 
last,  and  in  fact  it  was  maintained  for  centuries.  Mukrizi  tolls  us  that  in  tho  oarly 
period  of  Islam  it  was  still  acccsMible  to  vessels.  After  soi/ing  Kgypt,  Amru  hod 
little  more  to  do  than  clear  out  the  channel  und  restore  tho  sluices.  Dut  ho  ap{)cars 
to  have  harboured  oven  more  ambitious  views,  intending  to  open  u  canul  diro(;tly 

Fig.  107.— Tka,ian'h  Canal. 

8<Mle  1 :  I.WNi.OOO. 


5\°ao- 


E  .  of  G 


reonwich 


32'80' 


•  80  Miles. 


from  the  Red  Sea  to  Fara^ia  on  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Pelusium,  possibly  by 
utilising  the  cuttings  prev-'  i'  made  by  Darius  and  the  Ptolemies.  But  Omar 
fearing,  as  is  said,  lest  the  Greeks  might  take  advantage  of  this  highway  to  attack 
the  pilgrims  journeying  to  Mecca,  refused  to  sanction  the  work.  Nor  did  the 
canal  restored  by  Anru  last  very  long,  having  been  closed  a  hundred  and  thirty- 
three  years  afteru  aj  ds  by  order  of  the  Caliph  Abu  Jafar-el-Mansur,  to  prevent  some 
rebel  from  receiving  his  supplies. 

Duri'jg  the  interval  of  nearly  eleven  centuries  from  that  epoch  to  modern  times, 
the  slow  work  of  nature  gradually  effaced  the  work  of  n^an.  Houses,  sluices,  dams 
disappeared ;  the  dykes  became  choked  by  alluvial  deposits  and  sands,  while 
marshy  depressions  took  the  places  of  the  embankments.  The  coast-line  has  been 
modified  round  the  gulfs  and  lagoons ;   but  niunerous  vestiges  nevertheless  still 


i-,>rti«i*>ii.j.i«.v'-«(rt«f*'fcA«.' 


860 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


survive  of  the  former  Egyptian,  Homan,  and  Arab  works.  In  some  places, 
and  notably  near  Suez,  the  dykes,  built  with  such  hard  stone  that  the  Arabs 
take  them  for  natural  rocks,  rise  here  and  there  some  18  or  20  feet  above  the  plains. 


Fig.  108.— Suez  in  the  YExn  1800. 
Scale  1 :  860,000. 


291 

26 


27°55' 


[        of   Green  wi  c*^ 


27VV' 


Sandi  expand  at  low  water. 

V.^  .'    ^       ;'         •-  6MiiM. 

It  is  probable  that  to  a  barrage,  the  remains  of  which  are  still  visible,  the  ground- 
sill of  Gisr  owes  its  Arabic  name  of  "  dyke." 

While  the  mud  and  sands  were  obliterating  the  monuments  of  the  Pharaohs, 
Ptolemies,  Trajan,  and  Amru,  the  Sultans  of  Constantinople,  after  the  reduction  of 
Egypt,  frequently  entertained  the  idea  of  renewing  the  worka  of  ^eVF  predecessors. 


me  places, 

the  Arabs 

)  the  plains. 


i 

■.■■■■A. 


i 


■50 


•23 
■SB 


the  groimd- 

e  Pharaohs, 
reduction  of 
)redeces8ors. 


THE  SUEZ  CANAL. 


867 


But  the  project  did  not  take  definite  shape  till  the  time  of  the  French  expedition. 
With  the  expedition  came  a  number  of  distinguished  naturalists,  eager  to  accom- 
plish great  things,  and  one  of  the  greatest  to  them  seemed  the  idea  of  reuniting 
the  two  seas.  Lep^re  and  other  savants  forthwith  set  to  work  to  survey  the  surface 
of  the  isthmus,  and  accurately  determine  the  conditions  imder  which  the  enterprise 
might  be  successfully  undertaken. 

Unfortunately  the  results  of  this  exploration  were  vitiated  by  a  fatal  error. 
Lep^re  fancied  he  had  found  the  level  of  the  Red  Sea  nearly  33  feet  higher  than 
that  of  the  Mediterranean.  Under  the  influence  of  this  serious  miscalculation  he 
allowed  himself  to  be  influenced  by  the  illusion  of  the  ancients,  who  feared  the 
low-lying  tracts  on  the  Mediterranean  coast  would  be  engulfed  by  the  waters  of  the 
Red  Sea  were  the  project  carried  out.  He  accordingly  gave  up  the  idea  of  cutting 
a  direct  maritime  canal,  although  recognising  how  greatly  the  trade  of  the  world 
would  be  benefited  by  coimecting  the  two  basins  by  a  deep  channel  not  subject  to 
the  alternative  rise  and  fall  of  the  Nile  waters.  Falling  back  on  the  scheme  of 
the  Pharaohs,  he  proposed  to  construct  a  canal,  from  14  to  16  feet  deep,  running 
from  Cairo  to  Suez,  in  four  sections  at  four  different  levels,  two  filled  with  the 
sweet  water  of  the  Nile,  two  with  the  saline  water  of  the  Red  Sea.  This  canal  was 
further  to  be  completed  by  a  navigable  highway  flowing  from  the  head  of  the  delta 
to  the  port  of  Alexandria.  Being  accessible  only  to  river  craft,  the  canal  projected 
by  Lep^re  could  have  been  used  for  inter-oceanic  traffic  only  during  the  periodical 
inundations  of  the  Nile. 

The  French  occupation  of  Egypt  was  too  short  for  the  work  to  be  undertaken. 
But  the  idea  of  separating  Acia  and  Africa  .by  a  new  Bosphorus  was  destined 
never  again  to  be  laid  aside.  It  even  became  the  dogma  of  a  new  religion,  the 
Saint -Simonians  having  introduced  it  into  their  "  articles  of  faith."  Their  jour- 
nals were  already  discussing  the  question  in  the  year  1825,  and  when  several 
members  of  the  sect  had  to  leave  France,  the  study  of  the  Suez  Canal  was  one  of 
the  chief  reasons  that  induced  them  to  turn  towards  the  Eaat  Later  on,  when  the 
Saint-Simonian  religion  had  ceased  to  exist,  but  when  most  of  its  former  adherents 
had  become  men  of  influence  in  the  commercial  world,  the  scheme  found  its  most 
zealous  champions  amongst  them. 

At  last  public  opinion  became  so  clamorous,  that  it  was  found  necessary  to 
undertake  a  fresh  survey,  in  order  to  verify  br  set  aside  that  of  Lepdre,  which 
Laplace  and  Fourier,  besides  many  other  savants,  had  always  regarded  as  erroneous. 
In  1847  a  European  society  was  instituted,  and  under  the  direction  of  the  engi- 
neers Linant,  Talabot,  and  Bourdaloue,  accurate  levelling^  were  taken  across  the 
isthmus,  from  Suez  to  Pelusium.  Henceforth  it  was  once  for  all  placed  beyond 
doubt  that,  apart  from  the  inequalities  caused  by  the  higher  tides  in  the  Gulf  of 
Suez,  the  surface  of  the  two  seas  presented  but  slight  discrepancies  of  level.  The 
operations  of  the  Bourdaloue  survey  were  again  checked  in  the  years  1853,  1855, 
and  1856,  the  results  being  each  time  almost  identical.*  . ; 

*  Mediterranean  at  Tineh,  on  the  Giilf  ot  Pelurium : — Low  WHter,  O'O  metres  ;  high  water,  0*88 
meties.     Red  Sea  at  Sues  : — Low  water,  0-7414  metres  ;  high  water,  2-0886  metres. 


868 


N0ETH.EA8T  Ai'BICA. 


After  the  settlement  of  this  important  point  in  physical  geog^phy,  nothing 
more  apparently  remained  to  be  done  before  proceeding  to  construct  a  direct  canal 
across  the  isthmus.  But  the  first  project,  presented  by  M.  Paulin  Talabot,  one  of 
the  engineers  engaged  on  the  survey,  proposed  the  construction  of  a  canal  from 
Suez  through  Cairo  to  Alexandria.  This  scheme,  which  has  been  recently  again 
adopted  by  some  English  engineers  in  opposition  to  the  present  undertaking,* 
involved  the  construction  of  locks  and  sluices,  in  order  on  both  sides  to  reach  the 
level  of  the  Nile  above  the  head  of  the  delta.  It  would  have  also  been  necessary 
to  provide  for  a  system  of  flood-gates,  to  resis^^  and  regulate  the  fluvial  inundations, 
besides  a  tow-bridge  across  the  Nile  between  the  two  sections  of  the  canal,  in  order 


Fig.  109. — PuoFOBED  Frbshwater  Canal  fhom  Svez  to  Alsxandiua. 

Scale  1 :  8,600,000. 


30°co 


t    .   of  ureernvich 


J2°so- 


COMilea. 


to  tow  the  vessels  from  one  side  to  the  other.  As  a  highway  of  navigation,  the 
inferiority  ui  this  canal,  winding  through  Lower  Egypt,  compared  with  that  across 
the  isthmus,  dispensing  with  sluices  and  nearly  three  times  shorter,  is  self-evident. 
But  the  primary  object  of  this  canal,  which  would  have  been  240  miles  long,  was 
the  irrigation  of  the  delta  rather  than  traffic.  The  interests  of  navigation  and 
irrigation  however  being  different,  and  even  antagonistic,  seeing  that  shipping 
requires  a  low  level,  while  cultivators  naturally  seek  to  raise  the  bed  of  their 
artificial  streams  as  high  as  possible,  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  construct  a  canal 


*  John   Fowler  and   Denjamin   Bnker, 
Ctnturif,  No.  71,  January,  1833. 


A   Sweet-water  Ship<<sanal  through  Egypt,"  NitutttHth 


■i->;'S<iiW> 


'^^SdilMu.. 


phy,  nothing 
direct  canal 
dabot,  one  of 
1  canal  from 
ecently  again 
indertaking,* 
to  reach  the 
een  necessary 
L  inundations, 
anal,  in  order 


inij'lit 


iO' 


ja°ao' 


navigation,  the 
nith  that  across 
is  self-evident, 
miles  long,  was 
navigation  and 
;  that  shipping 
le  bed  of  their 
mstruct  a  canal 

Egypt,"  NinttMnth 


i 


! 


^ 


r 


TIIE  SUEZ  CANAL. 


869 


for  this  twofold  purpose.  Should  the  riverain  tracts  of  the  delta  ever  he  enclosed 
by  a  circular  artery,  this  canal  will  probably  be  utilised  exclusively  for  irrigation 
and  the  local  traffic. 

The  firman  grunting  a  concession  to  pierce  the  isthmus  directly  from  sea  to  sea, 
wa9  at  last  signed  in  the  year  1854.  While  signing  this  document,  the  Sultan 
was  himself  incredulous  as  to  the  possibility  of  executing  the  work,  and  even 
among  the  engineers  engaged  on  the  vast  undertaking,  many  were  wanting  in  the 
confidence  required  to  stimulate  their  efforts.  But  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  in 
whose  favour  the  firman  had  been  signed,  was  a  man  of  strong  faith  and  tenacious 
will.  He  was  discouraged  neither  by  financial  difficulties,  nor  by  faint-hearted 
friends,  nor  yet  by  the  secret  or  avowed  opposition  of  adversaries.  Amongst 
these  adversaries  was  the  British  Government,  fearing  the  opening  of  a  direct 
route  to  India,  of  which  it  was  not  sure  of  always  holding  the  key.  Yet  it  was 
compelled  in  its  turn  to  acknowledge  itself  vanquished,  and  on  November  17th, 
1869,  a  whole  fleet  of  steamers  followed  in  gay  procession,  bearers  of  the  Khedive's 
invited  guests  from  Port  Said  to  Lake  Timsah. 

Fifteen  years  had  sufficed  to  complete  this  colossal  undertaking.  But  to  bring 
it  to  a  successful  issue,  new  engineering  methods  and  new  mechanical  contrivances 
had  to  be  devised.  A  sum  of  nearly  £19,000,000,  nearly  half  subscribed  in 
France,  had  been  expended,  apart  from  the  numerous  substantial  services  con- 
tributed by  the  Egyptian  Government,  such  as  concessions  of  land,  the  erection 
of  lighthouses,  harbour  dredgings,  pecuniary  advances  without  interest,  gangs  of 
labourers  under  the  corvee  system,  representing  at  least  a  capital  of  some 
£4,000,000.  The  number  of  natives  engaged  on  the  works  averaged  about  twenty 
thousand.  , 

This  great  highway,  a  veritable  marine  strait,  which  is  visited  by  sharks  and 
cetaceans,  and  where  are  now  intermingled  the  various  flora  and  fauna  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  Red  Sea,  presents  dimensions  which  at  the  time  seemed 
prodigious,  but  which  are  already  acknowledged  to  be  inadequate.  The  canal, 
which  is  98  miles  long  from  sea  to  sea,  and  from  200  to  330  feet  wide  between  the 
banks,  has  a  depth  nowhere  less  than  26  feet,  and  in  some  places  nearly  28  feet. 
Dredges  are  constantly  engaged,  clearing  out  the  sand  and  mud,  which  the  wash 
of  passing  steamers  causes  to  accumulate  on  the  bottom.  Without  including  these 
subsequent  dredgings,  which  amount  to  about  21,000,000  cubic  feet  yearly,  the 
excavations  represent  a  mass  estimated  at  2,910  millions  of  cubic  feet,  equal  to  a 
pyramid  1,100  yards  square  and  830  feet  high. 

From  a  mere  lagoon,  Lake  Timsah,  that  is,  of  the  "  Crocodiles,"  from  which, 
however,  these  animals  had  long  disappeared,  has  been  transformed  to  an  inland 
sea.  The  basin  of  the  Bitter  Lakes  has  also  received  from  the  Red  Sea  a  volume 
estimated  at  seventy  billions  of  cubic  feet ;  the  vast  salt-beds  formerly  occupying 
this  depression  are  being  gradually  dissolved  under  the  influence  of  the  currents 
setting  alternately  north  and  south.  The  canal  presents  a  superb  spectacle, 
especiaUy  at  El-Gisr,  between  the  two  lines  of  dunes  rising  on  either  side  some  50 
feet  above  the  surface.     And  it  is  difficult  to  suppress  the  feeling  of   wonder 

24— AF. 


'■•':Ti 


870 


NORTH*EAST  AFEICA. 


m 


produced  by  tho  scene  as  viewed  from  the  Port  Said  lighthouse,  commanding  as  it 
does  a  panoramic  prospect  of  the  city  rising  above  tho  sands,  the  vast  harbour 
with  its  wet-docks  and  side  basins  crowded  with  shipping,  the  white  piers  disap- 
pearing in  the  distance  amid  the  blue  waters  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  the 
interior  those  huge  steamers,  like  floating  palaces,  gliding  away  between  the 
surrounding  sand  dunes  as  if  propelled  by  some  magic  force  across  the  isthmus. 

The  traffic  of  the  Suez  Canal  has  developed  more  rapidly  than  its  constructors 
expected.  Without  the  aid  of  tugs,  sailing  vessels  are  unable  to  navigate  the 
Bed  Sea  in  either  direction,  either  against  the  northern  winds  or  against  those 
from  the  south  blowing  directly  into  the  gulf.  But  for  the  Indian  traffic  sails 
have  been  superseded  by  steam ;  ships  of  a  special  build  have  even  been  constructed 

'I  Fig.  no.— Lakk  TiiWAii.     ^      :         >  ■    \    1    ■ 

Scale  I:  1,000,000. 


Uii:L>il!■•■^^^^•^^V^^^^■i;^^■^■"^^^'•''■^^V^"•'^'.;^'^*'^"•' :'.•"•*/ •T^B 


lll.,lil,i.l.'. .  Jl.l 


50' IC 


c.   .  of  GrBemA-icK 


68'eO' 


SHUe 


for  this  inter-oceanic  service  through  the  canal  and  the  Red  Sea,  and  the  mean 
tonnage  continues  to  increase  from  year  to  year.  During  the  year  1883,  a  solitary 
sailing  vessel  passed  from  sea  to  sea,  whereas  on  an  average  ten  steamers  every  day 
availed  themselves  of  this  route. 

Hence  the  necessity  for  enlarging  this  navigable  highway  has  already  arisen. 
Certain  sharp  turnings  will  also  have  to  be  got  rid  of,  as  has  already  been  done 
at  El-Gisr,  and  several  other  improvements  will  have  to  be  made,  such  as  the 
deepening  of  the  channel,  the  completion  of  the  stone  facing  to  the  embankments 
where  the  shifting  sands  are  too  easily  eroded  by  the  wash,  the  construction  of 
ports  in  the  riverain  lakes,  and  especially  a  general  widening  of  the  whole  canal  in 
order  to  be  able  to  dispense  with  the  sidings,  or  "  shimting  stations,"  which  now 


'*!i!^:iggif; 


••S.i^^Mlj':. 


i(ngULyii|lj|i||HH|i^LHiilJlj 


a^mmmm 


THE  SUEZ  CANAL. 


871 


landing  as  it 
irast  harbour 

piers  disap- 
1,  and  in  the 
between  .the 

isthmus. 
.  constructors 
navigate  the 
(gainst  those 
1  traffic  sails 
a  constructed 


501 

54' 


^^••v^ 


501 


iMri 


occur  at  intervals  of  6  or  8  miles  along  the  route.  The  original  projectors  had 
anticipated  a  yearly  traffic  of  six  million  tons;  but  provision  must  now  be  made  for 
a  double  and  even  fourfold  movement  at  no  distant  date.  It  is  proposed  to  treble 
the  width  of  the  present  channel,  so  that  steamers  may  pass  each  other  without 
slacking  speed,  and  also  to  prevent  the  whole  traffic  from  being  blocked  by  the 
grounding  of  a  single  vessel,  as  so  frequently  happens  at  present. 

England,  which  formerly  opposed  the  opening  of  the  canal,  is  the  very  power 
now  most  urgent  in  calling  for  its  enlargement.  But  the  results  afford  a  ready 
explanation  of  this  change  of  attitude.  The  canal  has  in  fact  become  an  almost 
exclusively  British  highway,  and  an  eighth  part  of  the  whole  trade  of  Great 
Britain,  representing  a  value  of  over  £80,000,000,  passes  through  the  Isthmus  of 


<^:. 


Fig.  111. — Qbeat  Intbhnatioxal  Uovteb  of  thb  Old  WoKLn. 
Boale  1 :  170,000,000. 


'  8,000  HflM. 


and  the  mean 
883,  a  solitary 
oers  every  day 

already  arisen, 
ady  been  done 
Q,  such  as  the 
embankments 
jonstruction  of 
whole  canal  in 
1,"  which  now 


Suez.  The  British  Government  has  also  become  one  of  the  chief  shareholders,  and 
since  the  occupation  of  Egypt  it  practically  controls  this  route,  which  it  may  open 
or  close  at  pleasure,  as  was  seen  before  the  battle  of  Tel-el-Kebir,  when  all  traffic 
was  for  a  short  time  suspended,  in  spite  of  the  conventions  guaranteeing  the 
neutrality  of  the  passage  between  the  two  seas.  Thus  Great  Britain,  which  feared 
lest  the  marine  route  to  India  might  fall  into  the  hands  of  her  rivals,  has  succeeded 
in  securing  its  possession  at  least  for  the  present.  At  the  same  time,  according  to 
the  terms  of  the  international  convention  concluded  in  1885,  the  canal  is  hence- 
forth declared  an  open  highway  under  the  joint  guarantee  of  the  European 
powers.  It  is  thus  absolutely  free  to  the  ships  of  all  nations,  and  in  time  of  war 
even  to  those  of  belligerents;  which,  however,  cannot  remain  in  the  canal  for  a 


872 


NOBTn-EAST  AFRICA. 


poriod  of  moro  than  three  days,  nor  during  thoir  stay  commit  any  acts  of 
hostility  against  the  vessels  of  their  antagonists. 

The  terms  of  this  important  international  agreement  are  briefly  resumed  in  the 
subjoined  scries  of  articles,  adopted  after  much  discussion  by  the  Suez  Canal  Com- 
mission:— 

"Article  1.  The  Canal  shall  remain  open  both  in  time  of  peace  and  war  to 
merchant  and  war  ships  without  distinction  of  flags.  The  contracting  parties 
undertake  to  place  no  obstacle  in  the  way  of  free  passage  through  the  Canal  either 
in  time  of  peace  or  war,  nor  to  blockade  the  Canal,  nor  to  subject  it  to  any  other 
measure  of  war.  Article  2.  As  a  sweetwater  canal  is  recognised  to  be  indispens- 
able for  a  maritime  canal,  cognizance  is  taken  of  the  Khedive's  obligations  to  the 
Suez  Canul  Company  in  that  respect,  and  the  Powers  are  pledged  not  to  compromise 
in  any  way  the  safety  of  the  sweetwater  canal.  Article  3.  All  parties  agree  not 
to  damage  the  material  for  building  and  repairing  purposes.  Article  4.  It  is 
agreed  that  no  fortifications  shall  be  erected  on  such  points  as  could  command  or 
threaten  the  Canal  and  serve  as  the  basis  ior  offensive  operations,  nor  shall  any  such 
point  bo  occupied  by  troops.  The  maritime  entrances  to  the  Canal,  as  also  the 
territorial  waters,  shall  be  excluded  from  all  military  operations.  Article  5. 
Although  in  time  of  war  the  Canal  will  be  open  to  the  passage  of  the  belligerent 
fleets,  no  acts  of  hostilities  and  no  measure  preparatory  to  the  same  shall  be  carried 
out  in  the  Canal  or  in  the  territorial  waters  of  Egypt,  even  should  Turkey  be  one 
of  the  belligerents.  No  troops,  provisions,  ammunition,  nor  war  material  shall  be 
landed  there.  The  passage  of  ships  must  be  as  rapid  as  possible,  and  the  stop- 
page at  Port  Said  or  Suez  must  not  exceed  twenty-four  hours.  There  must  be  an 
interval  of  twenty-four  hours  between  the  departure  of  ships  belonging  to  nations 
at  war.  Articles  6  and  7  refer  to  captured  vessels,  which  will  be  treated  as  belonging 
to  belligerents.  For  all  damage  to  the  Canal  or  to  the  material  belonging  to  it, 
the  Power  whose  ship  has  caused  the  damage  will  be  held  responsible,  though  the 
right  of  appeal  is  reserved.  Article  8.  No  Power  will  be  entitled  to  have  more 
than  one  war  ship  at  a  time  in  the  Canal,  and  more  than  two  at  Port  Sa'id  and  Suez. 
Article  9  provides  for  the  rights  of  the  Sultan  and  of  the  Khedive.  The  measures 
required  for  the  defence  of  Egypt  in  case  of  need  must  not  affect  the  safety  of  the 
Canal.  Article  10.  A  Commission  composed  of  representatives  of  the  signatory 
Powers  at  London,  on  March  17,  1885,  to  whom  shall  be  added  an  Egyptian 
delegate  with  a  consultative  voice,  will  sit  under  the  presidency  of  a  special  Turkish 
delegate,  and  make  arrangements  with  the  Suez  Canal  Company  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  present  regulations  for  the  Canal  navigation  and  police.  The  said 
Commission  shall,  within  the  limits  of  its  attributions,  see  to  the  execution  of  the 
present  treaty  and  submit  to  the  Powers  proposals  for  securing  its  observance.  It 
is  understood  that  the  Commission  shall  not  infringe  the  Sultan's  rights.  Article  11 
prescribes  that  Egypt  shall  within  the  limits  of  its  rights  take  measures  to  ensure 
respect  for  the  treaty,  and  in  case  of  need  shall  appeal  to  Turkey  and  to  the 
signatory  Powers.  Article  12  stipulates  that  none  of  the  signatory  Powers  shall 
seek  territorial  or  commercial  advantages  or  privileges  of  any  kind  in  connection 


;i"»i  ,»■ 


■Hilfi' 


TOPOOBAPUY— MAILVTTA— rilllJE. 


919 


ny  octs  of 

lined  in  the 
]3unal  Com- 

and  war  to 
;ing  parties 
!yanal  either 
o  any  other 
B  indispens- 
lions  to  the 
compromise 
es  agree  not 
;le  4.    It  is 
command  or 
lall  any  such 
as  also  the 
Article  6. 
9  belligerent 
ill  be  carried 
arkey  be  one 
rial  shall  be 
nd  the  stop- 
)  must  be  an 
ig  to  nations 
as  belonging 
inging  to  it, 
,  though  the 
o  have  more 
lid  and  Suez, 
lie  measures 
safety  of  the 
he  signatory 
an  Egyptian 
ocial  Turkish 
the  enforce- 
;e.     The  said 
uution  of  the 
jervance.     It 
s.   Article  11 
res  to  ensure 
Y  and  to  the 
Powers  shall 
in  connection 


with  the  Canal.  Article  hi  provides  for  the  Sultan's  rights,  and,  finally,  the  con- 
cluding article  is  to  the  effect  that  the  Powith  will  communicate  the  treaty  to  those 
States  which  have  not  signed  it,  and  will  invite  them  to  endorse  it." 

Topography. 

While  new  towns  are  springing  up  in  Egypt,  the  ancient  cities  are  crumbling 
to  dust.  Most  of  the  larger  centres  of  population  stand  at  some  distance  from  the 
ruins  marking  the  sites  of  former  capitals.  But  those  ruins,  far  more  interesting 
than  most  of  the  modem  towns,  still  relate  the  history  of  Egyptian  culture.  In 
many  places  the  hovels  of  the  fellahin,  small  cubical  blor^ks  of  brick  or  mud  covered 
with  a  reed  roof  or  a  terrace  of  beaten  earth,  are  almost  lost  in  the  shade  of  mighty 
gateways  and  peristyles  of  temples.  Since  the  scientific  exploration  of  Eg}rpt  haa 
been  actively  begun,  fine  monuments  have  been  rescued  from  the  sands  in  which 
they  had  long  been  buried  ;  but  many  others  have  disappeared  for  ever.  The  salt- 
petre with  which  the  sands  and  alluvial  dusts  are  impregnated  gradually  corrodes 
the  hardest  stones  of  these  buildings ;  treasure-seekers  demolish  their  walls ;  while 
still  greater  destruction  is  caused  by  the  peasantry,  who  make  the  sebakh,  an 
excellent  composition,  by  mixing  the  dust  of  the  ruins  with  earth.  The  limekilns 
have  consumed  layer  after  layer  of  the  temples  built  with  limestone,  so  that  the 
monuments  of  sandstone,  which  can  scarcely  be  utilised  for  modern  structures,  have 
suffered  least  from  these  destructive  processes. 

The  Egyptian  villages  bear  the  most  diverse  names,  according  to  the  origin  of 
their  inhabitants,  or  the  tenure  of  the  soil.  Thus  occur  such  names  as  Nahieh,  Kqfr, 
Ezheh,  Nag,  Abadieh,  Memhat,  and  Nazleh,  this  last  term,  which  means  "settlement " 
or  "  colony,"  being  applied  to  villages  built  by  Arab  nomads  who  have  become  culti- 
vators. The  villages  also  frequently  shift  their  sites.  oT^ing  to  the  inundations,  or 
the  opening  of  some  fresh  canal.  In  the  same  way  their  names  often  become 
changed,  according  to  the  social  status  of  the  proprietors  by  whom  they  are  pur- 
chased. Yet  in  these  villages  are  still  to  be  read  the  records  of  ancient  Egypt. 
The  country  has  been  compared  to  a  palimpsest  or  mediaeval  parchment,  on  which 
the  Bible  has  been  written  above  Herodotus,  and  the  Koran  above  the  Bible.  In 
the  towns  the  Koran  is  the  most  legible,  while  in  the  rural  districts  Herodotus 
reappears.* 

;~  Mahatta — Phil^. 

Classical  Egypt  begins  at  the  First  Cataract,  at  the  spot  where  the  Nile  craft 
from  Nubia  still  land  their  cargoes  of  g^ums,  ivory,  and  ebony,  in  the  shade  of  the 
palms  and  sycamores  fringing  the  Mahatta  beach.  At  Mahatta,  which  stands  on 
the  right  bank,  the  river  is  still  smooth  as  a  lake ;  but  towards  the  north  we  already 
perceive  the  black  reefs,  amid  which  wind  the  foaming  currents  of  the  rapids.  But 
before  plunging  into  this  labyrinth  of  falls,  the  sluggish  waters  w^sh  the  shores  of 
a  cluster  of  verdant  isles,  one  of  which  is  the  famous  Phila,  the  llak  of  the 

*  Lucy  Duff  Gordon,  "  Letten  from  Egypt." 


874 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


»<:£  (I 


*i  e 


EgyptianH,  the  holy  iHhind,  whither  wuh  transforrod  the  tomb  of  Oniris  from  Abydos. 
Of  all  solemn  outliH  the  muHt  Huletiin  wum  that  Rwom  l)y  the  "  Oairia  who  dwells  at 
PhiloD."  It  is  a  small  island,  Ions  than  half  a  mile  in  circumference ;  but  its  out- 
lines descril)o  u  charming  oval,  and  there  is  no  more  graceful  monument  in  all  the 
land  tlian  the  kiosk  on  tlie  (■u^<t  bank,  whose  festooned  columns  and  floral  capituli) 
rival  the  elegant  forms  of  the  shapely  palm-stems  overshadowing  them.  This 
Egyptian  edifice,  dating  from  the  time  of  Tiberius,  is  one  of  tbosit  that  have  been 
most  fre({uently  reproduced  by  the  pictorial  art.  It  bears  neither  reliefs  nor 
inscriptions  ;  but  it  recalls  the  outlines  of  the  Erochtheon  at  Athens,  atid  it  occupies 
a  lovely  site. 

The  other  monuments  on  the  island,  temples  of  Isis  reconstructed  after  the 
conquest  of  Egypt  by  Alexander,  are  more  remarkable  for  their  inscriptions  than 
for  their  architecture.  Perfectly  preserved  paintings  are  still  visible  on  their 
columns.  Philu}  has  become  famous  in  the  history  of  archsBological  studies  through 
its  two  bilingual  inscriptions,  one  of  which,  a  copy  of  the  celebrated  "  Rosetta 
Stone,"  commemorates  in  hieroglyphic  and  demotic  characters  the  triumph  and 
greatness  of  Ptolemy  V.,  named  the  "  Immortal."  At  PhilsQ  also  was  found  the 
obelisk  on  which  Champollion,  after  having  already  discovered  the  secret  of  the 
sacred  'vritings,  deciphered  the  name  of  Cleopatra.  This  precious  monument, 
carried  off  by  Banks  and  Helzoni,  now  forms  part  of  a  private  collection  in  England.* 
Another  inscription  at  Philm,  dated  the  eighteenth  ventose  of  the  year  seven,  records 
the  passage  of  the  first  division  of  the  French  army  under  the  command  of  Desaix 
in  pursuit  of  the  Mameluks,  beyond  the  Cataracts.  At  one  time  a  tunnel  passed 
under  the  narrow  channel  separating  the  island  of  Phila)  from  that  of  Biggeh, 
which  was  formerly  also  a  holy  loud. 

AssuAN — Abu.  « 

The  valley  through  which  flowed  the  Nile  waters  when  they  stood  at  a  higher 
level  than  at  present,  now  forms  the  main  route  of  caravans  skirting  the  Cataracts 
and  transporting  merchandise  overland  between  Mahatta  and  Assuan.  Here  the 
Khedive  Ismail  constructed  a  railway  nine  miles  long,  for  military  purposes,  and 
this  line  was  extended  by  the  English  far  into  Nubia  during  the  campaigns  of  1884 
and  1885.  The  importance  attached  for  at  least  the  last  forty-seven  centuries  to 
this  commercial  highway  is  evident  from  the  inscriptions  in  various  languages 
engraved  on  its  rocky  walls.  Its  strategic  value  was  also  fully  recognised,  as 
appears  from  the  remains  of  a  rampart  constructed  to  defend  Syene  from  the  attacks 
of  the  Blemmyes.  The  town  lies  below  the  Cataracts,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river,  where  its  houses  are  disposed  in  amphitheatral  form  on  the  slopes  of  the 
rocks.  The  creek  of  Assuan  is  crowded  with  river  craft,  although  less  numerous 
than  at  Mahatta,  and  the  Shellali,  or  "  Men  of  the  Cataract,"  swarm  on  the  beach 
every  time  a  dahabiyeh  weighs  anchor  in  the  direction  of  the  rapids.  The  bazaar 
is  well  stocked  with  arms  and  ornaments,  ostrich  feathers,  skins  of  wild  beasts,  ivory, 
*  Amelia  Edwturds,  "  A  Thouiand  Milts  up  the  Nile." 


•^/^^•mf  I  I  "jii 


ASSUAN     ABU. 


IT': 


om  Abydos. 

0  dwells  at 
but  its  out- 
t  in  all  tho 
>rul  capitalo 
bom.  This 
t  bttvo  been 

reliefs   uor 
d  it  occupies 

ed  ttftor  tbe 
iptions  tbun 
lie  on  their 
idios  through 
ed  "  Rosetta 
triumph  and 
18  found  the 
secret  of  the 

1  monument, 
in  England.* 
leven,  records 
ind  of  Desaix 
tunnel  passed 
it  of  Biggeh, 


1  at  a  higher 
the  Cataracts 
:n.  Here  the 
purposes,  and 
)aigns  of  1884 
tt  centuries  to 
ous  languages 
recognised,  as 
•om  the  attacks 
t  bank  of  the 

slopes  of  tbe 
less  numerous 

on  the  beach 
1.  The  bazaar 
d  beasts,  ivory. 


wood,  precious  drugH,  and  other  wares  brought  down  lioni  Nubia  and  the  Upper 
Nilo.  Tho  ncighl)ouring  date  grovfs  also  supply  abundant  cargoes  for  tho  boats 
proceeding  to  Cairo  and  tho  delta. 

Under  its  Arobic  form  of  As-SuAn,  tho  old  Egyptian  name  of  Sudn  hos  Hurvivod 
for  ncorly  five  thouwind  years,  and  under  its  Greek  form  of  Syone  had  already  be- 
come famous  in  classical  times.  To  geologists  it  recalls  tho  granite  and  "  Hvonito  " 
quarries,  which  have  been  excavated  to  the  south  of  tho  city  for  a  spuco  of  nearly 

Fig.    112.— AsiUAN   AKD  THB   FlMiT  CaTARACT   BBroHl  THI  OPBMINO  Of  THl  BaILWAT. 

Boala  t :  800,000. 


32°45 


't   .    of  Greenwich 


58*55 


BMOa*. 


four  miles.  Here  is  still  to  be  seen  an  obelisk  120  feet  long,  not  yet  entirely 
detached  from  the  rock.  Astronomers  also  are  reminded  by  this  name  of  the 
experiments  here  carried  out  by  Eratosthenes,  over  twenty-one  centuries  ago. 
Assuming  that  Syene  stood  exactly  on  the  line  of  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  which,  how- 
ever, is  not  strictly  correct,*  and  finding  that  at  Alexandria  the  shadow  of  the 
gnomon  stood  at  a  fiftieth  on  the  day  of  the  summer  solstice,  from  these  data 
Eratosthenes  deduced  the  degree  of  the  earth's  curvature,  and  consequently  so  far 

«  Latitude  of  Assuan,  24°  6'  23". 


i 


876 


NOUTII-EAST  AFBICA. 


(l(>tcrmlniHl  the  ditnciiMions  of  tlv  planet.  IIo  did  not  tnko  the  direct  mcnHuromont 
of  tho  distanco  Ijotwocn  Syone  und  Al«>xundriii.  litit  the  Kj^yiiliiiu  iHMtplo,  who 
know  HO  woll  how  to  turn  their  oditicoH  toward,    l*  "^3  "'H".  snuHt  have  aluo 

known  not  only  tho  diHtancc,  hut  also  tho  oxutrt  powt  .  •*  *''•'"•<>  I'Iucoh.  Ifenro  tho 
C(tninion  oMtiinuto  accepted  hy  the  Greek  OHtrononiv .  iiinBi  have  come  very  clone 
to  the  truth.  If  the  rneuHurement  of  tho  meridian  made  by  hir-  woh  in  Egyption 
feet,  as  in  probable,  his  calculation  waH  wrong  by  scarcely  a  sixty-fifth.  Tho  real 
length  of  tho  arc  of  the  meridian,  between  Alexandria  and  the  parallel  of  Syene,  is 
exactly  787,7(50  metres,  while  tho  measurement  of  Eratosthenes  gave  810,000 
metres.* 

Elephantine  Island,  which  faces  Assuan  on  the  other  side  of  a  channel  500  feet 
wide,  was  also  the  site  of  a  famous  city.  Here  stood  Abu,  the  "City  of  the 
Elephant,"  which  afterwards,  during  the  Greek  and  Roman  periods,  apjiears  to  have 
been  tho  great  emporium  for  the  ivory  brought  down  from  the  Upper  Nile.  But 
scarcely  any  of  its  ancient  monuments  have  survived  to  the  present  day.  Its 
temples  were  demolished  in  1822,  to  supply  building  materials,  and  little  is  now  to 
be  scon  except  a  Nilometer  restored  in  1870,  and  some  heaps  of  ancient  pottery  on 
which  the  custom-house  officers  of  the  Roman  epoch  used  to  scratch  their  receipts. 
On  the  ruins  now  stand  two  villages  of  Bar&bra  Nubians.  But  Elephantine,  the 
"  Verdant "  Isle  of  tho  Arabs,  still  possosses  its  magnificent  date  groves,  whose 
brilliant  foliage  presents  u  striking  contrast  to  the  block  rooks  commanding  the 
issue  of  tho  cataract. 


ft 


1  i       '!j 


'  Ombos — Edfu.  "  %^ 

The  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  (hnbos  is  now  indicated  only  by  the  hamlet  of 
Kdm-Ombo,  situated  on  the  west  bank,  and  by  the  ruins  of  two  temples  dedicated 
to  two  rival  dieties,  Horus,  god  of  light,  and  Sebek,  the  genius  of  darkness.  But 
the  stream  is  continually  eating  away  this  bank,  with  its  sanotoaries  and  the  sand 
encumbering  them.  The  defile  of  Silsileh,  or  the  "chain,"  below  £dm-Ombo, 
would  be  the  most  convenient  point  for  constructing  a  barrage  to  raise  the  level 
of  the  river  and  divert  a  portion  of  the  current  to  the  irrigation  canals.  According 
to  the  proposed  plan,  the  main  channel  would  skirt  the  foot  of  the  Libyan  range, 
watering  all  the  now  barren  tracts  which  stretch  west  of  the  Bahr-Tusef.  But,  as 
elsewhere  pointed  out,  there  are  many  serious  objections  to  this  scheme,  which,  if 
carried  out,  would  probably  have  the  effect  of  throwing  out  of  cultivation  some 
extensive  districts  along  both  batiks  of  the  Nile. 

The  Silsileh  defile,  formed  of  sandstone  rocks,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
places  in  Egypt.  On  the  east  side  the  cliffs  have  been  cut  by  tho  ancient  quarry- 
men  into  avenues  and  cirques,  affording  an  opportunity  of  admiring  the  rare  skill 
with  which  they  made  choice  of  the  finest-grained  stone  and  the  care  with  which 
they  extracted  it.  In  this  respect  the  Silsileh  quarries  might  still  serve  as  models 
for  our  modem  contractors.  It  might  almost  seem,  remarks  Mariette,  as  if  the 
•  Fuyo,  "Journal  Offlciel  de  la  R6piib1ique  Fian^ise,'*  April  20,  1881. 


■\.'':. 


J     JIW    ■  »■ 


;  monfluremont 
»  iMHipIo,  who 
ust  huvo  aluo 
Henro  the 
1110  very  clone 
«  in  Egyptian 
fth.  The  roul 
el  of  Syene,  ia 
gave  810,000 

annol  500  feet 
••City  of  the 
ppears  to  huvo 
tor  Nile.  But 
lent  day.  Its 
ittle  is  now  to 
!ent  pottery  on 
their  receipts, 
ephantine,  the 
groves,  whose 
oamanding  the 


the  hamlet  of 
iples  dedicated 
larkness.  But 
18  and  the  sand 
w  K6m-Ombo, 
raise  the  level 
Is.  According 
Libyan  range, 
fusef.  But,  as 
heme,  which,  if 
ultivation  some 

lost  remarkable 
ancient  quarry- 
g  the  rare  skill 
sare  with  which 
serve  as  models 
riette,  as  if  the 

81. 


« 


r&S!f^\ 


■-■      ■*.*«fniwnnitf^iji,iljjii..  ,IU 


■  ■f.wMiw,''"*" '  ■  "iff -yff". 


ifi  - 


OMBOS— EDFU. 


877 


whole  mountain  had  been  disposed  in  regular  blocks,  just  as  the     .ilful  joiner  cuts 
into  planks  the  stem  of  some  valuable  tree. 

Ou  the  west  side  the  cliffs  have  been  less  encroached  upon ;  but  they  are 
richer  in  sculptures  and  inscriptions.  Amongst  the  bas-reliefs  of  a  rock  temple 
is  an  image  of  tho  goddess  Isis  suckling  Horus — one  of  the  noblest  and  most 
charming  pictures  left  us  by  ancient  Egyptian  art.* 

Two  colossal  pylons  announce  to  the  traveller  from  afar  the  approach  to  the 
city  of  Edfu,  the  Teb  of  the  ancients,  the  Apollinopo/is  Magnd  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  Of  all  the  temples  of  Egypt  that  of  Edfu  has  been  the  best  preserved 
in  all  its  parts,  and  although  dating  only  from  the  epoch  of  the  Ptolemies,  it 
presents  a  purity  of  lines  and  a  harmony  of  proportions  justifying  a  comparison 
with  the  monuments  of  the  most  flourishing  periods  of  Egyptian  art ;  nowhere 
else  had  the  traditions  of  the  native  builders  been  better  preserved.  This  marvel- 
lous structure  has  been  protected  from  the  ravages  of  time  chiefly  through  the 
sands  of  the  desert.  After  removing  the  ninety-two  hovels  scattered  over  the 
mound  and  sweeping  away  the  heaps  of  accumulated  sand,  Mariette  found  the 
ediflce  in  almost  as  perfect  a  state  as  on  the  day  of  its  dedication.  Nothing  is 
missing,  except  perhaps  a  few  stones  of  the  gateways  and  roof ;  even  the  outer 
enclosure,  which  concealed  the  temple  from  profane  eyes,  has  been  preserved 
intact.  From  the  entrance  of  the  court  we  see  the  perspective  of  colonnades  and 
chambers  stretching  for  a  distance  of  nearly  430  feet,  and  throughout  this  vast 
space  there  is  not  a  eingle  recess  whose  ornaments  and  inscriptions,  all  in  a  state 
of  perfect  repair,  do  not  clearly  explain  its  purpose.  Each  chamber  Tbears  a 
separate  name ;  thus  one  is  the  "  house  of  books  "  or  library,  and  the  catalogue  of 
the  contents  is  here  engraved  on  the  walls. 

The  whole  structure  is  itself  a  vast  library,  containing  not  only  prayers  and 
acts  of  thanksgiving  in  honour  of  the  holy  trinity,  Harhut,  Hathor,  and  Har- 
pokhrot,  but  also  religious  scenes  of  every  description,  astronomic  tables,  histories 
of  campaigns,  representations  of  sieges  and  battles.  The  temple  thus  presents 
an  eucyclopaBdia  of  Egyptian  records  and  mythology.  But  the  chief  interest  of 
the  Edfu  monument  lies  in  its  seven-and-twenty  geographical  lists  of  Egypt  and 
Nubia,  enumerating  all  the  provinces,  with  their  products,  their  cities,  and  tutelar 
divinities.  Thanks  mainly  to  those  nomenclatures,  supplemented  by  fifteen  other 
more  or  less  complete  lists  found  on  various  monuments  along  the  banks  of  the 
Nile,  Brugsch  has  been  able  to  restore  the  ancient  geography  of  Egypt.  ^  From 
one  of  the  pylons,  which  commands  the  entrance  to  the  temple  from  a  height  of 
125  feet,  a  prospect  is  afforded  of  the  present  town  laid  out  like  a  chess-board  in 
little  cubic  blocks  of  yellow  earth,  with  the  cupola  and  minaret  rising  in  the 
centre — ^modest  buildings  at  best  compared  with  the  great  temple  of  the  Egyptian 
gods. 

"  It  may  be  asserted  without  any  exaggeration  that  if  the  priests  of  Edfu  could 
rise  from  their  graves  with  all  their  sacred  paraphernalia,  once  more  to  do  honour 
to  the  supplanted  gods  of  the  Nile  Valley,  they  would  here  find  every  chamber, 

•  Marietta,  "  Itinfirairo  de  la  Hauto-Egyptc"  t  "  Geographio  des  alien  ^gypton." 


I.:.- .  ■/^■-y}:i.-i^mi^--iM.vi;/iii»ii.-^^di^t^s 


878 


NORTH-EAST  AFBICA. 


m 


every  crypt,  and  every  step  just  as  they  left  it  1,600  years  ago.  Without  replac- 
ing a  single  stone,  the  votaries  of  the  divinity  might  march  in  solemn  procession 
and  in  the  prescribed  route  throughout  the  sacred  precincts  which  have  so  long 
been  desecrated;  and  should  they  have  forgotten,  during  their  long  sleep,  the 
purpose  and  use  of  each  chamber,  the  inscriptions,  marvellously  well-preserved, 
would  inform  all  who  could  read  the  hieroglyphics  of  the  object  to  which  each 
hall  and  cabinet  was  devoted.  As  regards  preservation,  Edfu  is  superior  even  to 
Denderah,  for  there  the  outer  portions  of  the  temple  have  disappeared,  all  but  one 
propylon,  and  here  no  part  has  suffered  any  considerable  injury. 

"  The  sanctuary  of  Edfu  was  dedicated  to  the  great  god  Horus,  who  overthrew 
the  evil  principle  Seth,  or  Typhon,  for  his  father's  sake ;  and  the  town  to  which  it 
belonged  was  therefore  called  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  Hut,  after  the  winged  sun- 
disc,  or  the  city  of  the  throne  of  Horus,  or  the  city  of  the  raising  of  Horus  (to  the 
throne  of  his  father  Osiris),  or  sometimes  the  city  of  the  piercing  (^tebu*)  of 
Typhon,  in  the  form  of  a  river-horse.  The  Greeks  compared  Horus  to  their 
Apollo,  the  god  of  light  or  the  sun,  and  called  the  city  of  Horus  Apollinopolis.     > 

"  The  sanctuary  seems  to  have  been  founded  at  a  very  early  date.  Indeed  Ptah, 
the  oldest  of  the  gods,  is  said  to  hdve  built  it  for  Ra.  Kings  of  the  twelfth 
djmasty,  as  well  as  Thothmes  III.,  took  part  in  the  services  carried  on  in  it.  The 
venerable  structure  was  still  intact  at  the  time  of  the  Persian  dominion ;  but  under 
the  first  Ptolemies  it  had  become  necessary  to  erect  a  new  temple  on  the  old  site. 

"  Euergetes  I.,  the  third  of  the  Lagide  kings,  began  the  building  in  accordance 
with  the  plans  of  the  best  Egyptian  architects.  It  is  a  mighty  structure,  which 
was  not  finished  till  one  hundred  and  eighty  years  later  under  Ptolemy  Dionysius, 
or  Auletes,  the  father  of  Cleopatra,  in  the  year  57  B.C.  Huge  pylons  stood  at  the 
entrance  facing  those  worshippers  who  approached  the  sanctuary,  decorated  with 
the  likeness  of  the  Pharaoh  as  victor  over  his  enemies.  The  visitor  entering  the 
bronze  portals  found  himself  in  a  vast  peristyle  surrounded  on  three  sides  by 
colonnades,  and  at  the  upper  end  of  it  rose  a  tall  hypostyle,  into  which  no  glimpse 
was  possible,  since  the  walls  connected  the  pillars  which  closed  in  the  peristyle  in 
front. 

"The  actual  temple-building  is  closely  allied  to  that  of  Denderah  as  to  the 
arrangement  and  decoration  of  the  chambers.  After  passing  through  the  hypostyle 
or  great  forecourt,  of  which  the  roof  is'  supported  by  eighteen  columns,  we  come 
to  a  'prosekos'  with  twelve  columns,  which  is  called  the  great  banqueting-hall. 
Thence  we  proceed  through  the  hall  of  sacrifice  and  the  central  hall  of  the  '  repose 
of  the  gods,'  and  reach  the  sanctuary  and  grand  throne,  vi'hich  consists  of  a  huge 
block  of  porphyry  brought  to  Edfu  during  the  Persian  dominion  by  the  native 
Egyptian  king,  Nectaneboa  I.,  who  ruled  in  opposition  to  the  Persian  invaders. 

"  The  inscriptions  in  the  laboratory  and  the  little  library  are  of  the  greatest 
scientific  interest.  The  library  was  full  of  papyrus  and  leather  rolls,  and  it 
adjoined  the  front  wall  of  the  hypostyle  lying  to  the  right  of  it.  As  at  Denderah 
the  roof  was  reached  by  a  straight  stair,  and  by  a  spiral  flight  of  steps,  and  here 

•  "Tebu,"  meBning  "piercing,"  is  ihe  Coptic  "  Atbo,"'  whence  thu  Arabic  ''  Edfu." 


vv^iwrjw^^dij- 


ESNEH— THEBES— LUXOR— KARN  AX. 


879 


thout  replac- 
in  procejsion 
bave  CO  long 
ig  sleep,  the 
3ll-pre8erved, 
)  which  each 
erior  even  to 
i,  all  but  one 

ho  overthrew 
n  to  which  it 
I  winged  sun- 
Qorus  (to  the 
ig  (^tebu*)  of 
}rus  to  their 
linopolis. 
Indeed  Ptah, 
t  the  twelfth 
n  in  it.  The 
n ;  but  under 
he  old  site, 
in  accordance 
acture,  which 
ay  Dionysiufl, 
.8  stood  at  the 
ecorated  with 
f  entering  the 
iree  sides  by 
ch  no  glimpse 
le  peristyle  in 

rah  as  to  the 
the  hypostyle 
ana,  we  come 
aqueting-hall. 
of  the  *  repose 
sists  of  a  huge 
by  the  native 

invaders, 
f  the  greatest 

rolls,  and  it 
8  at  Denderah 
teps,  and  here 
'  Edfu." 


also  not  the  smallest  spot  is  bare  of  inscriptions  and  pictures,  including  the 
'  calendar  of  festivals,'  and  others  that  have  essentially  contributed  to  our  know- 
ledge of  ancient  Egyptian  geography."  * 

ESNEH.    ' 

Below  Edfu  a  gorge  opens  eastwards,  through  which -formerly  descended  the 
Herusha  marauders,  ancestors  of  the  present  Ababdeh  tribe.  Against  their  incur- 
sions ramparts  had  been  constructed  across  the  gorge,  the  entrance  of  which  was 
commanded  by  a  foit.  The  village  of  El-Kab  now  occupies  the  site  of  this  ptrong- 
hold,  which  was  the  Nekhab  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  the  Eilethin  of  the 
Greeks.  Amongst  the  numerous  sepulchral  caves  excavated  in  the  neighbouring 
rocks,  one  has  been  discovered  in  which  are  represented  the  victories  of  Ahmes,  or 
Amosis,  over  the  Sheph<  rd  Kings  and  the  Ethiopian  tribes. 

Lower  down,  the  valley  of  the  Nile  broadens  out  as  it  approaches  the  modern 
Esneh,  whose  fields  and  gardens  occupy  a  considerable  space  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  stream.  The  Latopolis  of  the  Greeks,  Esneh  still  preserves  its  ancient  name 
of  Sni.  Capital  of  a  province  and  an  industrial  centre,  producing  blue  cottons, 
shawls,  and  various  kinds  of  pottery,  it  ranks  as  one  of  the  chief  trading  places  in 
Upper  Egypt.  A  portion  of  the  surrotmding  plain  is  covered  with  sugar-cane 
plantations  ;  a  few  dflm -palms  are  also  still  seen,  but  farther  down  the  vegetation 
along  the  river  banks  is  almost  entirely  restricted  to  date-trees. 

The  population  of  Esneh  is  of  a  very  mixed  character,  comprising  besides 
Coptic  Christians  and  Mussulman  fellahin,  Nubians,  various  tribes  of  Bejas,  and 
others  from  the  oases.  It  was  to  Esneh  that  the  Almeh  of  Cairo  had  been  banished 
by  Mohammed  Ali,  and  here  they  are  still  more  numerous  than  elsewhere.  The 
ancient  temple  of  Sni,  dedicated  to  Eneph,  "  Soul  of  the  World,"  was  partially 
freed  in  1842  from  the  heaps  of  sand  and  refuse  encumbering  it;  but  it  still 
resembles  a  shrine  in  one  of  the  Roman  catacombs  rather  than  an  edifice  erected 
above  ground.     The  style  of  its  architecture  is  much  inferior  to  that  of  Edfu. 

Thebes — ^Ltjxor — Karnak. 

After  describing  a  great  bend  below  Esneh,  and  passing  the  pleasant  village 
and  sugar  plantations  of  Ennent,  the  Nile  emerges  on  the  plain  where  are  seen 
scattered  over  both  banks  the  still  perfect  or  ruined  monuments  of  mighty  Thebes — 
a  world  of  palaces,  of  colonnades,  temples,  and  underground  buildings.  Nowhere 
else  is  such  a  splendid  display  of  religious  edifices  presented  to  the  view.  Yet  but 
a  very  small  portion  of  Thebes  of  the  "  himdred  gates  "  has  been  preserved.  The 
four  chief  groups  of  ruins  still  standing  enclose  a  space  of  not  more  than  five  square 
miles.  But  in  the  days  when  No,  the  "  City,"  in  a  pre-eminent  sense,  better  known 
under  the  name  of  Pa- Amen,  or  "  Abode  of  Ammon,"  was  the  centre  of  Egyptian 
trade  and  power,  it  stretched  much  farther  north  along  the  plains  skirting  the 
*  G.  Ebeis,  "  Egypt,  Descriptive,  Hintorical,  and  PictarRaque,"  ii.,  p.  32''. 


<ti, 


mm 


■-■(  !?<■ 


w 


im 


U^l 


Mi*" 


.  Nil 


J 1 


880 


NOETH-EAST  AFEICA. 


right  bank  of  the  Nile.     During  the  inundations  the  groups  of  monuments  here 
still  rise  like  islets  in  the  midst  of  the  waters. 

Luxor  {^Luqsor,  Al-.Vksoreui)  or  "  The  Two  Palaces,"  the  largest  village  erected 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  city,  merely  occupies  an  artificial  mound  or  heap  of 
crumbling  ruins.  But  in  this  moimd  is  partly  buried  a  fine  temple,  which  is  at 
present  being  excavated.  Before  the  monument  stood  two  obelisks  bearing 
inscriptions  in  honour  of  Ramses  II.  But  of  these  one  only  survives,  the  other 
now  occupying  the  centre  of  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  in  Paris.  Round  the 
temple  nothing  is  visible  except  shapeless  masses  of  refuse  and  cultivated  g^und, 

Fig.  113.-BuiNS  OP  Thkbes. 
Soalnl:  78,000. 


.  V.iOO  Tard*. 


but  towards  the  north-east  stretches  an  avenue  2,200  yards  long  lined  with 
pedestals,  some  still  supporting  fragments  of  sphinxes  with  the  body  of  a  lion  and 
head  of  a  woman,  and  holding  in  their  fore-paws  the  effigy  of  Amenhotep  III. 
This  avenue  is  succeeded  by  an  alley  of  sphinxes  with  rams*  heads»  leading 
directly  to  the  monuments  of  Karnak — pylons,  sculptured  walls,  naves,  colonnades, 
obelisks,  sphinxes,  and  statues. 

Further  explorations  by  Professor  Maspero  in  the  year  1885  have  resulted  in 
some  important  fresh  discoveries.  The  great  roofed  sanctuary  of  Amenhotep  III. 
is  now  completely  cleared ;  the  columns  of  the  central  colonnade  are  visible  for 
over  two- thirds  of  their  height,  and  the  original  pavement  of  this  part  of  the 


„.,,.,,,*»■  ..nttf,-. 


1^", 'IW^Ig|l^.B]|i,Mj^ll.|H,|jl 


•  'jtvi»-»"'',.i,jmu",;jPW'wy.'!;''"J'"  jWy^i"  'wif>"w-V'i>,""iy"'*»"  '^ n"" 


THEBES— LUXOR— KARNAK. 


881 


)iminent8  here 

village  erected 
id  or  heap  of 
ie,  which  ia  at 
slisks  bearing 
Lves,  the  other 
Round  the 
ivated  ground, 


ng  lined  with 
|r  of  a  lion  and 
menhotep  III. 
beads»  leading 
es,  colonnades, 

ave  resulted  in 

Linenhotep  III. 

are  visible  for 

lis  part  of  the 


edifice  has  been  laid  bare.  At  the  northern  end,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  first  great 
courtyard  approached  through  the  double  pylons,  a  partial  clearance  has  also 
been  effected,  revealing  the  existence  of  a  small  portico  and  several  colossi,  some 
prostrate,  some  still  erect  on  their  pedestals.  The  portico  dates  from  Ramses  II., 
and  it  now  appears  that  the  temple,  when  first  constructed,  was  not  separated  aa 
it  now  is  from  the  Nile  by  an  extensive  space  of  rising  ground  ;  but  that  all  the 
southern  end  of  the  building  behind  the  sanctuary,  and  part  of  the  western  side, 
rose,  as  it  were,  direct  from  the  water's  edge,  like  the  western  gallery  at  Philse. 
Some  remains  of  a  great  quay,  inscribed  with  the  names  and  titles  of  Amen- 
hotep  III.,  have  also  been  brought  to  light.  M.  Maspero  is  able  now  to  assert 
that  Luxor,  freed  from  the  modera  excrescences  by  which  it  has  hitherto  been 
disfiguied,  is  for  grandeur  of  design  and  beauty  of  proportions  almost  equal  to 
Eamak.  The  sculptures  with  which  the  chambers  and  columns  are  decorated  are 
of  the  finest  and  most  delicate  execution ;  while  some  of  the  wall  subjects  would 
not  suffer  in  the  comparison  if  placed  side  by  side  with  the  choicest  bas-reliefs  of 
Abydos.* 

For  a  period  of  three  thousand  years,  from  the  twelfth  dynasty  to  the  last  of 
the  Ptolemies,  temple  after  temple  was  erected  at  Kamak.  Everywhere  the  eye 
lights  on  miracles  of  workmanship  ;  but  the  glory  of  this  architectural  museum  is 
the  chamber  of  colonnades,  or  "  hypostyle,"  constructed  in  the  reign  of  Seti  I.  It 
is  the  largest  work  of  the  kind  in  Egypt,  one  of  those  stupendous  monuments 
which  the  memory  instinctively  conjures  up  when  the  mind  passes  in  su  voy  the 
great  masterpieces  of  human  genius.  The  ceiling  of  this  chamber,  whijh  is  no 
less  than  76  feet  high  in  the  central  nave,  is  supported  by  134  columns,  of  which 
those  in  the  middle  row  have  a  circumference  of  no  less  than  32  feet.  All  are 
covered  with  paintings  and  sculptures  in  intaglio,  as  are  also  the  walls,  and 
amongst  the  bas-reliefs  there  are  some  of  the  greatest  historical  importance,  repre- 
senting the  victorieB  of  the  Pharaohs  over  the  Arabs,  Syrians,  and  Hittites.  In 
the  "  great  temple  "  near  this  place  is  the  famous  "  waU  of  numbers,"  a  chapter  of 
the  national  records,  e  portion  of  which  was  deposited  by  Champollion  in  the 
Louvre,  and  all  of  which  are  now  known,  thanks  to  the  researches  of  Mariette. 

To  the  same  exploier  is  due  the  discovery  of  a  geographical  list  of  six  hundred 
and  twenty-eight  names  of  peoples  and  places  inscribed  on  gateways.  Amongst 
the  tribes  enumerated,  Egyptologists  have  succeeded  in  identifying  several  from 
Phoenicia  and  Palestine,  from  Assyria  and  other  remote  Asiatic  lands,  from 
Ethiopia  and  the  region  of  aromatic  herbs  stretching  along  the  African  seaboard 
south  of  the  Red  Sea,  Certain  nimies  have  also  been  deciphered  which  have  been 
referred  to  the  distimt  region  of  the  great  equatorial  lakes  in  our  days  again  for 
the  second  or  thir>,l  time  discoveijjd  by  Speke,  Grant,  Baker  and  other  explorers. 
Aceoi'ding  to  Hartmann,  the  Funj  type  may  be  recognised,  in  the  clearest  manner 
amongst  the  figures  of  Ethiopian  captives,  t 

*  Amelia  B.  Edwards,  "Academy,"  MaTh  2i,  1886. 
t  "Zeitschrift  fur  Kthnologje,"  vol.  i.,  1869. 


"'V-. 


mi 


382 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


The  Necropolis  of  Thebes. 


The  Thebes  of  the  left  bauk  ^\  an  rather  a  city  of  the  dead  than  of  the  living. 
Nevertheless  the  portion  of  the  plain  where  the  ground  begins  to  rise  towards  the 
Libyan  escarpments  also  abounds  in  monuments,  mostly,  however,  of  a  sepulchral 


Fig.  114.— RoiNB  OP  Thbbbs  :  Pkopylon,  ok  Northbrv  Gatb. 


ii 


f^tf'l 


character.  An  eminence  bearing  the  Arabic  name  of  Medtnet-Abu  is  covered  with 
temples  containing  painted  and  sculptured  historical  pictures,  on  which  are  depicted 
with  extraordinary  accuracy  the  types  and  costumes  of  Hittites,  Amorrheans, 
Philistines,  Teucrians,  D&naaus,  Etruscans,  Sards,  Ethiopians,  Arabs,  Libyans  and 


f:j^       '■(    /;';'>, 


fe.„.  ,.,>;.<».a.- 


f  tho  living, 
towards  the 
a  sepulchral 


i  covered  with 

ih  are  depicted 

Amorrheans, 

,  Libyans  and 


mi^v  L^,i,i*!,wi)i;i.iiw  i'tii'iny«i,.HJiKin*.if!W'w )""' I'ti'T.jm'y^w'i  »''.'.i'i',^^  n<,.w .jh'juh' ■  j'.^ i,»'>^ 


THE  NE0BOPOLI8  OP  THEBES. 


888 


other  conquered  peoples.  Once  cleared  of  the  accumulated  refuse,  the  temple  of 
Medinet-Abu,  the  "  book  of  the  conquests  and  triumphs  of  Ramses  III.,  master  of 
the  sword  on  earth,"  will  become  the  mobt  complete,  the  most  valuable  and 
interesting  of  all  the  Egyptian  sanctuaries. 

Close  by  stands  the  almost  Greek  temple  of  Deir-el-Medineh,  built  by  Ptolemy 
Philopator,  and  the  Ramesseum  with  its  triumj..  il  gateway,  adorned  with  four 
colossal  decapitated  figures.  This  is  the  edifice  described  by  Diodorus  under  the 
name  of  the  "  tomb  of  Osymandias."  In  one  of  the  temple  courts  lies  the  broken 
pink  granite  statue  of  Ramses  II.,  formerly  a  monolithic  block  55  feet  high, 
weighing  over  one  thousand  tons,  cciisequently  heavier  than  the  largest  block  in  the 
temples  of  Baalbek,  but  at  least  a  third  less  than  the  en-atic  boulder  on  which  has 
been  erected  the  equestrian  statue  of  Peter  the  Great. 

Between  the  Ramesseum  and  the  temples  of  Medinet-Abu  stood  several  colossal 
statues.  Of  these  two  only  '  are  still  erect,  those  that  became  so  famous  in 
ancient  times  under  the  name  of  the  statues  of  Memnon,  but  which  in  reality 
represent  the  Pharaoh  Amenhotep  II.,  seat«d  in  the  hieratic  attitude  with  his 
hands  resting  on  his  knees.  Both  are  nearly  65  feet  high  with  their  pedestals, 
which,  however,  have  sunk  deep  into  the  alluvial  soil.  The  colossus  which  the 
Greeks  and  the  Romans  visited  in  crowds,  and  which  they  covered  with  writings 
in  prose  and  verse,  is  the  northernmost  of  the  two.  Its  celebrity  was  due  to  the 
sound  which  it  emitted,  like  that  of  the  chord  of  a  lyre  when  it  breaks,  and  which, 
according  to- some  authorities,  began  to  vibrate  in  harmonious  sighs  as  soon  as  tho 
first  rays  of  the  sun  dispersed  the  morning  dew.  But  after  Septimius  Severus 
caused  a  fracture  in  the  statue  to  be  clumsily  repaired,  its  voice  was  hushed  for 
ever.  No  sound  is  any  longer  heard  at  dawn ;  but  in  the  temple  of  Earnak 
there  are  some  granite  blocks  which  still  emit  sonorous  vibrations  when  lit  up  by 
the  morning  sun. 

North  and  west  of  the  Ramesseum  and  of  the  temple  of  Seti  which  crowns  the 
Kamak  eminence  are  situated  the  rocks  and  ravines  honeycombed  with  under- 
ground structures.  Above  the  plain  rises  a  hill  of  pyramidal  form,  shaped  by  the 
hand  of  nature  into  vast  parallel  flights  of  steps.  According  to  some  writers  this 
characteristic  form  served  as  the  model  for  the  artificial  pyramids  raised  overf  the 
royal  tombs.  Thus  was  realised  at  Memphis,  as  well  as  at  Thebes,  the  formula  of 
the  ritual  pronounced  by  the  god  of  the  lower  regions :  "  I  have  set  apart  a 
dwelling  unto  thee  in  the  moimtain  by  the  west." 

The  winding  gorge  ramifying  amid  these  cliffs  bears  the  name  of  Biban-el- 
Moluk,  that  is,  "  Gates  of  the  Kings."  It  presents  an  imposing  aspect  with  its 
bare  rocky  sides  scored  by  vertical  fissures,  giving  access  to  *ho  royal  tombs. 
Towards  the  extremity  of  the  gorge  is  situated  the  sepulchral  cave  of  Seti  I., 
discovered  by  Belzoni  in  1818,  and  remarkable  especially  for  its  painted  bas- 
reliefs,  one  of  which  represents  the  '■'four  races  of  the  world" — Retu,  Amu, 
Nohesu,  and  Tamahu,  that  is  to  say,  the  Egyptians,  Asiatics,  Negroes,  and  Libyans — 
marching  in  solemn  procession  at  the  obsequies  of  Seti.  •' 

At  the  opening  of  the  gorges  between  the  Kurnah  and  Assassif  hills,  Mariette 


■"*»-.. 


,0- 


884 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


discovered  in  1859  the  mummy  of  a  certain  Queen  Aahhotep,  probably  the  mother 
of  King  Ahmos  or  Amosis.  The  omameuts  of  this  queen,  now  preserved  in  the 
Bulaq  museum,  near  Cairo,  are  of  such  marvellous  workmanship  that  modem 
jewellers  confess  their  inability  even  to  imitate  them.  It  seems  probable  that 
from  another  tomb  in  the  Assassif  hill  also  comes  the  Ebers  papyrus,  the 
"  hermetic  "  book  containing  the  pharmacopoeia  of  the  Egyptians  at  the  time  of  the 
Thotmcs  dynasty. 

West  of  the  chief  eminence,  and  not  far  from  the  Sheikh  Abd-el-Eumah, 
another  hill  pierced  with   galleries  like  a  rabbit-burrow,  a  series  of  terraces  is 

Fig.  116. — Entrancb  to  thi  Vallky  of  tub  Royal  Tomb*. 


Il^tZ— '►•.■•'■■-■•'■^"rr-;'^^  "fii  ^5K"  -:^i;r-     '"?-•"  JT  "-"" —   -i,"  *    \.     x^s^;-  -  -"^  ■ 


occupied  by  the  Deir-el-Bah&ri,  an  obituary  chapel,  which  in  later  times  was 
probably  used  as  a  Christian  church.  On  its  ruined  walls  Mariette  brought  to 
light  some  most  interesting  sculptures,  representing  diverse  historical  objects, 
amongst  others  the  naval  expedition  sent  l^  the  Queen-Regent  Hatshopsitu  to  the 
land  of  Punt,  that  is,  either  to  South  Arabia  or  the  present  Somaliland.  In 
another  tomb,  known  as  the  Rekhmara,  are  also  depicted  ethnographic  scenes 
relating  to  the  same  land  of  Punt.  A  neighbouring  grotto,  for  which  Maspero 
and  Brro-fli  had  long  been  searching,  has  yielded  a  whole  series  of  royal  mummies, 
amongst  which  are  those  of  Ahmes  I.,  of  Thotmes  II.,  conqueror  of  Asia  Minor,  of 
Ramses  II.,  the  legendary  Sesostris  of  the  Greeks,  of  Seti  I.,  builder  of  the 
marvellous  hypostyle  chamber. 


y  the  mother 
served  in  the 
that  modern 
}robable  that 
papyrus,  the 
le  time  of  the 

)d-el-Eumah, 
of  terraces  is 


fht' 


•Ci- 


^) 


ter  times  was 
tte  brought  to 
»rical  obje6ts, 
shopsitu  to  the 
)maliland.  In 
graphic  scenes 
trhich  Maspero 
oyal  mummies, 
Asia  Minor,  of 
builder  of  the 


«f4*iji[*'--»lj?      .-.■ai^^*ii'W*a 


^■u*,,^" 


^ —■• "•MMpHwwniap^ 


"wi.mWBij;p 


'mm: 


Hfsmi. 


k[^^^',"'"'' 


n 


■••<>:^'''  .viwrt 


KUBTI— KENEU— K08SEIK. 


886 


The  Riibtcrrancan  structures  of  Thobos  hovo  altogether  suppHwl  whole  colloo- 
tions,  which  now  form  the  pride  of  the  various  KuroiM3uii  muHimiiiH.  From  the 
crest  of  the  surrounding  hills  und  heaps  of  refuse,  u  magnificent  panoramic  view  is 
affordwl  of  the  groups  of  stupendous  monuments  in  everlasting  stone,  raised  by  the 
Setis  and  Kumsos  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river. 


KunTi — Eeneh. 

The  groat  bend  described  by  the  Nile  in  an  easterly  direction  below  Thebes, 
and.  the  wide  breaches  in  the  Arabian  range  at  this  point  affording  easy  access 
to  the  Red  Seo,  could  not  fail  to  confer  paramount  commercial  importance  on  this 
section  of  the  valley.  But  the  site  of  its  central  emporium  has  frequently  been 
shifted,  each  city,  ruined  by  wars  or  even  razed  to  the  ground  by  conquering  hosts, 
still  springing  up  again  at  some  distance  from  its  predecessor.  In  this  rej^ion 
Kubti,  the  Coptos  of  the  Grc-ks,  and  now  the  obscure  village  of  Ou/f  or  ITo/f,  was 
the  oldest  trading-place,  <j  from  the  eleventh  dynasty,  some  five  thousand 

years  ago.      As  a  royal  ace  it  was  for  a  time  the  rival  of  Thebes  itself,  and 

down  to  the  massacre  of  the  Christians  which  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian, 
it  continued  to  flourish  as  the  entrepdt  of  the  produce  imported  into  Egypt  by  the 
Red  Sea  and  the  port  of  Berenice. 

In  the  year  1883,  while  exploring  a  temple  of  Isis,  Maspero  discovered  at 
Coptos  two  black  basalt  square  blocks,  bearing  the  fragments  of  a  remarkable 
inscription,  which  had  reference  to  the  construction  by  the  Roman  legionaries  of 
some  wells  or  cisterns  on  the  routes  from  Coptos  to  Berenice  and  Myos  Hormos. 
Coptos  was  succeeded  as  an  emporium  by  Kua  or  Gua,  the  Apollinaria  Parva  of  the 
Romans,  which  stood  some  5  or  6  miles  farther  down  on  the  same  right  bank  of  the 
river.  During  the  time  of  the  Caliphs  and  Mameluk  sultans,  Kus  became  the  most 
flourishing  place  in  Upper  Egypt.  It  is  now  replaced  by  Keneh,  the  Kainopolis, 
or  "  New  Town,"  of  the  Greeks,  as  the  chief  mart  for  the  transit  trade  between  the 
Nile  Valley  and  the  Red  Sea.  Eeneh  is  the  capital  of  a  province,  and  the  centre 
of  a  large  pottery  industry,  supplying  Lower  Egypt  with  vast  quantities  of  the 
finest  earthenware  produced  in  the  country.  These  objects  are  made  by  mixing 
the  ashes  of  alfa  grass  with  the  soft  clay  washed  down  from  the  Arabian  range 
by  the  Wady- Keneh  when  suddenly  flushed  by  the  rare  tropical  dowupoui-s  of  this 
region. 

EOSSEIR.  '  '^ 

The  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  and  the  consequent  displacement  of  the 
commercial  centres,  has  greatly  diminished  the  importance  of  Eeneh  as  the 
entrep6t  of  the  traffic  between  the  Nile  and  Red  Sea.  Owing  to  the  same  causes 
the  seaport  of  Koaaeir,  the  outport  of  this  trade  and  the  place  where  the  pilgrims 
embark  for  Mecca,  has  also  recently  lost  much  of  its  activity  and  population. 
Nevertheless  the  caravans  still  find  their  way  across  the  desert  between  these  two 
points,  and  we  still  hear  of  the  projected  railway,  some  120  miles  long,  which  it  is 

26— AF. 


.?'i 


II       mt 


8R0 


Nt)U'ni-KAST  AFRICA 


propoMt'd  to  coiiHtruct  ulong  the  old  routo  from  ¥  ach  to  KoHHuir,  which  might  thun 
iigain  bocomo  one  of  tho  chief  commeroiul  outj  rts  of  the  Nile  Vulloy.  Here  the 
liirf^e  steamers  plying  on  tho  Red  Sou  might  ship  goods,  thereby  miving  the  heiivy 
tninsit  dues  across  nearly  tho  whole  of  Kgypt  to  Alexandria.  In  1H02  an  alter- 
native but  longer  line  was  proposed  by  tho  English,  running  from  Kcn<!h  to  the 
uucicnt  port  of   Doreuico,  uud  mainly  following  the  old  Itoman  routo.     Wcro  thia 


Fig;,  lie.— KoflsiiB. 
1 1 :  UO^OOO. 


Deptbi. 


0  to  160 
Feet. 


100  to  asu 
Feet. 


sao  to  1,600 
Feet. 


l.afWFeet 
niidupwuide. 


.  S  MUeM. 


railway  constructed,  sailing  vessels  would  be  enabled  to  avoid  the  tedious  and 
dangerous  navigation  in  the  northern  waters  of  the  Red  Sea. 
• ,  The  present  town  of  Kosseir  stands  on  an  almost  flat  beach,  in  front  of  which 
the  shipping  is  obliged  to  anchor  in  an  exposed  roadstead.  But  the  smaller  Arab 
craft  find  a  shelter  close  inland,  where  they  are  protected  by  a  coral  reef  from  the 
north  and  north-east  winds.  The  dilapidated  fort  commanding  the  town  was  built 
by  the  French  during  the  Egyptian  expedition  under  Bonaparte.  Kosseir  is 
badly  supplied  with  wells,  which  explains  its  scanty  vegetation.  The  only  really 
fresh  water  comes  all  the  way  from  the  Nile  ;  It  most  of  the  inhabitants  are  fain 


ich  might  thun 
oy.  Iloro  thu 
vinpf  tho  heavy 
mVi  un  iilter- 
a  Konoh  to  tho 
to.     Were  this 


KT^ 


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he  tedious  and 

I  front  of  which 
le  smaller  Arab 
il  reef  from  the 
I  town  was  built 
te.  Kosseir  is 
The  only  really 
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DENDERAH. 


887 


to  be  satisfied  with  a  slightly  sulphureous  liquid,  which  has  to  be  sought  over  a 
day's  journey  in  the  desert.  The  hills  and  plains  of  the  surrounding  district  aro 
almost  destitute  of  verdure,  and  all  along  the  coast  little  is  to  be  seen  except  sands 
and  the  coral  reefs  that  have  been  slowly  upheaved  above  the  present  sea-level. 

Old  Kosseir,  lying  over  3  miles  to  the  north-west,  is  no  longer  accessible  to 
shipping.  The  sheh,  or  labyrinth  of  coralline  rocks  developed  in  front  of  the 
beach,  has  rendered  the  entrance  of  the  harbour  so  narrow  that  pilots  no  longer 
venture  to  risk  the  passage  Either  Kosseir,  or  possibly  some  point  farther  north 
on  Abu-Soraer  Bay,  marks  the  site  of  the  ancient  Myos  Hormon,  which  during  the 
Roman  period  was  one  of  the  most  frequented  ports  on  the  Red  Sea.  Numerous 
tombs,  inscriptions,  and  other  remains  of  antiquity  are  found  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  town  and  round  about  the  wells  along  the  routes  across  the  Arabian  desert. 
Rich  sulphur  beds  were  till  recently  worked  at  a  place  farther  north  near  the 
headland  of  Ras-el-Gimsah,  which  faces  the  Ras  Mohammed  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Sinai. 


'  Denderah. 

On  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile  over  against  Keneh  the  verdant  plains  of  Denderah, 
the  Tentyris  of  the  Greeks,  afford  a  pleasant  relief  to  the  heaps  of  yellow  refuse 
aiid  the  triple  enclosure  of  the  triple  temple  still  marking  the  site  of  this  ancient 
city.  The  inhabitants  of  this  place  were  famous  in  former  timed  for  their  skill  in 
capturing  and  charming  the  crocodiles,  which  they  used  as  mounts.  At  present 
there  are  no  longer  any  crocodiles  in  this  part  of  the  Nile. 

The  great  temple  of  Denderah,  built  on  the  foundations  of  older  monuments,  is 
of  comparatively  recent  date,  as  appears  from  the  medallions  of  Cleopatra  and  the 
Roman  emperors  down  to  Antoninus  Pius.  Nevertheless  in  its  disposition  and 
ornamentation  it  reproduces  the  more  ancient  sanctuaries,  although  evidently 
under  the  influence  of  Hellenic  art.  Hathor,  the  tutelar  divinity  of  Denderah, 
was  a  very  different  being  as  understood  by  the  Alexandrian  platonists  from  the 
same  goddess  as  worshipped  in  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs.  The  temple  of  Hathor, 
which  is  in  a  good  state  of  repair,  is  one  of  the  richest  in  documents  of  a  religious 
character,  ceremonial  programmes,  geographical  tables  of  cities  and  provinces,  texts 
of  prayers  and  incantations,  calendars  of  feasts,  medical  recipes,  lists  of  drugs,  and 
80  forth.  At  Denderah  was  found  the  precious  zodiac,  since  transferred  to  the 
National  Library  of  Paris.  Mariette  has  devoted  a  large  work  solely  to  a  descrip- 
tion of  this  temple,  a  verj"^  "  Talmud  in  stone,"  which  he  himself  contributed  to 
decipher,  and  many  a  page  of  which  he  discovered.*  Taken  as  a  whole  this 
monument  unfolds  in  all  its  details  a  picture  of  the  ancient  ritual,  revealing  in 
succession  all  the  ceremonies  from  chamber  to  chamber,  until  we  reach  the  "  holy 
of  holies,"  where  the  king  alone  penetrating  found  himself  face  to  face  with  the 
deity. 

"  The  portico  of  the  temple  is  about  135  feet  in  width,  and  is  architecturally 

*  "  Denderah,  description  g^n^ntle  dii  grand  temple  do  cette  ville." 


888 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


one  of  the  richest  and  most  beautiful  structures  of  its  class.  It  is  supported  by 
twenty-four  columns,  four  deep,  nearly  50  feet  in  height,  and  having  a  diameter  of 
more  than  7  feet  at  the  thickest  part.  The  capitals  have  sculptured  on  each  of 
their  four  sides  a  full  face  of  Athor,  crowned  by  a  small  shrine  or  temple.  The 
sculptures,  which  are  of  less  merit  than  the  architecture,  represent  offerings  made 
by  some  of  the  early  Caesars ;  and  on  the  ceiling  are  various  mystical  subjects, 
probably  of  an  astronomical  import,  and  the  famous  quadrangular  zodiac,  which  is 
still  in  its  original  position. 

"  Passing  through  the  back  wall  of  the  portico  (which  was  at  one  time  the  front 
wall  of  the  temple),  the  visitor  enters  a  hall  supported  by  three  columns  on  each 
side,  with  cup- shaped  capitals  beneath  those  formed  by  the  temple- crowned  faces 
of  Athor ;  and  then  proceeding  right  onwards  through  two  similar  halls,  he  reaches 
the  sanctuary,  which  is  isolated  by  a  passage  running  all  round. 

"  On  each  side  of  the  temple  are  many  small  apartments,  and  two  entrance- 
ways  from  the  exterior,  as  well  as  singular  inclined  passages  in  the  walls,  two  of 
which  are  entered  from  the  sides  of  the  portico.  All  the  chambers  and  passages, 
except  the  two  last  mentioned,  are  profusely  covered  with  sculptures  and  inscrip- 
tions of  a  religious  character,  chiefly  depicting  and  narrating  the  piety  of  the 
sovereigns  by  whom  the  temple  was  erected.  The  royal  names  have  ii't  always 
been  filled  in  ;  but,  where  they  have  been  sculptured,  they  are  generally  those  of 
the  last  Cleopatra  and  Cajsarion,  her  son  by  Julius  Caesar. 

,  "  A  staircase  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  second  chamber  behind  the  portico 
conducts  to  the  roof  of  the  temple.  Here  are  a  sort  of  chape)  and  some  small 
chambers,  one  of  which  is  very  interesting,  because  its  sculptures  relate  to  the 
story  of  Osiris.  The  exterior  of  the  temple  is  as  completely  covered  with 
sculptures  as  the  interior.  Among  the  figures  there  represented  are  those  of 
Cleopatra  and  Cajsarion ;  but  they  cannot  be  supposed  to  bear  any  resemblance, 
since  they  belong  not  alone  to  a  conventional  art,  but  also  to  its  lowest  period. 

"  There  are  two  smaller  temples  within  the  same  inclosure  as  the  great  temple 
of  Athor,  one  dedicated  to  Isis  in  the  thirty- first  year  of  Augustus,  and  the  other 
usually  known  as  the  Typhonium,  from  the  representations  of  Typhon  on  the  capitals 
of  its  columns,  but  probably  connected  with  the  worship  of  Athor."  * 

;      It 

ThINIS— GiRGEH.  . 

In  the  broader  part  of  the  Xile  Valley,  below  Denderah,  the  two  hamlets  of 
Harabdt-d-Madfmeh,  that  is,  "  Ilarab&t  the  Buried,"  and  El-Khargeh,  still  mark 
the  site  of  Abi/dos.  Till  recently  these  ruins  had  been  identified  with  the  ancient 
This  (Thinis),  which  at  one  time  eclipsed  the  fame  of  Thebes  and  Memphis 
themselves.  But  according  to  Mariette  the  remains  of  this  venerable  place  should 
be  sought  lower  down,  either  at  Girgeh  itself  or  in  its  immediate  vicinity,  and  in  any 
case  it  is  now  certain  that  This  and  Abydos  were  two  different  places.  At  This 
was  bom  Mena,  or  Menes,  the  reputed  founder  of  the  Egyptian  monarchy.     Here 

•  "  Encyclopa9dia  Britannicn,"  ninth  edition,  art.  Penderah. 


f'- 


fii  ■jA'ntf'^Wif  rt  >".'i 


rt^iihiiii  I  I 


,rWil!ii^)^,.j^,, 


.»■ 


TIIINIS-OIEOEn. 


889 


t  is  supported  by 
ing  a  diameter  of 
stured  on  each  of 

or  temple.  The 
it  offerings  made 
lystical  subjects, 

zodiac,  which  is 

He  time  the  front 
columns  on  each 

)le-crowned  faces 
halls,  he  reaches 

id  two  entrance- 
the  walls,  two  of 
ers  and  passages, 
ures  and  inscrip- 
the  piety  of  the 
have  II '>t  always 
enerally  those  of 

ehind  the  portico 
'  and  some  small 
res  relate  to  the 
[y  covered  with 
ted  are  those  of 
any  resemblance, 
west  period, 
the  great  temple 
us,  and  the  other 
)U  on  the  capitals 


(  two  hamlets  of 
frgeh,  still  mark 
with  the  ancient 
9  and  Memphis 
ible  place  should 
inity,  and  in  any 
places.  At  This 
lonarchy.     Here 


also,  according  to  the  legend,  the  body  of  Osiris,  since  transported  to  PhiloD,  had 
been  buried  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years  before  that  event.  In  other  words,  to 
this  hallowed  spot  tradition  pointed  as  the  cradle  of  the  autochthonous  people,  from 
whoso  independently  developed  civilisation  is  mainly  derived  our  modern  culture, 
through  the  intermediate  channel  of  the  Hellenes. 

All  traces  have  vanished  of  the  temple  whither  pilgrims  were  attracted  from  all 
parts,  just  as  those  of  the  Christian  world  still  direct  their  footsteps  towards  the 


Fig.  117. — Abydob;  BAS-RBiiiEF  in  the  Temple  of  Seti  I.,  iiEPUESENTiNa  a  Scene  op 

ASOUATION. 


Holy  SepiJchre  of  Jerusalem.  But  the  nitrous  sands  of  the  district  have  revealed 
a  large  number  of  tombs  here  built  by  Egyptian  devotees  anxious  to  repose  by  the 
side  of  their  national  deity.  According  to  Maspero  far  more  than  half  of  all  the 
sepidchral  stones  presei-ved  in  the  European  museums  come  from  Abydos.  A 
group  of  tombs  large  enough  to  have  assumed  the  appearance  of  a  volcanic  mound 
is  known  by  the  name  of  K6m-es-Sultan,  or  "King's  Mount."  The  explorations 
here  being  made  continually  reveal  tombs  of  older  and  older  date,  the  farther  the 


890 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


search  is  prosecuted.  Hence  some  hope  has  been  expressed  that  sooner  or  later  the 
excavators  may  light  upon  the  very  entrance  of  the  crypt  that  led  to  the  shrine 
of  the  god  himself. 

To  the  original  sanctuary  has  succeeded  a  monument  which,  however  posterior 
to  the  temple  of  Osiris,  is  still  none  the  less  one  of  the  most  venerable  in  Egypt. 
This  is  the  so-called  Meinnonium,  here  erected  by  Seti  I.  thirty-three  centuries  ago, 
in  order  to  transmit  his  glory  to  future  generations,  but  which  his  son,  Kamses  II., 
turned  to  far  more  account  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  his  own  exploits. 
Geographical  lists  have  been  sculptured  on  the  basement  of  this  temple  of  Seti  I., 
and  the  British  Museum  possesses  a  "  table  of  Abydos,"  a  mutilated  list  of  kings 
from  the  temple  of  Ramses  II.  But  a  new  "  table  of  Abydos,"  containing  the 
complete  list  of  the  seventy- six  kings  from  Menes  to  Seti,  has  been  brought  to 
light  by  the  researches  of  Mariette. 

Below  Abydos  the  older  monuments  of  Egyptian  culture  have  for  the  most 
part  disappeared.  Here  nothing  is  met  except  towns  and  villages,  which,  if  not 
absolutely  modern,  no  longer  contain  any  important  remains  of  ancient  times. 
Oirgeh  or  Gerga,  capital  of  a  province,  stands  on  the  west  side  of  the  stream,  which 
being  here  abruptly  deflected  from  the  opposite  side,  has  eroded  the  left  bank, 
carrying  away  half  of  the  town,  with  its  mosques  and  minarets.  A  little  lower 
down,  Sohfiff  and  the  industrious  town  of  Akhmiii,  the  ancient  Cliemno  and  the 
Panopolis  of  the  Greeks,  face  each  other  on  either  side  of  the  river.  Then  follow 
on  the  western  plain,  Tdhta  and  Ahutig,  near  which  is  a  gorge  still  visited  by 
pilgrims,  who  here  assemble  to  worship  the  sacred  serpent  as  of  old.  In  this  part 
of  Upper  Egypt  the  Coptic  language  survived  for  some  time  after  it  had  become 
extinct  elsewhere  in  the  Nile  Valley. 


SlUT. 

Farther  on  near  the  sdme  bank,  but  more  inland,  are  seen  the  picturesque  out- 
lines of  a  large  town,  which  under  the  slightly  modified  form  of  Sint  or  Assiut 
has  preserved  its  ancient  name  of  Saut.  This  is  the  Li/copolis,  or  "  wolf  town,"  of 
the  Greeks,  so  named  because  it  was  dedicated  to  the  god  Anubis.  Platinus  was  a 
native  of  Siut,  which  as  the  capital  of  all  Upper  Egypt  is  a  place  of  some  trade 
and  industry.  Here  are  made  a  peculiar  kind  of  black,  white,  and  red  earthen- 
ware, and  pipes  so  highly  prized  that  they  are  even  exported  to  foreign  countries. 
The  bazaar  is  well  stocked  with  the  produce  of  Dar-F6r  and  the  surrounding 
oases,  which  finds  an  outlet  through  the  neighbouring  riverain  port  of  Hamrah. 
Till  recently  the  Coptic  monks  of  the  adjacent  village  of  Zawiet-el-Deir  carried 
on  under  special  privilege  the  nefarious  trade  in  the  mutilation  of  children,  who 
were  afterwards  sold  as  guardians  of  the  Egyptian  harems.  Other  Copts  are  more 
worthily  employed  in  the  weaving  of  linen  fabrics,  which  have  become  one  of  the 
specialities  of  the  industries  of  Upper  Egypt. 


THE  GREAT  AND  LITTLE  OASES. 


891 


>oner  or  later  tho 
ed  to  tho  shrino 

io\vcvor  posterior 
lerable  in  Egypt, 
ree  centuries  ago, 
son,  Ramses  II., 
is  own  exploits, 
temple  of  Seti  I., 
ated  list  of  kings 
containing  the 
been  brought  to 

ivo  for  the  most 
■es,  which,  if  not 
>f  ancient  times, 
ho  stream,  which 
i  the  left  bank, 
A  little  lower 
C/iemno  and  the 
r.  Then  follow 
>  still  visited  by 
d.  In  this  part 
er  it  had  become 


picturesque  out- 
•f  Siiit  or  Assiut 
"  wolf  town,"  of 
Platinus  was  a 
ce  of  some  trade 
md  red  earthen- 
oreign  countries, 
the  surrounding 
M)rt  of  Hamrah. 
t-el-Deir  carried 
of  children,  who 
r  Copts  are  more 
3come  one  of  the 


The  Great  and  Little  Oases. 

Siut,  more  than  any  other  Egyptian  town,  maintains  direct  relations  with  tho 
oases,  which  are  developed  in  a  vast  crescent  parallel  with  the  bend  of  tho  Nile 
sweeping  round  from  the  south  to  the  west  and  north-west.  Tho  "  Great "  or 
"  Southern "  Oasis,  known  also  as  that  of  Khargeh,  although  tho  largest,  is  no 
longer  the  most  populous,  but  still  enjoys  some  importance  as  a  station  for  the 
caravans  from  Dar-For.  Its  capital,  whose  site  hns  never  been  shifted  throughout 
historic  times,  has  preserved  a  temple  of  Ammon  built  during  the  reign  of  Darius, 

Fig,  118.— Red  Pottbry  of  Siut. 


"  Son  of  Isis  and  Osiris."  An  avenue  of  pylons  leads  to  the  sanctuary,  whose 
bas-reliefs  present  an  extraordinary  variety  of  historical  and  other  figures.  In  this 
respect  the  temple  of  Darius  is  altogether  unique.* 

All  the  surrounding  cliffs  are  pierced  with  sepulchral  chambers,  in  which 
Christian  tombs  are  very  numerous.  The  oasis  of  Boris,  more  to  the  south,  has 
also  preserved  an  Egyptian  temple  dating  from  the  Roman  period.  Round  about 
the  present  oasis  are  scattered  many  ruins,  showing  that  the  cultivated  lands 
formerly  covered  a  far  greater  extent  than  is  now  the  case.  All  these  tracts 
might  be  reclaimed  by  clearing  out  the  choked-up  wells,  and  draining  the  soil 
where  the  water  used  in  irrigating  the  rice-fields  in  some  places  forms  unhealthy 

,     ,    •  •  Hoskins' "  Visit  to  the  Great  Oasis  of  the  Libyan  Desert." 


802 


NORTH-EAST  AFllICA. 


marfihcs.  The  inhabitants,  of  somewhat  darker  comploxion  than  the  Egyptians, 
due  ])robably  to  a  mixture  of  Negro  blood,  for  the  most  part  present  u  eudaverous 
look.  They  are  ulso  very  poor,  being  often  obliged  to  pay  tho  taxes  in  kind  with 
palm-leuf  baskets  and  suchlike  articles. 

Within  tho  Kasr  of  Khargoh  the  buildings  are  crowdod  one  on  the  other,  and 
the  network  of  narrow  lanes  runs  underground  through  vaulted  galleries.  At  rare 
intervals  an  aperture  like  that  of  a  well  gives  access  to  a  dazzling  ray  of  light, 
relieving  the  gloom  of  these  dark  passages.  Such  is  the  style  of  building  preva- 
lent throughout  all  the  towns  of  Siwah,  as  well  as  in  many  other  towns  in  the 
oases,  and  tho  same  arrangement  occurs  even  in  Nubia. 

The  Wah-el-Gharbieh,  or  "  Western  Oasis,"  better  known  as  that  of  Dakhel, 
or  Dakhleh,  that  is,  the  "  Interior,"  is  by  far  the  most  densely  peopled,  although 
scarcely  mentioned  by  the  ancient  writers.     Like  Khargeh,  it  has  its  temple  of 


Fig.  119.— Oasbr  of  Kharobh  and  Dakubi.. 
Soala  1 :  S.SOaooo. 


CnltiTatod  Traots. 

80  MUw. 


P 

f 


Jupiter  Ammon,  which  is  situated  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  capital  known  by 
the  name  of  El-Kasr,  or  "  The  Castle."  This  is  probably  the  sanctuary  that 
Cambyses  intended  to  visit  during  the  expedition  to  the  south  which  ended  so 
disastrously.  The  population  consists  of  fellahtn  with  the  same  usages  and 
engaged  in  the  same  pursuits  as  those  of  the  Nile  Valley,  but  far  more  crowded 
together.  Every  foot  of  available  land  is  carefully  cultivated,  and  the  date  groves, 
tended  with  almost  filial  devotion,  yield  abundant  supplies  of  delicious  fruit. 

Although  described  as  a  "detached  fragment  of  Egypt,"  the  Dakhel  oasis 
nevertheless  differs  from  it  in  its  vegetation.  Here  are  found  plantations  of  olives, 
lemons,  and  oranges  interspersed  among  the  palm  groves,  and  producing  the  finest 
fruits  of  the  oases.  The  inhabitants  of  Dakhel  have  a  few  horses,  but  they  have 
failed  to  breed  camels,  in  consequence  of  a  poisonous  fly  that  infests  the  district 
during  the  summer,  and  whose  bite  is  fatal  to  this  animal.     To  the  want  of  camels 


ia'niiKiiUirimitim, 


THE  GREAT  AND  LITTLE  OASES. 


808 


the  Egyptians, 

nt  ti  cuduvoruus 

WB  in  kiud  with 

a  the  other,  anil 
llorics.  At  rare 
ag  ray  of  light, 
building  prova- 
er  towns  in  the 

that  of  Dakhel, 
eopled,  although 
as  its  temple  of 


apital  known  by 
B  sanctuary  that 
which  ended  so 
ime  usages  and 
ir  more  crowded 
the  date  groves, 
ious  fruit, 
he  Dakhel  oasis 
itations  of  olives, 
ducing  the  finest 
58,  but  they  have 
fests  the  district 
}  want  of  camels 


iR  mninly  attributod  tho  profound  ignorance  of  the  nativos  rosi)rctiiig  the  wildor- 
nesH  Htrotching  woHtwurds.  For  thora  the  sandy  shores  of  tlicir  islet  uro  like  thoxe 
of  tho  trackless  ocean  on  which  no  sail  is  seen. 

Tho  small  oasis  ol'  Furafreh  lies  exactly  under  tho  same  parallel  us  Siut,  but 
180  miles  in  a  straight  lino  to  the  west.  It  is  of  little  iniportunco,  and  all  of  its 
few  hundred  inhabitants  might  easily  find  a  refuge  within  the  enclosure  of  the 
Kasr,  which  commands  the  chief  hamlet.  It  hap  been  only  twice  visited  by 
European  explorers,  Cailliaud  in  1819  and  Rohlfs  with  his  companions  in  1874. 
Nor  is  Farafreh  very  well  disposed  towards  the  "  Infidel,"  thanks  to  the  brother- 

Fig.  120. — TJndbhohound  Pabsaoi  at  Mihu«di.  nbar  Mahahhaka,  Nvhia. 


hood  of  the  Senusi,  who  have  here  found  a  large  number  of  adherents.  These 
Mohammedan  missionaries,  who  arrived  poor,  are  now  the  largest  proprietors  in 
the  oasis.  They  have  in  fact  reduced  the  whole  population  to  a  state  of  serfdom, 
in  return  for  their  enforced  labour  teaching  them  a  few  verses  from  the  Koran. 
In  this  way  all  the  children  have  learnt  to  read  and  write. 

The  Bakharieh  Oasis,  lying  nearer  to  the  Nile  Valley  and  being  better  supplied 
with  springs  than  Farafreh,  is  also  far  more  densely  peopled.  This  is  probably 
the  "  Little  Oasis  "  of  the  ancients,  and  here  are  still  to  be  seen  a  few  monuments 
dating  from  the  Roman  period,  including  a  noble  triumphal  arch,  some  under- 
ground aqueducts  and  fortifications.  :-       ^    ^ 


.■'''iP'\.',«BjHt"lt"'." 


804 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


SlWAH — GaRA. 

Tho  OU80H  further  reinovod  from  the  Nile  uiid  forming  a  phyHical  dependonce 
of  Cyrciiuioii  mther  than  of  the  fluviul  region,  constitute  the  Siwuh  group,  fuiuous 
in  ancient  tiniea  for  the  oracle  of  Ammon,  which,  according  to  IIurodotuM,  was  of 
e(piul  anticjuity  with  that  o£  Dodonu.  Siwah  and  Agrrmi,  the  two  chief  towns  in 
the  oasis,  are  built.of  nunimulitic  limestone  and  blocks  of  impure  rock  salt,  each  on 
the  slope  of  a  rocky  hill.  Their  outer  walls  and  terraces  are  so  disposed  as  to 
form  irregular  fortresses  of  extremely  picturesque  appearance.  That  of  Siwuh, 
approached  by  no  less  than  fifteen  gates,  has  a  circumference  of  not  more  than 
1,260  feet,  and  its  ramparts  are  surmounted  by  high,  square,  and  round  towers,  all 


Pig.  121.— Thh  Siwah  Gams. 

Boale  1 :  8aa,00O. 


29' 
lb' 


0/.D»h»hm 


^0L^^.  "-'^'^M^. 


llf.Ouaa 


?**'; 


?Ji?^ 


>«s&4%v 


29 
101 


26-40 


f 

.of  G 

reeiiwlch 

mm 

steppe. 

Saline. 
6MUee. 

SB-SO' 


■*:• 


of  different  form.  These  towers  are  in  reality  so  many  houses  piled  up  close 
together,  and  built  over  a  labyrinth  of  subterranean  galleries.  The  town  thus 
grows  in  height  before  its  base  is  broadened  out. 

The  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  whither  the  Macedonian  conqueror  went  to 
have  himself  oracularly  proclaimed  master  of  the  world,  is  still  standing  near 
Agermi,  and  within  half  a  mile  are  visible  the  ruins  of  another  sanctuary  amid  the 
surrounding  palm-trees.  Tho  hieroglyphics  on  this  building  have  not  yet  been 
deciphered.  The  Jebel-el-Mutah,  one  of  the  isolated  crags  in  the  Siwah  depression, 
is  honeycombed  in  all  directions  by  the  galleries  of  a  necropolis. 

Dates  are  the  staple  commodity  of  Siwah,  M.  Jourdan  made  an  attempt  to 
calculate  the  produce  of  the  date  groves  in  this  oasis,  taking  as  a  standard  of 
measurement  the  cube  of  the  fruit  accumulated  for  the  expedition  on  the  market- 


I,  I  WW" 


ASIIMl'NKIN  -  ANTINOK. 


8or> 


lyHicul  (Iflpondonce 
villi  group,  fuinous 
Herodotus,  wus  of 
two  chief  towiiH  in 
rock  milt,  ouch  on 

M)   disiH)SC(l  UN  to 

Thut  of  Siw.ih, 

of  not  more  thun 

round  towers,  uU 


Bs  piled  up  close 
The  town  thus 

>nqueror  went  to 
11  standing  near 
nctuary  amid  the 
ave  not  yet  been 
Siwah  depression, 

de  an  attempt  to 
as  a  standard  of 
n  on  the  market- 


pliico  near  the  grout  curuvanHO' \i.  Aoeordiiig  to  tluH  rough  CHtiniiitt'  llm  oiio 
liundred  thousand  pitliiiH  of  Hiwuh  might  supply  three  million  kilogriiniineH  of  dateH, 
and  those  of  Agernii  much  about  the  wime  (piimtity.  This  in  excdusivo  of  the 
public  plantations,  which  yield  fruit  of  an  inferior  (ptulity,  Hupplying  foiMer  for  the 
animals. 

The  salt  of  Siwah,  whitih  is  of  a  superior  quJlity,  wum  fonnerly  roserved  for 
cortuiii  religious  ceremonies,  and  was  exported  us  far  uh  Persiii  for  the  use  of  the 
royal  household.  The  inhabitants  of  Siwah,  who  are  of  indolent  habits,  seek  no 
foreign  markets  for  uU  these  commodities,  or  for  the  tobacco  smuggled  into  the  oasis 
from  the  coast  of  Cyrenaica.  Of  disagreeable  appearance,  and  probably  of  very 
mixed  origin,  they  betray  no  resemblance  to  the  fellahin,  but  are  as  emaciated  and 
fever-stricken  in  appearance  as  the  natives  of  El-Khargeh.  Their  language  is  of 
Berl)er  origin,  although  most  of  them  understand  and  even  speak  a  little  Arabic. 
They  are  excessively  jealous,  and  oblige  all  the  unmarried  adult  males,  whether 
bachelors  or  widowers,  to  dwell  together  outside  the  town  in  a  sort  of  fortress,  where 
they  remain  shut  up  during  the  night.  Newly  married  people  remove  at  once  to 
the  town,  a  sort  of  common  tribal  harem,  where  the  husbond's  kindred  assign  them 
the  upper  story  of  their  pyramidal  houses.  In  these  dwellings  the  generations  are 
thus  distributed  on  an  /iscending  scale  from  the  ground-floor  upwards. 

The  village  of  Oara,  in  the  oasis  of  like  name,  presents  like  Siwah  the  aspect  of 
a  feudal  stronghold. 

The  inhabitants  of  Siwah  and  Gara  are  still  very  fanatical,  although  Icse  so  than 
those  of  the  oasis  of  Faredgha,  which  lies  farther  west  in  the  direction  of  the  Gulf 
of  Cabes.  Here  on  the  slopes  of  the  plateau  skirting'  the  depression  on  the  north, 
is  situated  the  parent  house  of  the  Senusi  brotherhood.  Jarabub  or  Jerkbdb,  as 
this  place  is  variously  called,  was  founded  in  the  year  1860,  as  the  residence  of 
Sidi  Mohammed  el-Mahdi,  the  grand-master  of  the  Senusi.  A  small  arsenal 
and  a  small-arms  factory  are  attached  to  this  monastery,  the  inmates  of  which, 
mostly  immigrants  from  Algeria,  Morocco,  and  other  distant  Mohammedan  countries, 
appear  to  have  numbered  about  760  in  the  year  1883.  According  to  Godfrey  Both, 
the  Mahdi  of  Faredgha  is  the  "  benefactor  of  the  Bedouins."  To  him  is  due  the 
establishment  in  the  Sahara  of  over  fifty  stations  where  caravans  can  obtain  water 
and  provisions. 

ASHMUNEIM — AnTINOE. 

From  Siut  to  Cairo  all  the  towns,  connected  together  by  the  Nile  Valley  railway, 
follow  along  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  the  only  side  skirted  by  a  broad  zone  of  land 
under  cultivation.  Beyond  Manfalut  begins  the  Ibrahimieh  Canal,  which  derives 
its  supply  from  the  Bahr-Yusef.  Here  the  plains  are  intersected  in  all  directions 
by  channels  and  irrigation  rills.  This  fertile  region  of  Egypt  was  formerly  covered 
with  several  large  towns.  At  the  foot  of  the  Arabian  range  lies  the  great  necro- 
polis of  Tell-el-Amarna,  where  all  the  dead  were  placed  under  the  protection  of  the 
Semitic  god  Aten  (Adon,  Adonai),  the  "  radiant  orb." 

Ashmunein,  near  the  station  and  large  sugar  factory  of  Roda,  occupies  the  site 


*ir'  I'f 


8M 


Nonm-EAHT  AFRICA. 


of  Khniuiiii,  whicli  tho  OrorkM  and  UutnaiiH  railed  ITfrmopnllH  Marfnti,  and  wlumo 
i)tM>r(i|Miliit,  rx(<avat<>(l  in  tho  Libyan  hilU,  coiitaiitN  largo  nuuib<.>rH  of  muiiiiiiitit'd 
iitim's  and  (>yn(M>«>])halN. 

Farther  cumI  on  tho  ripfht  bank,  over  af^ainnt  tho  town  of  MnUaireh-rl-Ariiih,  iho 
palm  grovcK  Murroundinf?  Sheikh- Ahmli'h  aro  Mtrown  with  riiiuM,  tho  roniainH  <>f  tho 
finoiont  Aiidiior,  found(>d  by  Hadrian  in  honour  of  AntinouH.  NutnorouH  inonu- 
inontN  of  thiH  Roman  city,  notably  Honio  Huporb  Doric  and  (^orinthian  colon Ilado^4, 
were  Htill  Htanding  down  to  tho  middle  of  tho  prew^nt  century.  Hut  thoy  havo 
Hiiu'o  Ikhmi  doHtroyod  to  supply  limo  and  building  matorialH  for  the  modern  buildingH 
in  tho  (liHtrict.  This  part  uf  tho  Arabian  range  uIhu  cuntuiuH  u  vuHt  nuinbor  of 
sepulchral  chamlwrH. 

North  of  Shoikh-Abadch  tho  cliffH  conceal  other  grottocH,  some  of  which  aro 
nearly  five  thouHtind  years  old.  These  subterranean  buildings  which  take  theiumio 
of  Unii-IfdMKfiii,  from  a  neighl)ouring  village,  comprise  tho  most  intoroHting  tombs 
in  all  Kgypt,  prociw.'ly  bt>cuu80  thoy  are  not  consecratiHl  to  kings  and  high  ufticials 
of  the  royal  courtn.  Tho  picturoH  on  the  walls  have  less  conventional  pomp,  and 
repreHont  fewer  funeral  rites  and  mystic  ceremonies ;  but  they  intnKluce  us  to 
the  very  life  of  the  people :  its  struggles,  its  pursuits  of  all  kinds,  its  family  circles  ; 
itR  iportH  and  games,  such  as  pitc^h  and  toss,  tennis,  hot  cockles,  and  even  cricket. 
Tho  painted  bas-reliefs  of  these  tombs  reveal  to  us  the  Egyptians  of  the  olden 
times,  such  as  they  were  in  war,  on  their  farms,  in  tho  workshop,  in  their  hours  of 
relaxation  and  repose.  Hero  are  revealed  all  the  secrets  of  their  crafts,  and  the 
very  tricks  of  their  jugglers  and  mountebanks. 


# 


^ 


MiMEH — AbU-GiKG. 

Minieh,  or  Minivt,  which  has  replaced  the  ancient  Munat-Khufu,  or  "  Nurse  of 
Cheops,"  is  a  provincial  capital,  and  still  one  of  the  great  cities  of  Egypt.  It  has 
preserved  no  remains  of  its  ancient  monuments  ;  but  a  large  market  is  held  under 
its  wide-sprmding  sycamores,  and  its  sugar  factory  is  one  of  the  most  active  in  the 
country.  On  a  cliff  near  Minieh  stands  the  famous  Deir-cl-Bakara,  or  "  Convent 
of  the  Pulley,"  so  called  from  a  pulley-rope  by  which  its  Coptic  monks  let  them- 
selves down  to  the  river,  and  swim  out  to  ask  bakshish  of  every  passing  vessel. 

In  the  interior  of  the  Arabian  desert,  but  much  nearer  to  the  Red  Sea  than 
tho  Nile,  aro  situated  two  other  convents  of  the  "  Lower  Thebais,"  Saint  Anthony 
and  Saint  Paid,  the  first  of  which,  with  a  commimity  of  about  fifty  monks,  is  tho 
oldest  Christian  monastery  not  only  in  Egypt,  but  in  the  whole  world.  Both 
possess  shady  gardens  enclosed  within  the  convent  walls. 

The  town  of  Abu-Girg,  standing  near  the  Nile  and  on  the  railway,  has  sup- 
planted in  commercial  importance  its  former  rival  Behneseh,  which  lies  more  to  the 
north-west  on  the  Bahr-Yusef  amid  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Patmjat,  the  Oxyrrhin- 
chos  of  the  Greeks.  Then  follow  farther  down  the  valley  Maghaga,  Fenhn,  and 
Beni-Sucf,  the  last-named  capital  of  a  province  and  a  trading- place,  where  some 
cloth -mills  are  kept  going.      From  time  immemorial  this  has  also  been  the  chief 


;-i# 


iiiiiiii^»<ife»aii'W  'ii'ii'  i^liHiiiii'iii^ 


y»i  iiii'»ili—p»»«min«pi»<r«i"' 


KI,  r^AIlUN— AIIHINOK. 


807 


Mnrjnn,  and  whow 
bcTH  of  muiaiiiituMl 

llaiteh-rl-AriHit,  tho 
tho  roitiuiiiH  of  tho 
NumcrmiH  monu- 
nthitin  coIoiiiiiuIoh, 
y.     But  thoy  huvo 

0  iiUMliTii  buildings 
u  vuMt  numbor  of 

sorno  of  which  uro 
hich  tuko  tho  numo 
;  intcrcHtiiig  tombs 

1  and  high  otticiuls 
ntionul  pomp,  und 
sy  intnHluco  uh  to 
,  itH  family  circles  ; 

and  oven  cricket, 
tians  of  the  olden 
I,  in  their  hours  of 
Eiir  crafts,  and  the 


lifu,  or  "  Nurse  of 
f  Egypt.  It  has 
rkot  is  held  under 
most  active  in  the 
ara,  or  "  Convent 
I  monks  let  them- 
)a88ing  vessel, 
he  Red  Sea  than 
"  Saint  Anthony 
fty  monks,  is  the 
)le  world.    Both 

railway,  has  sup- 
1  lies  more  to  the 
it,  the  Oxyrrhin- 
ihaga,  Feishn,  and 
lace,  where  some 
D  been  the  chief 
'■■■  '  " '   '""".  % 


centre  for  those  hiitcliiiig  ovciim,  or  iirtiHciul  hiitchrrH,  which  have  for  ii^os 
couHtitutfd  one  of  tho  npt-fiul  induHtrit'H  of  Kgy])t  Bciii-Siuf  hiiH  Hucceedcd  tho 
ancient  Ilt'rnclmpoliH,  wliich  wan  a  royiil  rcMideiice  during  the  ninth  and  teiitli 
dynaHtioH,  and  the  ruins  of  which  lie  fartlier  west,  Hcattered  round  the  modj>rn 
village  of  AhnaH-(<I-M«><lin«'h.  TravelierH  intending  to  viwt  tlio  Kiiyuni  d«'pn'NMion 
gem'riilly  leave  the  main  route  at  Heni-Suef  or  wtnie  of  the  neighbouring  Htations 
nearer  to  (!airo,  and  take  tho  routes  leading  westwardH.  I'rom  Kl-\VitHta  they 
reach  the  province  directly  by  a  branch  line;  but  from  the  two  Houthern  HtationH 
tho  Fayura  is  approached  through  the  opening  followe<l  by  the  Bahr-YuNcf 
Canal,  which  was  formerly  lined  by  monuments  dating  from  the  ejx)eh  of  tho 
Pharaohs. 

Ei,-LAmrN — Arsinok. 

At  tho  very  entrance  of  the  gorge,  near  tho  village  of  El-Lnhun  {llUthun), 
which  has  preserved  its  ancient  Egyptian  name  of  Lo-IIun,  or  "  Mouth  of  the 
Canal,"  are  seen  the  remains  of  the  dam  and  sluices  by  which  the  waters  of  Lake 
Mceris  wore  regulated.  Farther  on  stands  a  pyramid,  now  a  shapeless  mound, 
which  is  supposed  to  have  been  erected  by  Amenemha  III.,  under  whose  reign  the 
vast  lacustrine  reservoir  was  excavated.  Another  j)yramid,  called  by  the  name  of 
Ilowara,  about  100  feet  high,  occupies  a  site  beyond  the  gorge  within  ihe  circular 
basin  of  tho  Fayum,  tho  ancient  "  country  of  tho  sea."  Formed  of  a  rocky 
nucleus,  round  which  have  been  built  layers  of  bricks  made  of  the  Nile  mud,  this 
structure  presents  somewhat  tho  appearance  of  a  natural  hillock ;  but  it  is  in  a 
good  state  of  repair,  compared  at  least  with  tho  building  which  Lepsius  supposed 
must  have  been  tho  famous  "  Labyrinth,  which  comprised  two  stories  of  fifteen 
hundred  chambers  each,  where  tho  visitor  became  entangled  in  endless  passages." 

Of  the  sumptuous  group  of  buildings  forming  the  Loparohun,  or  "  Temple  of 
tho  Canal  Mouth,"  if  it  really  stood  on  this  spot,  nothing  now  remains  except  heaps 
of  rubbish,  crumbling  brick  walls,  vcHtiges  of  gateways,  and  some  choice  fragments 
of  sculpture  in  granite  and  limestone.  Here  has  also  been  discovered  the  head  of 
a  royal  sphinx,  resembling  those  of  S&n,  a  proof  that  tho  Ilykb-  h  must  have  pene- 
trated into  this  part  of  Egypt.  A  papyrus  preserved  in  the  museiun  at  Bulaq 
contains  a  minute  description  of  the  ancient  edifice,  and  serves  as  a  "  guide-book  " 
to  the  archa)ologists,  who  are  endeavouring  to  restore  the  original  plan. 

The  flooded  basin  of  Lake  Mceris,  over  four  miles  broad,  and  enclosed  by 
embankments  which  can  here  and  there  still  be  traced,  formerly  separated  the 
Labyrinth  from  Pa-sebak,  one  of  the  great  cities  of  Egypt.  This  "  City  of  the 
Crocodile,"  as  its  name  indicates,  was  the  Arsinoe  of  the  epoch  of  the  Ptolemies, 
when  it  still  covered  a  vast  extent  of  ground.  The  remains  of  walls,  a  broken 
obelisk,  and  other  dc^bris,  show  that  it  stretched  for  at  least  five  miles  in  the  direc- 
tion from  north  to  south.  In  some  of  the  neighbouring  tombs  have  been  discovered 
several  papyrus  manuscripts  of  the  highest  interest,  written  in  various  languages 
— Egyptian,  Hebrew,  and  even  Pehlvi,  or  old  Persian.  The  Greek  documents  have 
furnished  variant  readings  of  the  text  of  Thucydides,  Aristotle,  and  the  Gospels. 


|PUI!ll«i|il|.,iJ||i»»_qiilj.ii]|i,»u<« 


898 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


Mei)Inet-el-Fayum — Kasr-Kerun. 

Medmet-cl-Fayum,  the  modern  capital,  whicli  was  a  country  residence  of  the 
Maraeluk  dynanty,  is  one  of  the  most  animated  and  original  as  well  as  one  of  the 
pleasantest  places  in  Egypt.  The  gardens  yield  in  abundance  fruits  and  flowers, 
amongst  others  those  lovely  roses  which  are  at  once  the  glory  and  the  chief  wealth 
of  the  Fayum,  being  used  by  the  Copts  in  the  preparation  of  costly  essences. 

North  of  Medinet  stands  Senhures,  also  an  important  town.  The  surrounding 
plains  of  the  lacustrine  basin,  fabled  to  have  been  originally  conquered  from 
Typhon — that  is,  reclaimed  from  the  wilderness  through  the  beneficent  influence  of 
Osiris,  tutelar  deity  of  the  Nile  waters — yield  rich  crops  of  wheat,  cotton,  maize, 
sugar.  The  sugar  factories  of  this  district  are  connected  by  numerous  branches 
with  the  main  railway  system.  But  the  cultivation  of  some  plants  has  had  to  be 
abandoned,  owing  to  the  increasing  saline  character  of  the  soil,  insufficiently 
saturated  by  tbe  irrigating  waters.  The  vineyards,  which  during  the  seventeenth 
century  were  cultivated  in  the  neighbourhood  of  seven  different  villages,  have 
entirely  disappeared. 

Near  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Birket-el-Kerun,  the  "  Lake  of  Ages  "  or 
of  "  the  Horns,"  as  it  is  variously  interpreted,  where  are  collected  the  superfluous 
waters  from  the  irrigation  canals,  are  seen  the  ruins  of  a  temple  bearing  the  name 
of  Kasr-Kerun,  or  "  Horn  Castle,"  which  is  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Dionysim.  South  of  the  lake  the  plain  stretches  away  in  the  direction  of 
the  Wady-Reyan,  some  parts  of  which,  separated  by  a  rising  ground  from  the 
"  Lake  of  Ages,"  lie  some  270  feet  below  the  entrance  of  the  Bahr-Yusef  at 
El-Lahun.  It  was  in  this  depression  that  Cope  Whitehouse  expected  to  find  the 
great  reservoir  of  Lake  Moeris !  •    -        ' 

Meidum — Saqqarah. 

Almost  immediately  to  the  north  of  the  entrance  to  the  Fayum  stands  the 
remarkable  pyramid  of  Meidum,  with  vvhich  begins  the  long  line  of  monuments  of 
this  type  terminating  northwards  beyond  Memphis.  The  sloping  walls  of  the 
Meidum,  which  terminated  in  two  retreating  stories,  spring  from  the  midst  of  a 
pile  of  refuse  encircled  by  a  number  of  tombs.  This  curious  monument,  whose 
present  height  exceeds  200  feet,  is  known  to  the  natives  as  the  "  False  Pyramid ; " 
but  its  antiquity  is  much  less  than  was  till  recently  supposed.  According  to 
Maspero,  by  whom  it  has  been  opened,  it  dates  only  from  the  eleventh  or  even  tho 
twelfth  dynasty.  '''■■■..  :r'',::-i---/'-----'-  ^\''-L-^.'t':.'-'':'::-:^'    '-■■''.:''•''%;■ 

Farther  on  the  village  of  Matanieh  is  overshadowed  by  two  other  pyramids, 
one  of  which  is  of  the  classical  type,  while  the  other,  more  inclined  towards  the 
summit  than  in  the  lower  section,  presents  the  appearance  of  an  enormous  prism. 
Then  follow  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Nile  the  four  so-called  pyramids  of 
Dashur,  one  of  which  attains  a  height  of  330  feet.  This  ranks  as  the  third  in 
height  of  all  the  Egyptian  pyramids,  and  has  preserved  its  original  facing  of 


L 


YiMMteitMiHif iw^...,.<iat,iMinT.;^-»^^gi)-^feS^3;^:^»K^^. 


■|lllHl«i|lll|..H»|ijify»)iWi.  . 


"J'^?,'"!'!'»i":    — 


MEIDUM— SAQQARAH. 


899 


esidencc  of  the 
11  as  one  of  the 
its  and  flowers, 
;he  chief  wealth 
essences, 
he  surrounding 
conquered  from 
cnt  influence  of 
i,  cotton,  maize, 
lerous  branches 
s  has  had  to  be 
il,  insufficiently 
the  seventeenth 
t  villages,  have 

e  of  Ages  "  or 
the  superfluous 
«ring  the  name 
the  site  of  the 
;he  direction  of 
ouod  from  the 
Bahr-Yusef  at 
3ted  to  find  the 


um  stands  the 
monuments  of 
g  walls  of  the 
the  midst  of  a 
nument,  whose 
Ise  Pyramid ; " 
According  to 
ith  or  even  the 

ther  pyramids, 
ed  towards  the 
lormous  prism, 
d  pyramids  of 
18  the  third  in 
inal  facing  of 


polished  stone  better  than  any  other.  The  seventeen  similar  structures  which 
are  disposed  in  a  line  along  the  foot  of  the  Libyan  escarpment  above  the  village  of 
Saqqarah,  are  all  surpassed  in  elevation  by  the  famous  three-storied  pyramid, 
regarded  by  most  Egyptologists  as  the  most  ancient  of  all.  Its  very  form, 
modelled  on  the  outlines  of  numerous  crags  in  the  Libyan  range,  appears  to  have 
been  the  primitive  type  of  all  these  monuments.  According  to  Mariette,  it  dates 
from  the  first  dynasty,  and  must  consequently  be  at  least  sixty-five  centuries  old. 

Several  of  the  recently  opened  Saqqarah  pyramids  have  been  thoroughly 
explored,  and  were  found  to  contain  the  tombs  of  some  of  the  sovereigns  of  the 
sixth  dynasty.     Square  structures  in  the  form  of  huge  sepulchral  blocks,  standing 

Fig.  122. — Pthajuid  of  MEinuii. 


on  the  skirt  of  the  Libyan  cliffs,  are  the  so-called  mastaba,  which  are  built  over  the 
chambers  of  the  dead  here  excavated  in  the  live  rock.  The  largest  of  these 
sepulchral  buildings,  known  to  the  Arabs  by  the  name  of  Mastaba-el-Faraun,  is 
traditionally  said  to  have  been  the  seat  from  the  summit  of  which  the  early 
Egyptian  monarchs  proclaimed  their  will  to  the  people.  But  the  explorations 
carried  out  on  the  spot  have  shown  that  it  was  the  tomb  of  Unas,  a  high  official  of 
the  fifth  dynasty.  The  tombs  of  this  vast  necropolis  are  diAdded  into  square  groups 
by  streets  running  at  right  angles ;  and  Maspero  suggests  that  the  pyramids  were 
also  disposed  in  some  similar  symmetrical  order.  Those  of  the  first  dynasties  are 
situated  in  the  extreme  north,  those  of  the  twelfth  in  the  Fayum  ;    while  between 


TiarTOT 


liiliW 


mmmm 


"*wm 


400 


NOETH-EAST  AFEICA. 


, 


these  two  groups  archaeologists  may  expect  to  come  upon  the  royal  tombs  of  the 
sixth  to  the  eleventh  dynasty  inclusive.  Thus  would  be  filled  up  the  "  great  gap  " 
indicated  by  Mariette  in  the  sequence  of  the  historical  monuments  of  ancient 
Egypt. 

Memphis. 

At  the  foot  of  the  slopes  crowned  by  the  pyramids  of  Saqqarah,  the  inequalities 
of  the  soil  conceal  all  that  now  remains  of  Memphis.  The  little  village  of 
Budreshein  occupies  the  southern  extremity,  that  of  Mit-Rahineh,  the  central  point 
of  this  region  of  ruins,  a  large  portion  of  which  is  now  overgrown  with  a  forest  of 
palms.  The  city,  whose  foundation  is  attributed  to  Menes,  must  have  covered  a 
vast  space,  judging  at  least  from  the  remains  of  embankments  here  skirting  the 
river,  and  the  heaps  of  refuse  strewn  over  the  plain.  But  this  great  metropolis, 
while  escaping  the  destroying  hand  of  the  conqueror,  fell  a  surer  prey  to  the 
inevitable  vicissitudes  of  time.  The  foundation  of  Alexandria,  followed  by  the 
rise  of  Cairo,  "  the  victorious,"  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  possessing  geo- 
graphical advantages  fully  equal  to  those  of  Memphis,  rendered  the  existence  of 
this  place  unnecessary.  Its  marbles  and  its  granites  were  floated  down  to 
Alexandria;  its  less  valuable  materials  were  utilised  by  the  builders  of  the 
neighbouring  towns;  what  remained  was  distributed  among  the  surrounding 
villages  of  the  fellahin.  Nothing  survives  but  tiie  name,  perpetuated  in  that  of 
the  Tell  Moiif,  or  "  Hill  of  Memphis,"  and  two  colossal  statues  of  Ramses  II.  in 
the  immediate  vicinity.  The  vast  necropolis  of  M-^mphis,  which  covered  an  area 
of  over  a  hundred  square  miles,  has  been  a  receptacle  for  many  millions  of 
human  and  animal  mummies. 

Many  monuments  doubtless  lie  buried  beneath  the  sands  borne  by  the  west 
.winds  from  the  Libyan  desert.  Mariette,  observing  in  the  year  1850  the  head  of 
a  granite  sphinx,  which  had  been  exposed  by  a  current  of  air,  conceived  the  idea 
that  here  perhaps  lay  concealed  the  avenue  of  the  Serapeum,  described  by  Strabo. 
He  accordingly  at  once  set  to  work,  and  had  the  satisfaction  of  finding  his  anticipa- 
tions verified.  By  sinking  shafts  to  a  depth  of  65  feet  at  uniform  distances  over 
a  space  of  about  220  yards,  he  came  upon  an  avenue  where  one  hundred  and  forty- 
one  sphinxes  were  still  in  situ,  and  terminating  with  a  semicircular  row  of  statues 
representing  the  great  men  of  Greece.  Then  to  the  left  he  reached  an  Egyptian 
temple  built  by  Nectanebo,  and  farther  on  he  discovered  to  the  right  the  entrance 
of  the  vast  underground  chambers  forming  the  tomb  of  Apis.  Thus  was  con- 
firmed the  fact,  anticipated  by  science  but  hitherto  unproven,  that  the  god  Serapis, 
or  Osor-Apis,  was  the  bull  Apis  after  his  death,  that  is  to  say,  the  incarnation  of 
Osiris.  The  works  of  excavation  were  not  unattended  by  diflBculties  and  even 
dangers,  for  even  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  the  savant  has  sometimes  to  contend 
with  jealous  rivals ;  but  the  results  were  of  vast  importance. 

The  clearing  out  of  the  Serapeum  brought  to  light  no  less  than  seven  thousand 
monuments,  the  most  valuable  of  which  are  now  preserved  in  the  Louvre  and 
Bulaq  Museum.      A  series  of  chronological  inscriptions  was  also  discovered,  by 


'  \*"' ' 


CAIRO  AND  ITS   ENVIRONS. 


tombs  of  the 
"  great  gap  " 
ts  of  ancient 


10  inequalities 
le  village  of 
central  point 
ith  a  forest  of 
live  covered  a 
i  skirting  the 
at  metropolis, 

prey  to  the 
lowed  by  the 
)S8es8ing  geo- 
e  existence  of 
ited  down  to 
lilders  of  the 

surrounding 
!ted  in  that  of 
Hamses  II.  in 
)vered  an  area 
y  millions  of 

8  by  the  west 
>0  the  head  of 
leived  the  idea 
led  by  Strabo. 
>  his  anticipa- 
distances  over 
red  and  forty- 
row  of  statues 
[  an  Egyptian 
t  the  entrance 
?hu8  was  con- 
e  god  Serapifl, 
incarnation  of 
ties  and  even 
nes  to  contend 

even  thousand 
e  Louvre  and 
discovered,  by 


CPerra 


NEW  TTOHK,  D.  APPLETON  8c C9 


^.  •  '%-^<^.'^m^^^^\ 


'WllWiiH" 


THE  OEEAT  PYRAMIDS. 


401 


means  of  which  Mariette  was  able  to  determine  with  certainty  the  chronology  of 
Egypt  as  far  back  as  the  year  980  of  the  old  era. 

The  necropoles  of  Saqqarah  have  also  furnished  Mariette  and  other  explorers 
with  objects  of  the  highest  interest,  amongst  others  the  "  Table  of  Saqqarah," 
containing  a  list  of  kings,  and  the  statue  of  a  scribe  with  eye  of  rock  crystal  and 
characteristic  expression,  now  deposited  in  the  Louvro.  One  of  the  tombs,  that  of 
Ti,  described  by  M.  de  Rouge  as  the  "  marvel  of  Saqqarah,"  forms  an  exquisite 
idyl,  with  its  series  of  charming  scenes  representing  the  landscapes,  daily  labours, 
and  pleasures  of  rural  life.  One  of  the  scenes  bears  a  legend  in  these  words, 
summing  up  the  history  of  Ti :  "  When  he  toils  man  is  full  of  sweetness,  and 
such  am  I."  * 


•^'.-  The  Great  Pyramius. 

The  pyramids  terminating  northwards  the  long  line  of  royal  tombs  are  known 
as  those  of  Gizeh,  from  the  village  of  that  name,  which  stands  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Nile  over  against  Old  Cairo.  In  these  stupendous  monuments  the  whole 
of  Egypt  is  symbolised.  The  three  enormous  piles  overshadowing  the  verdant 
plain  and  winding  stream  are  the  embodiment  of  the  mental  image  conjured  up 
by  the  very  name  of  Egypt.  Their  triangular  outlines,  towering  above  the  Libyan 
plateau,  are  even  visible  over  a  vast  distance  throughout  the  Nile  Valley  and  plains 
of  the  delta.  For  hours  together  the  wayfarer  journeying  onwards  beholds  them 
standing  out  against  the  horizon,  apparently  neither  enlarged  nor  diminished  in 
dimensions.  They  seem  still  to  accompany  him,  moving  mysteriously  along 
above  villages,  trees,  and  cultivated  lands:  A  nearer  view  reveals  them  filling  up 
all  the  prospect  in  one  direction ;  and  the  eye  now  follows  with  amazement  the 
graded  lines  of  the  prodigious  masses,  showing  in  the  light  the  profile  of  their 
rugged  slopes,  disposed  in  flights  of  fractured  steps.  They  resemble  moimtains 
hewn  into  square  blocks  rather  than  structures  raised  by  mortal  hand,  revealing 
as  it  were  "  the  transition  bet".'een  the  colossi  of  art  and  the  giant  works  of 
nature."  "  All  things  fear  time,"  says  the  Arab  proverb ;  "  but  time  fears  the 
pyramids." 

Doubtless  these  piles  of  stone  have  only  the  beauty  of  their  geometrical  lines, 
lacking  all  architectural  display ;  but  they  overawe  by  their  very  mass,  and  still 
more  by  their  antiquity :  by  the  memory  of  the  generations  of  man  that,  like  thu 
everlasting  stream  of  the  Nile,  have  flowed  silently  onwards  at  their  feet.  For 
however  old  in  themselves,  these  monuments  of  human  slavery  attest  the  existence 
of  a  still  older  antecedent  culture,  marked  by  the  slow  evolution  of  science  and 
the  industries  from  their  crude  beginnings  in  the  Nile  Valley.  In  these  gigantic 
structures  geometry  has  discovered  measurements  of  supreme  accuracy,  for  here 
all  has  been  measured  and  planned  in  due  proportion.  The  very  perfection  of 
these  proportions  has  suggested  to  many  observers  the  idea  of  a  deep  symbolical 
meaning,  and  has  even  given  birth  to  a  sort  of  "  religion  of  the  pyramids,"  which 
*  "  M^moire  BUT  lea  monuments  des  »ix  premieres  dynastiea."  .;;. 
26— AF. 


■iHi.'W»";'.'jm«iinj).M 


409 


NOBTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


has  found  adherents,  especially  in  Scotland  and  the  New  "World.  By  their  pro- 
portions and  dimensions  the  pyramids  have  thus  come  to  be  regarded  as  so  many 
"  Bibles  in  stone." 

The  Pyramid  of  Cheops,  or  Khufu,  the  largest  of  the  three,  is  estimated  to 


Ilg.  123. — ^AsciuiT  or  thb  Qkkat  FvaAMiD. 


\'i 


Jover  an  area  of  over  twelve  acres,  while  its  four  triangular  sides  present  altogether 
a  surface  of  no  less  than  twenty  a^res  in  extent.  The  quantity  of  materials 
required  to  be  brought  from  great  distances  by  the  Nile,  placed  on  their  rocky 


)f.JJIIll»|»j.4-l||BW'j«;jH!ir 


^UB-Jw»m;* 


|»LjliiniiiiHI«».'i  'ii.ij    1)1 


.iiiiiliiiiiniHni' 


THE  GREAT  PYRAMIDS. 


408 


By  thoir  pro- 
Led  as  so  many 

s  estimated  to 


*4, 


t  ^m: 


sent  altogether 
''  of  materials 
>n  their  rocky 


foundations,  raised  to  a  height  of  over  600  feet,  and  adjusted  with  the  greatest 
care,  was  no  less  than  90,000,000  cubic  feet,  a  quantity  sufficient  to  build  a  wall 
seven  feet  high  and  twenty  inches  thick  across  the  whole  of  Western  Europe  from 
Lisbon  to  Warsaw.  The  basilica  of  St.  I'eter's  would  disappear  altogether,  with  its 
colonnades  and  cupola,  in  the  interior  of  this  prodigious  polyhedron  in  stone. 
According  to  Herodotus,  an  inscription  on  the  Great  Pyramid  estimated  at 
1,600  silver  talents,  or  £400,000,  the  sum  expended  on  the  purchase  of  the  garlic, 
onions,  and  parsley  required  to  supply  the  workmen  with  these  articles  of  food  ; 
and  for  the  implements,  machinery,  quarrying,  transport  of  materials,  and  so 
forth,  who  will  estimate  the  enornfbus  outlays  that  must  have  been  incurred !  But, 
above  all,  how  many  human  lives  must  have  been  sacrificed  on  the  works! 
According  to  a  Greek  tradition — which,  however,  according  to  Maspero,  rests  on 
no  historic  evidence — the  people  held  in  horror  these  monuments  of  their  bondage 
and  oppression.  They  were  even  said  to  have  avoided  uttering  the  very  names  of 
the  kings  in  whose  honour  these  moimtains  of  stone  had  been  raised. 

While  exceeding  all  other  structures  in  bulk,  the  pyramids  are  surpassed  in  height 
by  some  of  the  minsters  in  the  west  of  Europe.  The  Pyramid  of  Cheops,  diminished 
by  some  forty  feet  through  the  loss  of  its  stone  facing  and  the  subsidence  of  its 
foundations,  has  a  present  height  of  456  feet  ;*  that  of  Khephren,  or  Ehefra,  about 
six  feet  less ;  while  the  third,  of  Mycerinus,  or  Menkera,  falls  below  one-half  of  these 
elevations.  The  other  pyramids  of  the  plateau,  "  mere  embryos,"  so  to  say,  can 
scarcely  be  distinguished  from  the  heaps  of  refuse  scattered  at  the  base  of  the  two 
larger  piles.     The  last,  proceeding  northwards,  is  that  of  Ahu-Boash. 

^Notwithstanding  the  statements  often  made  to  the  contrary,  the  two  great 
pyramids  are  easily  scaled,  even  without  the  assistance  of  the  Bedouins,  who  under- 
take for  bakshish  to  look  after  the  safety  of  travellers.  In  any  case  the  labour 
expended  on  the  ascent  is  amply  compensated  by  the  marvellous  view  commanded 
from  the  summit.  From  this  altitude  the  eye  sweeps  over  a  boundless  and  varied 
prospect,  where  the  red  and  yellow  sands  of  the  desert  roll  away  in  one  direction 
like  ocean  billows,  while  in  another  the  verdant  plains  with  their  dark  groups  of 
hamlets  and  silver  lakelets  left  by  the  last  overflow  of  the  Nile  and  its  canals  stretch 
beyond  the  horizon.  Travellers  often  ascend  the  Pyramid  of  Cheops  before  dawn 
in  order  to  contemplate  the  morning  sun  suddenly  lighting  up  these  limitless  spaces. 

The  great  pyramids  face  the  cardinal  points  so  exactly  that  the  Bedouins  of  the 
district  perfectly  understand  how  to  use  these  monuments  not  only  in  discriminat- 
ing the  seasons,  but  also  in  calculating  the  time  of  day.  At  the  equinox  the  rising 
sun  seen  in  a  line  with  the  northern  or  southern  face  of  the  structure  presents 
exactly  half  of  its  disc  to  the  view.  At  the  time  of  the  French  expedition,  Cou- 
telle,  measuring  the  Pyramid  o?  Cheops  with  the  compass,  calculated  that  its 
orientation  was  perfect.  But  this  was  not  confirmed  by  the  subsequent  and  more 
precise  measurements  of  Nouet ;  while  the  minute  observations  of  Flinders  Petrie, 
continued  for  a  period  of  several  months,  have  placed  it  beyond  doubt  that  the  two 
parallel  east  and  west  sides,  instead  of  pointing  due  north,  are  inclined  3'  40"  to  the 
*  Exact  height  from  pediment  to  apex,  according  to  Flindcn  Pelrie,  146*7  metres. 


B 


w^m^ 


w  mii^>r»i*yiir"j* 


"m^mtftrnm 


404 


N0BTH-EA8T  AFIUOA. 


west.*  To  what  cause  is  this  deviation  to  bo  attributed  P  Is  it  to  bo  regarded  as 
the  result  of  an  ern)r  in  the  calculation,  or  has  there  been  a  change  in  the  axis  of 
the  earth  itself,  which,  instead  of  being  fixed,  as  formerly  supiDosed,  has  been  gra- 
dually displaced  so  for  to  the  west  ? 

The  blocks  used  in  building  the  pyramids  of  Gizeh  were  drawn  from  the  num- 
mulitic  formations  of  Torah  and  Masarah,  which  skirt  the  east  bank  of  the  Nile, 
and  which  still  supply  the  materials  required  for  the  enlargement  of  Cairo  since 
those  obtained  from  the  ruins  of  Memphis  have  been  exhausted.  According  to 
the  popular  legend,  the  countless  fossils  in  the  stones  forming  the  steps  of  the 
pyramids  are  the  lentils  left  by  the  workmen  engaged  in  erecting  them.    Formerly 


Fig.  124.— Thr  Sphinx. 


i 


the  nummulitic  blocks  were  faced  by  a  smooth  limestone  resembling  marble.  A 
portion  of  these  facings  even  still  survives  towards  the  summit  of  the  Pyramid  of 
Khephren,  but  no  trace  remains  of  the  hieroglyphics  which  at  one  time  decorated 
the  surface  of  these  monuments. 

The  passages  in  the  interior,  so  disposed  as  to  lead  treasure-seekers  astray,  and 
prevent  them  from  penetrating  to  the  sepulchral  chambers,  are  faced  in  granite. 
After  long  subterranean  explorations,  archaeologists  have  at  last  discovered  the 
sarcophagi  of  the  sovereigns  for  whom  these  vast  burial-places  were  prepared. 
That  of  Ehuf u  is  still  in  situ  in  its  vaulted  chamber.  The  blocks  of  black  granite 
'.>'■'■■  *  Flinders  Peine,  "  The  PyraiiiieU  and  Temples  of  Giaeh." 


iiiMi  iiirw>,i>i|«»i;i|»miiiiiiii)  rtf 


■^ 


» i  nil  ii.i;|iy.li|illH»iti'»ii  I  *«■ 


CAIRO. 


405 

• 


bo  regarded  as 
^  in  the  axis  of 
[,  has  been  gra- 

.  from  the  num- 
mk  of  the  Nile, 
.  of  Cairo  since 
According  to 
be  steps  of  the 
tiem.    Formerly 


iiJ^^iS;- 


ing  marble.    A 

the  Pyramid  of 

)  time  decorated 

ikers  astray,  and 
Faced  in  granite, 
t  dibcovered  the 
were  prepared, 
of  black  granite 


wit^  which  it  is  faced  are  so  oxquisitcly  polished  that  by  the  light  of  the 
torches  the  visitor  8c>es  himself  roflocted  as  in  a  mirror.  The  tomb  of  Menkora,  or 
Mycerinus,  was  excavated  in  the  very  rock  which  served  as  the  original  core  or 
nucleus  above  which  the  j)yrumid  was  raised.  But  the  siircophngus  which  it  con- 
tained was  lost  when  the  \mm\  transporting  it  to  England  foundered  off  the  Por- 
tuguese coast. 

In  the  angle  formed  in  the  north-west,  between  the  two  colossal  monuments  of 
Cheops  and  Khephren,  the  irregular  and  hilly  plateau  has  been  oxcavoted  in  all 
directions  by  the  tombs  and  burial- gounds  where  repose  the  subjects  of  the 
Pharaohs.  To  the  south  and  east  are  other  remains,  wells,  and  sepulchres,  while 
on  the  skirt  of  the  plateau,  encircled  by  dunes,  is  seen  the  famous  sphinx,  gigantic 
guardian  of  the  pyramids.  This  prodigious  statue,  contemplating  the  plain  with 
motionless  eye,  seems  verily  the  "  marvellous  work  of  the  gods,"  as  recorded  in  an 
ancient  inscription  recently  deciphered.  It  consists  of  a  sandstone  rock,  to 
which  chance  had  given  the  vague  outlines  of  an  animal  figure,  ond  the  form  of 
whioh  was  completed  by  the  Egyptian  architects.  The  spacious  cavities  were  filled 
with  rough  stones  disposed  without  art ;  but  the  surface  consists  of  small  and 
regular  layers  carefully  cut  and  sculptured,  so  as  to  produce  the  very  muscles  of 
the  animal,  which  represents  the  god  Har-em-Ehu,  that  is  to  say,  "  Horns  in  the 
bright  sun,"  or  "  Horus  of  the  two  horizons."    »      >  ...  v  > 

An  inscription  discovered  by  Mariette  attributes  to  Cheops  the  "  restoration  " 
of  this  monument,  on  which  the  natives  have  conferred  the  titles  of  "  Father  of 
Fear,"  and  "  Lion  of  the  Night."  The  chamber  or  rooms  said  to  have  been  seen 
by  Vansleb  and  other  explorers  in  the  back  of  the  sphinx  cannot  now  be  traced. 
But  to  the  south-west,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  colossus,  Mariette  brought 
to  light  from  beneath  the  sands  an  underground  temple,  with  enormous  pink  granite 
and  alabaster  walls,  faced  with  the  largest  limestone'  blocks  hitherto  discovered. 
This  building,  destitute  of  all  ornament,  seems  to  date  from  a  period  of  transition 
between  the  early  megalithic  monuments  and  edifices  properly  so  called. 

The  statue  of  Khephren  found  in  this  temple,  and  now  preserved  in  the  Bulaq 
Museum,  is  perhaps  the  finest  known  work  of  Egyptian  statuary.  At  that  period 
of  the  national  art  inflexible  forms  and  conventional  types  had  not  yet  been  imposed 
by  the  hieratic  laws  on  the  native  sculptors.  The  statue  had  been  hidden,  or 
perhaps  thrown  into  a  well,  after  the  erection  of  the  temple. 

Cairo. 

Cairo,  the  heir  of  Memphis,  occupies  a  situation  analogous  to  that  of  the  old 
metropolis  of  Lower  Egypt.  This  "  diamond  clasp "  closing  the  "  fan  of  the 
delta,"  stands  like  Memphis  at  the  apex  of  the  triangle  of  alluvial  lands  formed  by 
the  main  branches  of  the  river,  and  consequently  occupies  the  natural  converging 
point  of  all  the  routes  across  Lower  Egypt,  between  Alexandria  and  El  Arish. 
But  although  lying  near  the  bifurcation  of  the  Nile,  its  site  has  been  displaced 
towards  the  north  with  the  channel  of  the  river  itself.     Were  it  removed  to  the 


mmmfmc^'^ 


i 


400 


N0IITII-EA8T  AFUICA. 


I 


fcrH 


left  hunk  of  the  Nile,  Ciiiro  would  form  a  nimplo  northern  oxtonsion  of  Momphis. 
It  woiiUl  even  Hoem  more  nuturul  thiit  the  cupitul,  like  nearly  all  the  other  eitie.«*  of 
Middle  K^ypt,  should  Htund  on  the  west  side,  which  coinpriw«H  over  three-fourths 
of  the  ariible  lunds,  and  which  givcH  more  eiisy  ucccmh  to  Alexundriii,  the  chief  out- 
port  of  the  country.  But  Cairo  is  not  an  Egyptian  foundation.  It  wuh  huilt  by 
Asiatic  conquerors,  who  naturally  could  not  think  of  founding  their  chief  strong- 
hold on  the  wrong  side  of  the  river  for  them.  Thus  the  very  position  of  Cairo  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Nile  suffices  to  show  that  Egypt  is  a  conquered  land. 

The  name  of  El-Kahiruh,  or  the  Victorious,  officially  given  to  the  capital  of 
Egypt,  is  not  current  amongst  the  people  themselves.  Ma«r,  the  old  name  of  the 
whole  country,  to  which  is  often  added  the  epithet  of  "  Mother  of  the  World,"  is  the 
expression  more  usually  employed  in  speaking  of  the  city.  Nothing  but  a  small 
fort  bearing  the  name  of  Babel un  (Babylonia)  occupied  a  site  a  little  above  the 
present  capital  down  to  the  nineteenth  year  of  the  Hegira,  when  it  was  captured 
by  Amru.  After  this  event  it  began  to  extend  northwards  by  the  addition  of  the 
El-Fost&t,  or  "Tent,"  which  afterwards  became  the  Masr  el-Atikah,  or  "Old 
Cairo."  Again  besieged  and  reduced,  over  three  centuries  afterwards,  it  continued 
still  to  expand  in  the  same  direction  by  absorbing  a  third  quarter,  the  so-called 
military  encampment  of  El-Eaireh.  Here  was  developed  the  modem  city,  whose 
name  has  been  slightly  modified  to  Cairo  and  other  forms  in  the  European  idioms. 

Towards  the  north-west  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile  is  skirted  by  the  wretched 
hovels  of  Bulaq,  a  large  and  industrial  suburb  now  connected  with  the  city  by  a 
new  avenue  lined  with  buildings.  The  old  walls  have  been  in  great  part  destroyed 
or  overlapped  by  new  structures ;  but  they  are  still  standing  towards  the  east  and 
south,  half  buried  amid  heaps  of  refuse.  The  cliffs  of  the  Jebel-Mokattam  extend 
to  the  south-east  angle  of  the  city,  where  their  advanced  spurs  are  crowned  with 
the  citadel,  which  was  occupied  by  the  British  forces  in  1883,  immediately  after 
the  battle  of  Tel-  el-Kebir.  From  this  eminence,  flanked  by  sustaining  walls  and 
ramparts,  a  view  is  commanded  of  the  whole  city,  with  its  cupolas  and  minarets, 
its  party-coloured  buildings,  its  groves  and  gardens.  Bound  this  city  of  bright 
colours  and  throbbing  life,  stretches  the  grey  and  silent  plain  overlooked  from  u 
distance  by  the  pyramids. 

Cairo  had  been  built  on  the  bank  of  the  Nile ;  but  since  the  tenth  century  the 
stream  has  been  displaced,  and  until  recently  the  city  was  separated  from  the  river 
by  a  belt  of  groves  and  gardens,  nearly  two  miles  broad  in  some  places.  It  is, 
however,  traversed  in  its  entire  length  by  the  narrow  Ehalig  Canal,  which  runs 
dry  for  a  part  of  the  year.  The  Ismailieh  Canal,  another  and  broader  channel, 
deep  enough  to  remain  flooded  throughout  the  year,  runs  north-west  of  the  city  in 
the  direction  of  Suez,  through  the  "Wady-TumilAt.  The  Nile,  1,320  feet  wide 
between  its  embankments,  is  here  crossed  by  a  modern  iron  bridge  resting  on  stone 
foundations,  and  continued  westwards  by  a  long  viaduct  across  a  branch  flooded  during* 
the  inundations.  But  for  the  palms  fringing  the  left  bank,  the  dahabiyeh  and  other 
craft  moored  along  the  quays,  one  might  almost  fancy  at  the  sight  of  this  bridge 
that  he  was  surveying  the  outlying  quarters  of  some  European  city.     The  whole 


»n  of  MomphiH. 
n  othiT  ritics  of 
r  thrco-fourths 
,  thii  nhiof  out- 
It  wuH  built  by 
ir  cbiof  Htrong- 
ion  of  Cuiro  on 
id  lund. 
tbo  capital  of 
Id  numo  of  the 
World,"  is  the 
ng  but  a  small 
ittlo  above  the 
t  was  captured 
addition  of  the 
ikah,  or  "Old 
ds,  it  continued 
the  so-called 
3m  city,  whose 
*opean  idioms. 
y  the  wretched 
I  the  city  by  a 
;  part  destroyed 
da  the  east  and 
okattam  extend 
e  crowned  with 
imediately  after 
ning  walls  and 
I  and  minarets, 
I  city  of  bright 
arlooked  from  a 

ith  century  the 
[  from  the  river 
places.  It  is, 
lal,  which  runs 
reader  channel, 
t  of  the  city  in 
,3"20  feet  wide 
'esting  on  stone 
1  flooded  during 
biyeh  and  other 
b  of  this  bridge 
y.     The  whole 


^'. 


»»«fll»mi  I 


CAIBO 


-lO? 


..   t 


of  the  new  town — which  hiin  l)c«n  coniitnictod  IwtwHou  the  nutivt'  (luiirh'r  and  tJjo 
Nih* — inoludinf^  ImrrackH,  govorninont  uflicoH,  ihiIuccn,  un<l  liotoU,  iilw)  pn-wMitH  u 
Muro|>(>aii  aMfn'ct.  The  vt'^otati<>ti  aloiio,  un(!h>H4>(I  by  railiii^H  in  tho  (^urdenH,  and 
thu  Hliady  lc>lH>k  ucaciaH  ])laiitutl  .>u  both  siduH  of  tho  broud  Htr(<otH,  roniind  tho 
obsorvor  that  he  in  Ntill  in  Kgypt.  Klegant  HtructurcN,  Hurrouiidcd  by  vcrduro, 
proHcnt  a  ph'anant  contrast  to  th«  t  ^nniuoupluco  'uildin^H  of  this  new  <niart«r. 

Soino  broad  and  Btraigh'  thoroufyhfurps,  lined  by  houncH  in  a  vulgar  Htyle  of 
architecture,  have  recently  been  })ened  througli  the  heart  of  the  old  (juarterH;  but 
with  thoee  oxceptions,  Cairo  has  uliriost  evorywhero  preserved  its  characteriHtio 
phyHiognomy.  Thewi  irregular  Htroots,  some  broad,  some  narrows,  winding  at  abrupt 
angles  botwoon  buildings  facing  in  all  directions,  present  an  endless  variety  of 
perspective.  Hero  wo  come  upon  irregular  "  squares"  oi'  open  spaces,  flanked  by 
the  painted  arcade  of  some  picturesque  mosque  ;  elsewhere  the  two  sections  of  a 
palace  meet  overhead  by  vaulted  galleries  thrown  across  the  street ;  right  and  left 
are  gates  leading  through  intricate  byways  to  blind  alleys,  or  traversing  court- 
yards surrounded  by  overhanging  balconies  gay  with  strips  of  tapestry  fluttering 
in  tho  breeze.  Hero  and  there  marble  colomiades  or  carved  porticoes  project  from 
walls  of  grey  or  red  brick. 

The  musharabiehs  all  differ  in  the  patterns  of  their  g^ratings  or  lattice-work. 
Unfortunately  those  musharabiehs  (meshreblyehs)  are  gradually  disappearing,  at 
least  from  the  more  frequented  thoroughfares.  They  are  simply  projecting 
windows  or  casements  made  of  ingeniously  designed  lattice-work,  or  else,  in  the 
poorer  houses,  merely  of  ifough  boards  ;  and  there  are  still  not  a  few  houses  whore 
the  passenger  stops  to  admire  tier  upon  tier  of  these  singularly  picturesque 
contrivances.  The  name  is  derived  from  a  root  meaning  to  drink,  as  in  "  sherbet," 
and  is  applied  to  the  musharabiehs  because  the  porous  water-bottles  are  often 
placed  in  them  to  cool.  "  Tho  delicately  turned  knobs  and  balls  by  which  the 
patterns  of  the  lattice- work  are  formed,  are  sufficiently  near  together  to  conceal 
whatever  passes  within  from  the  eyes  of  opposite  neighbours,  and  yet  there  is 
enough  space  between  them  to  allow  free  access  of  air.  The  musharabieh  is  indeed 
a  cooling  placo  for  human  beings  as  well  as  water- jars,  and  at  once  a  convent 
grating  and  a  spying-place  for  the  women  of  the  harem,  who  can  watch  their 
enemies  of  tho  opposite  sex  through  the  meshes  of  the  windows  without  being  seen 
in  return."*  .  V     ; 

The  different  stories  even  of  the  same  house  at  times  present  a  variety  of 
contrasts  in  their  architecture  and  their  projecting  lines,  corbels,  and  gables.  In  some 
quarters  all  the  upper  part  of  the  structure  spreads  out  like  a  huge  Chinese  folding- 
screen,  furnished  with  numerous  nooks  and  comers,  whence  the  inmates  may  survey 
the  passing  scenes  at  their  leisure.  The  very  temperature  is  varied  by  the  different 
character  of  these  edifices,  with  their  supporting  beams  and  matting  suspended  at 
different  elevations  above  the  roadway.  Gloomy  passages  are  here  and  there  sud- 
denly relieved  by  a  flood  of  dazzling  light,  and  the  wayfarer's  progress  is  constantly 
arrested  by  heaps  of  unsavoury  refuse,  pools  of  stagnant  water,  or  whirlwinds  of 

•  "  Social  Life  in  Egypt,"  p.  9. 


HMMUHMK— 


'  '"!^'^''.t''!'!'**1!''j'<?iy.,-' 


408 


NORTH-EAST  Ai^RICA. 


blinding  duet.  In  these  quarters  of  the  old  town  the  inhabitants  themselves 
present  as  great  a  diversity  of  types  as  do  their  quaint  and  rickety  dwellings. 
Egyptians  and  Nubians,  Arabs  and  Negroes,  jostle  each  other  in  the  narrow  lanes, 
selling  their  wares,  crowding  about  the  hucksters'  shops,  or  collecting  in  picturesque 

Fig.   125. — UUSHABAUIBH,    WITH    SoUBB.S    IW    FhO.NT   TO    CONCBAL   TUB    InMATES    FKOM    TIIBIR 

NSIOHUOUIW. 


groups  round  about  some  noted  story-teller.  But  the  most  shifting  scenes  of  this 
strange  panorama,  the  most  varied  types  and  costumes,  are  to  be  seen  chiefly  in  the 
Muski  and  other  streets  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  bazaar,  where  the  direct  traffic 
is  carried  on  between  the  natives  and  Europeans.  Here  veiled  women,  MussulmauB 
or  Copts,  glide  rather  than  walk  silently  by,  moving  heaps  of  clothes,  with  nothing 


i-v- 


Mmfffm'Jj^fiyiiXj^tp^ 


■if(ii^i<iiiii>f;[ 


■m 


'..Pi'.-ftifaijS'- 


CAIRO. 


409 


abitants  themsolvee 
I  rickety  dwellings, 
in  tho  narrow  lanes, 
ecting  in  picturesque 

UTES    FBOM    THEIR 


il 

kiijiiiiiiiiii 

liil 
feiii 


"11 
1 


ting  scenes  of  this    ^■ 
seen  chiefly  in  the 
)Te  the  direct  traffic    " 
omen,  Mussulmans 
ithes,  with  nothing 


exposed  except  the  eyes  peeping  through  a  slit  in  the  veil  attached  to  the  head- 
dress by  a  gold  clasp.  The  country  women,  dressed  in  a  simple  flowing  robe, 
moving  freely  with  the  movements  of  the  body,  go  nearly  all  unveiled,  like  their 
Syrian,  Levantine,  Jewish,  and  European  sisters,  all  of  whom  may  bo  easily  recog- 
nised by  their  type,  their  carriage,  dress,  style,  and  manner,  as  they  move  amongst 
the  busy  crowd,  or  stop  to  examine  the  tempting  display  of  goods  in  the  well- 
stocked  shops. 

The  graceful  Nubians  in  their  long  white  smocks,  Bedouins  proudly  draped  in 
rags  and  tatters,  Negroes  of  every  tribe,  each  with  the  distinctive  marks  of  his 
nationality  stamped  on  his  features,  intermingle  freely  with  the  native  Egyptians, 
distinguished  by  their  official  garb  and  tarbush  headdress,  with  Europeans  of 
every  nation  still  more  or  less  faithful  to  the  costume  of  Western  civilisation ;  with 
soldiers  of  all  arms  in  helmets,  turbans,  or  other  oriental  or  ancient  headdress. 
Followed  by  their  little  donkey-boys  shouting  and  gesticulating,  the  magniflcent 
Egyptian  asses  trot  nimbly  by,  however  tall  or  heavy  be  their  riders.  But  military 
chiefs  and  wealthy  strangers  prefer  the  graceful  Arab  steed,  or  elegant  European 
equipages,  which  drive  rapidly  through  the  crowd  preceded  by  a  sais,  or  running 
footman,  dressed  in  the  gorgeous  Albanian  costume  bedizened  with  gold  and  silk, 
and  armed  with  the  traditional  rod,  which  was  formerly  freely  used  to  clear  the  road 
of  loiterers.  At  times,  overtopping  the  throng,  like  some  magnificent  "  wise  man  of 
the  East "  out  of  a  painting  by  Rubens,  some  Negro  captain  makes  his  appearance, 
clothed  in  white  and  red  silk,  glittering  with  damascened  arms  and  mounted  on  a 
gigantic  camel,  with  its  embroidered  cloths  and  velvet  housing  fringed  in  gold. 

At  present  instances  of  foreigners  being  insulted  by  fanatical  Mohammedans  are 
almost  unheard  of,  except  when  they  behave  in  an  offensive  manner.  They  may 
now  move  about  freely  even  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  El-Azhar  mosque,  where 
reside  the  more  zealous  champions  of  Islam.  The  gay  wedding  processions  and 
solemn  funerals  may  be  followed  without  any  risk  through  the  narrowest  byways 
of  the  native  quarter.  The  great  religious  ceremonies,  at  which  Christians  could 
not  formerly  be  present  except  protected  by  the  police  and  soldiers,  have  been  shorn 
of  much  of  their  ancient  splendour,  and  certain  parts  of  the  original  programme 
are  henceforth  interdicted. 

The  chief  local  feast  is  that  of  the  "  Cutting,"  by  which  the  beneficent  waters  of 
the  rising  stream  are  admitted  to  the  town  canals.  But  the  essentially  religious 
solemnities  are  those  associated  with  the  departure  and  arrival  of  the  pilgrims  from 
Mecca.  At  the  feast  of  Mahmal,  or  the  Departure,  by  the  Europeans  called  the 
"  Carpet  Feast,"  a  camel  decked  with  embroidered  trappings,  plumes,  and  burnished 
metal  ornaments,  bears  a  sumptuous  litter  containing  the  yearly  present  sent  by  the 
Khedive  to  the  Kaaba  of  Mecca.  It  is  preceded  by  musicians  and  troops,  and 
followed  by  a  motley  throng  of  pilgrims  of  every  race  and  colour.  On  the  return 
of  the  sacred  caravan, the  anniversary  is  celebrated  of  the  birthday  of  the  Prophet, 
during  which  the  city  is  given  up  to  the  dervishes,  dancers,  and  jugglers.  No  more 
favourable  opportunity  is  afforded  for  stadpng  the  varied  elements  of  the  popula- 
tion of  Cairo.     All  the  back  slums  and  remote  recesses  of  the  native  districts  now 


r 


410 


NOETH-EAST  AFKICA. 


pour  forth  their  Arab,  Negro,  Abyssinian,  Beja,  Somali,  and  Nubian  denizens  on 
the  public  squares  and  into  the  great  plain  near  the  suburb  of  liulaq,  where  the 
sheikh  of  the  dervishes  passes  on  horseback  over  a  layer  of  human  bodies.  The 
noble  animal  resists  at  first,  but  the  bridle  being  held  by  two  slaves,  ho  is  forced  to 
follow  them  over  this  carpet  of  living  flesh.  The  presence  of  English  troops  sum- 
moned to  take  part  in  this  feast  in  the  year  1884  served  to  remind  the  Mussulmans 
that  henceforth  the  city  of  Amru  was  in  the  hands  of  the  infidel. 

The  most  remarkable  monuments  of  Cairo  are  its  mosques  and  tombs.  Of  the 
four  himdred  sacred  edifices  scattered  over  the  city,  some  are  amongst  the  very 
finest  in  the  Mohammedan  world.  The  mosque  of  Tulun,  which  formed  part  of  the 
Fost&t  settlement  before  the  foundation  of  Cairo,  although  falling  to  ruins,  still  pre- 
serves the  beauty  imparted  by  the  noble  simplicity  of  the  original  plan — a  large 
open  court  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  a  double  peristyle  and  leading  to  a  sanctuary 
with  four  aisles  and  pointed  arcades  built  of  date  wood.  Unfortunately  the  galleries, 
decorated  with  charming  arabesques,  have  been  closed  up  and  converted  into  mean 
refuges  for  the  sick  and  insane. 

Sultan  Hassan's  mosque,  the  finest  in  Cairo,  and  indicated  from  a  distance  by 
its  lofty  minaret,  is  three  tened,  like  that  of  Tidun,  with  total  destruction.  At 
sight  of  the  tottering  windows  of  its  high  outer  walls  the  visitor  almost  hesitates 
to  enter  the  court  where  the  cool  fountains  still  spatter,  or  to  cross  the  threshold 
of  the  sanctuary  and  lateral  aisles  beneath  the  vast  porticos  tenanted  by  flocks  of 
birds. 

The  El- Azhar,  or  "  Flowery  "  mosque,  was  also  originally  a  simple  court  enclosed 
by  porticos.  But  to  the  primitive  structure  have  been  added  numerous  other 
buildings,  for  El- Azhar  is  now  at  once  a  university,  a  library,  a  hostelry  for 
studious  travellers,  a  blind  asylum,  and  a  refuge  for  the  poor.  The  roof  of 
the  sanctuary  is  supported  by  380  marble,  granite,  and  porphyry  columns, 
some  of  which  formerly  embellished  the  Roman  temples  in  Egypt.  Round  the 
court  the  colonnades  are  reserved  for  students,  who  are  here  grouped  according  to 
their  several  nationalities.  From  Marocco  to  India,  from  the  Niger  to  the  Oxus, 
all  the  peoples  of  Islam  are  represented  in  this  university,  which  claims  to  be  the 
oldest  in  the  world.  As  many  as  twelve  thousand  students,  exclusive  of  the  free 
attendants,  here  study  the  Koran,  jurisprudence,  mathematics,  and  the  Arabic 
language,  under  the  direction  of  two  hundred  professors.  In  the  Riwdk,  or  group 
of  buildings  disposed  round  the  aisles,  there  are  also  about  a  dozen  preparatory 
schools,  each  with  thirty  or  forty  scholars,  besides  a  special  school  for  the  blind.* 

Another  mosque,  that  of  Sultan  Eal&un,  is  almost  entirely  utilised  as  a  mad- 
house. That  of  Mohammed  Ali,  situated  within  the  citadel,  is  certainly  a  very 
sumptuous  edifice,  with  its  transparent  alabaster  pillars  and  pavement;  but  its 
very  wealth  of  ornamentation  serves  only  to  illustrate  the  bad  taste  of  its  builder. 

*  Studonta  registered  at  El-Azhar  in  1883 
„        of  the  Shafeh  rite 
„  „     Malekitp  rite 

„     Haiieflte  rite 
„     Hambalite  ritib  . 


n 
«> 


12,026 

Professors,  216 

600    . 

100 

4,000    . 

74 

1,600    . 

37 

26    . 

1 

an  denizens  on 
ilaq,  where  the 
m  bodies.  The 
,  he  is  forced  to 
[sh  troops  sum- 
)he  Mussulmans 

tombs.  Of  the 
ongst  the  very 
med  part  of  the 
ruins,  still  pre- 
plan— a  large 
^  to  a  sanctuary 
ly  the  galleries, 
3rted  into  mean 

n  a  distance  by 
estruction.  At 
ilmost  hesitates 
s  the  threshold 
ted  by  flocks  of 

e  court  enclosed 
aumerous  other 
,  a  hostelry  for 
.  The  roof  of 
phyry  columns, 
pt.  Round  the 
)ed  according  to 
j;er  to  the  Oxus, 
claims  to  be  the 
sive  of  the  free 
and  the  Arabic 
Riicdk,  or  group 
sen  preparatory 
for  the  blind.* 
ilised  as  a  mad- 
certainly  a  very 
vement;  but  its 
te  of  its  builder. 

ion,  216 

100  :    -^ 


CAIRO. 


411 


The  so-called  '*  Joseph's  Well,"  sunk  near  the  mosque  by  order  of  Yusfif  Salah- 
ed-din  (Saladin  the  Great),  descends  to  the  level  of  the  Nile  at  a  depth  of  286  feet. 
From  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  about  half  of  this  depth  a  winding  incline 
enables  the  oxen  to  reach  a  landing,  whence  the  water  is  raised  to  the  top  by 
working  a  system  of  buckets. 

South  of  the  citadel  in  the  direction  of  Old  Cairo,  and  northward  of  the  fort 
of  the  Jebel-Mokattam,  other  mosques  of  all  sizes  raise  their  graceful  domes  above 

Fig.  126.— M08QVB  OF  MoHAMMcn  Au 


the  tombs  of  kings  and  princes.  These  elegant  structures  present  a  striking  con- 
trast to  the  bare  ground,  here  strewn  with  all  manner  of  debris,  and  to  the  rugged 
walls  of  the  surrounding  quarries.  The  Kait-bey  mosque,  north  of  the  cluster  of 
hills,  dates  from  the  fifteenth  century,  but  has  been  recently  restored.  It  is, 
perhaps,  the  most  perfect  specimen  of  Arab  architecture  in  Egypt,  at  least  as 
regards  the  arabesque  and  geometrical  designs  of  its  fretted  walls,  and  the  exquisite 
synMnetry  of  its  minaret,  disposed  in  corbelled  galleries.     Thus  the  country  which 


i.JifUHJ««- 


412 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


boasts  of  the  pyramids  and  similar  structures  of  unequalled  solidity,  may  also  claim 
to  possess  in  its  minarets  edifices  unrivalled  for  the  elegance  and  delicacy  of  their 
outline. 

The  first  city  on  the  African  continent  in  size  and  population,  Cairo  also  takes 
the  foremost  place  for  its  scientific  institutions  and  art  treasures.  Besides  the 
already  described  religious  university  of  El-Azhar,  and  the  hundreds  of  Arab 
schools  attached  to  the  mosques,  the  city  contains  excellent  European  schools,  nearly 
all  denominational — Catholic,  Coptic,  Melkite,  Protestant,  or  Jewish.  There  are 
also  a  school  of  medicine  and  pharmacy,  a  public  library,  lecture-halls,  an  observa- 
tory, a  valuable  collection  of  maps  and  designs,  unfortunately  damaged  when  the 
place  was  occupied  by  the  British,  a  geographical  society,  oud  other  learned  corpora- 
tions. 

Btjlaq,  Helwan,  Matarieh. 

But  the  glory  of  Cairo  is  its  museum  of  antiquities,  established  in  the  suburb  of 
Bulaq  on  the  very  embankment  here  skirting  the  right  side  of  the  Nile.  This 
priceless  collection,  founded  by  Mariette,  continued  by  Maspero,  and  already  far  too 
rich  for  the  original  building,  presents,  so  to  say,  a  complete  and  admirably 
illustrated  course  of  Egyptian  history  and  native  art.  Besides  the  thousand  objects 
found  in  all  museums,  such  as  statues,  steles,  mummies,  amulets,  jewellery,  papyri, 
it  contains  amongst  other  masterpieces  the  diorite  statue  of  Ehephren  in  a  majestic 
and  placid  attitude,  the  wooden  statue  of  the  unknown  person  whom  the  Arabs  have 
dubbed  the  Shiekh-el-Beled,  or  "  Village  Chief,"  the  sphinxes  of  the  HyksoSi  which 
so  faithfully  reproduce  the  type  of  those  shepherd  conquerors.  '.' 

In  the  court  stands  the  tomb  of  Mariette,  a  black  marble  sarcophagus,  standing 
at  the  foot  of  which  the  visitor  beholds  the  mysterious  stream  flowing  slowly  by. 
Bulaq  is  the  chief  industrialtsentre  of  the  capital.  Here  the  Government  possesses 
a  large  printing-ofiice,  military  workshops,  a  foundry,  and  manufactory  of  small 
arms.  The  river  traffic,  which  formerly  had  its  docks  and  warehouses  at  Old  Cairo, 
has  now  established  its  chief  depdts  at  Bulaq,  where  the  stream  is  constantly 
covered  with  steamers,  sailing  vessels,  and  rowing  boats.  . 

What  remains  of  Ibatdt,  or  Old  Cairo,  stands  rather  more  than  half  a  mile  from 
liie  south-west  suburb  of  Cairo,  and  is  disposed  along  the  right  bank  of  a  small 
branch  of  the  Nile.  The  ancient  splendour  of  the  city  is  still  recalled  by  a  mosque 
surrounded  by  heaps  of  debris.  This  was  the  sanctuary  erected  by  Amru  in  the 
twenty-first  year  of  the  Hegira  under  the  eyes  of  Mohammed's  personal  followers. 
After  those  of  the  holy  cities  no  other  mosque  is  more  venerated  than  this  venerable 
monument,  which,  however,  has  been  frequently  restored.  Some  of  the  230 
columns  which  supported  the  vaults  of  the  galleries  and  sanctuary  built  rour>  fl  u*  j 
central  court  have  given  way  beneath  the  weight  of  the  nave. 

The  island  which  separates  Old  Cairo  from  the  main  channel,  and  which  is  mostly 
under  cultivation,  takes  the  name  of  Jeziret-el-Randah.  Here  a  nephew  of  Saladin 
had  founded  the  school  of  the  "  Baharites,"  or  "  Biverain  People,"  who  were  the 
first  Mameluks  in  Egypt.     At  the  southern  extremity  of  Bandah  stands  the  famous 


,  may  also  claim 
delicacy  of  their 

Cairo  also  takes 
es.  Besides  the 
indreds  of  Arab 
n  schools,  nearly 
Irish.  There  are 
alls,  an  observa- 
naged  when  the 
learned  corpora- 


in  the  suburb  of 
the  Nile.  This 
d  already  far  too 
and  admirably 
thousand  objects 
Bwellery,  papyri, 
ren  in  a  majestic 
a  the  Arabs  Lave 
le  Hyksos,  which 

phagus,  standing 
awing  slowly  by. 
mment  possesses 
ifactory  of  small 
ises  at  Old  Cairo, 
im  is  constantly 

half  a  mile  from 
bank  of  a  small 
lied  by  a  mosque 
by  Amru  in  the 
rsonal  followers, 
in  this  venerable 
>me  of  the  230 
'  built  rour.  J  !  i.1 ) 

1  which  is  mostly 
sphew  of  Saladin 
I,"  who  were  the 
bands  the  famous 


WifflffilJi'llliilMi'i 


I  ^i!^:ii:!ili':lli 


1:1 


iiiii^ 


W' 


■:!'!      i 


iiii 


:!!i!l!llil   1    111,, 

■,i|;,i':„l||!,ii|:ii,,,ii| 


''liiiiiH 


111     'I 


';L,;L'Jv:,ii:!!illli::! 


■"i|i:lil!|illi! 


M 

i 'i    iiiiiiiiiiiiiiKiiiiiii 


•iiliiliii 

■f]  III 

:ii««-- 


111 


I'silESiiiiliiiiliili^ 


i 


^^ 


>  \ 


■■>?• 


n-::^t, 


-'r  -Mr 


4)11 


'm\ 


Iml 


ii'i,  ,|ii  y  ifiwrmrr^^iiifmii^Wf^ 


BAfillAOE  OF  TUE  NILE. 


418 


V::', 


moky&fl,  or  "  Nilomotor,"  which  in  somo  years  is  ho  anxiously  consulted  to  ascertain 
tht)  progress  of  the  inundations.  The  ancient  Nilomutcr,  which  has  boon  replaced 
by  that  of  Randah,  occupied  a  position  farther  up  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river, 
over  against  Memphis. 

Connected  with  the  capital  of  Egypt  is  the  watering  village  of  H  'n,  which 
is  situated  14  miles  to  the  south  by  rail,  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile.  Its 
sulphureous  waters,  which  are  slightly  thermal  (74°  to  86°  F.),  are  said  to  be  very 
efficacious.  Numerous  palaces  are  dotted  round  the  village,  mostly  encircled  by 
parks  or  gardens,  some  of  which  cover  some  square  miles  in  extent.  On  the  left 
bank  facing  Cairo  are  the  palaces  of  Gizeh  and  Jezire/i,  while  to  the  north  of  the 
capital  stands  the  palace  of  Shulrah,  connected  with  the  railway  terminus  by  a 
magnificent  avenue  of  sycamores,  which  is  lined  by  pleasant  suburban  residences. 
To  the  north-east,  on  the  verge  of  the  desert,  are  visible  the  palaces  of  El-Kuhbch 
and  Hl-Abbasaieh,  at  present  occupied  by  the  polytechnic  and  military  schools. 

This  palace  is  not  far  from  the  village  of  Matarieh,  which  covers  part  of  the 
site  of  the  ancient  "  City  of  the  Sun,"  the  Pk-Ra  of  the  Pharaohs,  the  Heliopolk 
of  the  Greeks,  where  the  Egyptian  priests  came  to  be  initiated  into  the  esoteric 
doctrines  of  the  national  religion.  Of  this  city  of  temples  and  schools  there  remain 
only  the  foundations  of  two  enclosures  and  an  obelisk,  which  was  raised  by 
Usortcsen  I.  forty-six  centuries  ago,  and  which  since  then  has  gradually  subsided 
over  30  feet  into  the  ground.  It  is  the  oldest  of  all  existing  obelisks.  In  the 
surrounding  marshes  still  survives  the  species  of  heron  known  as  the  ardea  ffarzetta, 
which  has  become  so  famous  in  the  history  of  symbols  and  in  legend  under  the 
name  of  the  phoenix.  At  intervals  of  five  hundred  years,  on  the  day  of  the 
summer  solstice  the  sacred  bird  was  fabled  to  return  from  Arabia  or  India,  and 
perch  on  the  summit  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun.  Here  it  was  consiuned  on  a  pyre  of 
scented  wood,  ever  rising  from  its  ashes  with  renewed  life. 

The  village  of  Matarieh  on  the  right,  as  well  as  that  of  Embabeh  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Nile,  recalls  the  memory  of  some  famous  battles.  At  the  latter  place 
Bonaparte  gained  the  so-called  "  Battle  of  the  Pyramids."  while  a  Turkish  army 
was  routed  by  Eleber  at  Matarieh  and  in  the  ruins  of  Heliopolis.  In  a  delightful 
garden  at  Matarieh  the  Coptic  monks  show  the  "  Virgin's  Tree,"  a  sycamore  less 
than  three  centuries  old,  beneath  which  the  Holy  Family  is  supposed  to  have  rested 
on  the  flight  to  Egypt.  Matarieh  is  the  oidy  place  in  the  delta  where  ostrich  farm- 
ing is  at  present  carried  on.  '     "^ .' 


m.. 


/^    Barrage  o»  the  Nile. 

The  barrage  of  the  Nile,  whose  crenellated  towers  loom  in  the  distance  like  the 
battlements  of  a  citadel,  must  be  included  amongst  the  monumental  workt^  of  the 
Egyptian  capital.  Formed  of  two  bridges  with  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  arches 
altogether  and  over  half  a  mile — or,  including  the  approaches,  more  than  a  mile — 
long,  it  runs  athwart  the  stream  some  12  miles  below  Bulaq,  at  the  point  where 
the  Nile  ramifies  into  two  main  branches.      Here  the  intermediate  cutting  of  the 


414 


NORTU-KAST  AFRICA. 


Hsmi 


Meimfioh  Caniil  intersects  the  liirge  iHlimd  of  Shttliiganeh,  which  hiiH  hcen  converted 
by  wuIIh  and  rumpurtH  into  a  fortified  Htronghold.  This  is  the  imiM)rtunt  fortroBH 
of  Snadteh,  which  ut  onco  cominunds  both  brunches  of  the  Nile,  and  the  two 
principal  lines  of  railway  in  Lower  Egypt.  This  colossal  work,  the  first  stone  of 
which  was  laid  by  Mohammed  Ali  in  the  year  1847,  was  originally  planned  for  the 
purpose  of  reclaiming  many  tens  of  thousands  of  acres  of  waste  land  and  regulating 
the  navigation  throughout  the  whole  of  Lower  Egypt.  Hut  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
Albanian  viceroy  was  not  sustained  by  an  equal  degree  of  perseverance,  and  some 
parts  of  the  general  design  were  either  neglected  or  indifferently  executed.  Hence 
the  foundations  have  partly  given  way,  wide  openings  are  visible  in  many  of  tho 

Fig.  127. — Barraob  op  the  Nili. 
Soole  1  :  110.000. 


I  8i  Miles. 


arches,  and  of  the  three  canals,  the  Sharkieh,  Beharah,  and  Menufieh,  that  should 
have  been  excavated,  the  last-mentioned  alone  has  been  completed. 

Nevertheless  even  in  its  present  unfinished  state  tho  barrage  of  the  Nile  is  by 
no  means  an  altogether  useless  work,  the  lamentable  monument  of  an  aimless  prodi- 
gality, as  it  has  been  so  often  described.  It  serves  at  least  every  year  to  raise 
by  6  or  7  feet  the  water  level  of  the  main  stream.  According  to  the  English 
engineer  Fowler,  a  farther  outlay  of  about  one  million  sterling  would  be  needed  to 
raise  the  level  by  16  feet,  as  originally  intended,  to  strengthen  tho  foundations,  and 
complete  the  system  of  canalisation.  But  at  the  same  time  it  would  be  also 
necessary  to  modify  the  original  plan,  in  order  to  prevent  the  constant  accumula- 
tions of  sedimentary  matter  above  the  barrage,  or  else  construct  navigable  canals 
along  this  section  of  the  Nile.  .   j 


■■JWWI^tHKIf^f" 


H  boon  converted 
u|M>rtunt  fortroBH 
Ic,  and  the  two 
the  first  Htone  of 
f  planned  for  the 
d  and  re}][uhiting 
nthuHittsm  of  the 
eranco,  and  some 
xecuted.  Hence 
D  in  many  of  tho 


Greenwich 

ufieh,  that  should 
i. 

of  the  Nile  is  by 
an  aimless  prodi- 
rery  year  to  raise 
g  to  the  English 
ould  be  needed  to 
0  foundations,  and 
it  would  be  also 
instant  accumula- 
t  navigable  canals 


SUEZ. 


Suez. 


4\S 


Before  tho  opening  of  tlio  Huez  Cunul,  Cairo  was  cnnnort<Hl  witli  it«  port  on  i  l»o 
Rod  Sea  by  u  direct  lino  of  railway,  croHHing  the  dowrt  tlirougli  tho  dcprcHHiuiiM 
followed  by  tho  unuiout  pilgrims'  route.     The  prownt  Hcoport  of  Shoz,  lying  at  iho 


FiR.  18H.-Hu«J!. 
SoaU  1  :  00,000. 


Depth*. 


0  to  «>  Feet. 


2H  Feet  and  ujnnrda. 

i.__-_-   Si  Bliln. 


southern  extremity  of  the  marine  canal,  has  replaced  the  Clyama  of  the  Greeks,  the 
Kolzim  of  the  Arabs,  which  has  by  some  archsBologists  been  identified  with  the 
Tell-Kohum,  lying  nearly  four  miles  farther  north,  and  by  others  with  the  station 
of  Arsitwe,  afterwards  known  as  Cleopatria,  whose  site  has  been  sought  farther  east, 
not  far  from  the  village  of  Ayerut.  |» 


1 1 1  if^J ,;» 


410 


NOBTU-EAHT  AFllK'A. 


TriuH'H  of  tho  f(>rn»('r  prcwiico  of  tim  wiitcrH  of  tho  R«>(I  Sni  may  horo  Ix)  »till 
traccHl  all  iho  wuy  to  tho  liittur  LukcH.  Tho  watorH  hiivo  griuluully  rotirod,  uiid  il' 
i\w  town  hud  to  foll«>w  tho  pni^nmH  of  HuhHidoiico  it  wouhl  huvo  to  Im^  again  diH- 
]>hic(<d  and  rt'huilt  Honio  two  hiIIoh  further  wmth  at  tho  ontranco  of  tho  canal. 
lIoH!  haH  boon  croatod  tho  nio«lorn  |K)rt  of  Tnrjik,  onclo«tHl  by  two  divor^finfi^  piorn 
7,700  foot  lonjif,  and  lined  with  warohounoH  iMdonging  to  tho  Huoz  ('anal  Conjpany. 
At  tho  end  of  one  of  theno  piorH  a  fow  troon  have  Won  planted  round  iho  Htatuo  of 
Waf^horn,  a  man  diHtinguinhod  beyond  all  othorn  iKjfom  tho  time  of  Lokwph  by  IiIh 
porHJHtont  ondeavourH  to  o])on  up  more  rapid  communicationH  between  Knglunu  iiud 
her  Indian  ixmHOHHionH. 

Suez,  which  ha8  loHt  tho  aqueducts  confltructcxl  under  tho  Pttdomion,  now  re(;eiveH 
its  supply  of  froHh  water  through  a  canal  derivwl  from  tho  Nile  aijd  running 
through  tho  Wady-Tumil&t.  Ilonoo  tho  town  might  now  be  frw'ly  doveloiHsd 
without  running  tho  risk  of  perishing  from  thirst,  as  at  tho  timo  wlion  it  had  to 
dejiond  entirely  on  the  brackish  wells  sunk  at  the  foot  of  tho  Jobol-Attakah.  Hut 
after  rapidly  expanding  at  the  timo  of  tho  construction  of  tho  inter-oceunio  canal, 
Sue/,  has  again  diminished  in  population  and  importance.  It  derives  little  advan- 
tage from  the  over-gi-owing  traffic  between  the  two  soas,  because  most  of  tho  inter- 
minublo  lino  of  steamers  pass  on  after  getting  their  pa|)or8  mguod.  Tho  i  -liof 
depots  of  supplies  for  the  shipping  have  been  established,  not  at  tho  head  of  t  he 
RikI  Sea,  but  at  Port  Said,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  tho  canal,  facing  Eurojx). 
Nevertheless,  sufKciout  local  trade  has  been  doveloixjd  in  (connection  with  the 
through  traffic  to  enable  Suez  to  rank  next  to  Alexandria  and  Port  Said  iu  tho 
general  commerce  of  Egypt.* 


,-Vh 


BALnBIS — ZaOAZIO BlIBASTIS. 

At  present  tho  railway  connecting  Cairo  with  its  port  on  the  Rod  Soo  skirts  the 
northern  foot  of  the  advanced  spurs  of  the  Arabian  or  coast  range,  running  thence 
to  the  canal  along  tho  depression  of  Wody-Tumil&t.  Here  was  the  land  of  Qoshen, 
cultivated  by  the  "  Impure,"  thot  is,  by  the  Hebrews  in  bondage ;  and  the  Tumil&t 
Arabs,  who  give  their  name  to  the  district,  have  also  become  agriculturists.  The 
presence  of  the  Israelites  in  this  region  is  still  rtPBunemorated  by  the  Tell-el-Yahud, 
or  *'  Jews'  Hill,"  a  small  eminence  lying  not  far  from  the  station  of  Shihin-el 
Kanater.  Here  have  been  discovered  some  vestiges  of  an  edifice  erected  by 
Ramses  II. 

Farther  on  stand  the  towns  of  Balbeia  and  Bordein,  in  this  vast  and  well-watered 
plain,  where  every  village  is  surrounded  by  cotton  plantations  and  by  the  tall 
chimney  of  some  factory  built  amid  the  palm-groves,  where  the  raw  fibre  is  cleansed 
and  compressed  into  bales  for  exportation,  mostly  by  Greek  agents  of  the  growers. 


*  Tnde  of  the  Port  of  Sues  in  1880  acoording  to  Amici  :- 


Arrivals 
Departures. 


681  vessols  of  682,110  tons 
563        „         677,626    „ 


Total 


1,144 


1,359,736 


.*-.■: 


j,'&»fe4^i4i»ft»M^#;afe^.tlii^ 


TKLIi-EI.-KKlJlU-l'ITHOM. 


417 


may  horo  bo  Htill 
ly  rotirt'd,  and  if 
t()  Im«  KKiiiii  (liH- 
ico  of  tho  canal. 
)  divorcing  pici-H 
;  Caual  Cunipany. 
und  tho  ntatuo  of 
)f  LfuwpH  by  hiM 
een  Knglunu  iiitd 

nioH,  now  ri'<!oivc8 
[ilo  aijd  running 
frcHjly  d«vj<loi)«d 
0  wltun  it  bad  to 
)1-Attakah.  Hut 
ter-occunio  cunul, 
ivo8  little  udvan- 
nost  of  the  intcr- 
.jncd.  Tho  (  lief 
tho  head  of  t  ho 
1,  facing  EurojH). 
nection  with  tho 
Port  Said  iu  tho 


led  Soa  skirtH  the 
0,  running  thence 
e  land  of  Qoshen, 
;  and  the  Tumil&t 
riculturists.  The 
he  Tell-el-Yahud, 
tion  of  Shibin-el- 
iifice  erected  by 

and  well- watered 
and  by  the  tall 
N  fibre  is  cleansed 
B  of  the  growers. 


la 


»■ '•^.'...^ 


But  tho  grout  riilrop«'>t  for  tho  rot  ton  und  tho  oon'tiU  of  tliiN  rogion  of  tho  delta 
is  tho  |M)puluuN  city  of  Ziignziij,  whioh  iH-oupioM  u  ooiitrul  ])<>Niti()n  at  tho  junction  of 
Mtvoral  liuoM  of  railway,  over  uguinNt  tho  woMtorn  outlot  of  Wiwiy-Tuniiliit.  Tho 
IK)pulation  of  thiH  ]iluoo  ban  incrouwd  fivefold  Hinco  tho  yoar  IHtJO,  thunliH  chiofly  to 
tho  dovolopuiont  oi  tho  (;otton  plan  tut  ionn. 

Houth  of  the  /aguzig  gariloiiH  a  number  of  high  inoundH,  o«)lloctivoly  known  by 
tho  name  of  Ti  ll-il-lUtHtah,  Htill  rocall  tho  auciout  city  of  Pahmt,  tho  liubmliit  of  tho 
(IrookH,  whioh  w  *  tho  capital  of  Kgypt  Honio  twonty-Movon  or  twonty-oight  cen- 
turioH  ago ;  that  i«  to  say,  during  tho  twenty-Nocond  dyuuHty,  when  tho  frequent 

Fig.  129.— Enthanci  ok  tmh  Waiiy-ThmilIt,  Tici.i.-iil-Kbhib< 
Bokl*  1 :  «40,000. 


6  MUM. 


wars  with  Assyria  required  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  kingdom  to  be  shifted  more 
towards  the  east.  Broken  shafts  and  sculptured  blocks  still  scattered  about  attest 
the  former  splendour  enjoyed  by  this  now  ruined  city.  North-east  of  it,  on  the 
very  verge  of  the  wilderness  and  on  the  last  irrigating  canals  derived  from  the  Nile, 
lies  the  village  of  Karaim,  surrounded  by  palm- groves  which  have  the  reputation  of 
yielding  the  finest  dates  iu  Egypt. 

TeLL-EL-KeBIK — PiTHOM. 

The  entrance  of  the  "Wady-Tumil&t  is  guarded  on  the  west  by  the  station  of 
Tell-el-Kebir,  that  is,  the  "  Great  Mound,"  where  in  the  year  1882  the  Egyptian 
forces  under  Arabi  vainly  attempted  to  make  a  stand  against  the  British  expedition 
advancing  from  Ismailia,  its  base  on  the  Suez  Canal.     The  fortifications  erected  by 

■     27— AF.  .;.-:■'.......  :,.,_;_,:,.„_..::-,.__.. 


418 


NOETH-EAST  AFRICA. 


m> 


Arabi  were  partly  stormed,  partly  outflanked,  after  a  midnight  march  planned  with 
a  skill  and  executed  with  a  precision  seldom  surpassed  in  the  annals  of  European 
warfare.  A  palace  standing  in  the  neighbourhood  of  ToU-el-Kebir  forms  the 
central  point  of  the  so-called  "  Farm  of  the  Wady,"  a  domain  about  25,000  acres  in 
extent,  which  was  cultivated  for  several  years  by  the  Suez  Canal  Company. 

Near  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Wady-Tumil&t  other  mounds  collectively 
known  as  the  Tell-el-Maskhata,  and  in  appearance  resembling  Tell-el-Kebir,  were 
hitherto  supposed  to  indicate  the  site  of  the  ancient  Pithom,  the  "  City  of  Treasure," 
here  erected  by  the  captive  Israelites  for  Ramses  II.  Recently,  however,  M. 
Naville  has  thoroughly  explored  these  ruins,  which  now  appear  not  to  be  those  of 
the  city  of  Ramses,  but  of  another  which  has  been  identified  as  the  Pi- Turn  or 
Pithom  of  Exodus,  and  which  seems  to  have  been  built  about  the  same  period  and 
by  the  same  hands.  During  the  Greek  and  Roman  epochs  Pithom  was  known  by 
the  name  of  Hero,  or  Heroonpolis. 

This  identification  of  the  ruins  explored  by  M.  Naville  at  Tell«el-Maskhata,  has 
given  rise  to  much  controversy  amongst  Egyptologists,  one  of  whom  goes  so  far  as 
to  say  that "  the  Pithom  of  the  Exodus  is  apparently  as  far  to  seek  as  ever."*  Dr. 
Ebers,  however,  who  is  one  of  the  chief  authorities  on  archaeological  questions  of 
this  sort,  after  carefully  sifting  all  the  evidence,  finally  decides  in  favour  of  M. 
Naville's  view.  In  a  long  communication  to  the  Academy  he  writes,  "Now  I  have 
attentively  and  impartially  studied  the  inscriptions  excavated  by  M.  Naville,  and 
fully  discussed  them  in  the  Allgemeine  Zeitung,  after  having  gained  the  firm  convic- 
tion that  Tell-el-Maskhata  is  the  site  on  which,  in  the  time  of  Ramses  and  subse- 
quently, there  was  a  city  called  by  the  sacred  name  of  Pi-Tum,  i.e.  Pithom,  and  by 
the  profane  one  of  Thuku-t,  being  doubtless  the  same  as  Succoth.  It  is  true  that 
Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson,  Dr.  Lepsius,  M.  Maspero,  and  myself  as  well,  had  regarded 
Tell-el-Maskhata  as  the  site  of  the  biblical  Ramses.  After  the  appearance  of  M. 
Nuville's  book,  however,  there  will  scarcely  be  found  a  single  Egyptologist  who 
will  still  adhere  to  this  view,  and  refuse  to  look  upon  TeU-el-Maskhata  as  the  site 
of  an  Egyptian  town  which  bore  the  sacred  name  of  Pithom  and  the  profane  one  of 
Thuku-t.  The  first  object  confirming  this  view  was  the  inscription  on  the  statue  of 
the  prophet  of  Tum  of  Theka,  which  begins,  '  When  under  his  majesty  it  was 
proclaimed  how  the  sanctiiary  of  his  father  Tum  of  the  good  god  of  Thekut  was 
completed  on  the  third  of  the  month  of  Athyr,  the  king  himself  come  to  the 
district  of  Heroonpolis,  into  the  house  of  his  father  Turn,'  &c. 
.  "  These  inscriptions  render  it  so  certain  that  Pithom  and  Thuku-t  were  one  and 
the  same  town,  and  that  both  were  built  on  the  site  of  the  modern  Tell-el-Maskhata, 
that  we  may  dispense  with  the  further  evidence  afEorded  by  the  Anastasi  papyrus. 
Hero  King  Memeptah,  very  probably  the  Pharaoh  of  tho  Exodus,  states  in  writing 
his  having  permitted  the  Shasu  (Bedouins)  of  Atuma  (Edom  P)  to  cross  the  fortress 
bearing  his  name,  which  was  also  called  Theku,  in  the  direction  of  the  ponds  of 
Pithom  of  the  king  Memeptah,  which  is  called  Theku."  t 

•  ^Me««M««,  April,  1886,  No.  2994.       '.         -  •<'  f  -^«<«fe»»«y,  May  23rd,  1886,  p.  373. 


mJf:^0tn-iif'Ui*'Vt<i^ft^'iki1til§0$^lft^  ii,ilji*«>MMJiiT»fWi!>!pf«y.i^.l»i«'>liWi;'iHijt^ 


^w^ 


oarch  planned  with 
mnals  of  European 
sl-Kebir  forms  the 
tout  25,000  acres  in 
I  Company, 
nounds  collectively 
Tell-el-Kebir,  were 
'  City  of  Treasure," 
mtly,  however,  M. 
•  not  to  be  those  of 
as  the  Pi- Turn  or 
;he  same  period  and 
bom  was  known  by 

ell-el-Maskhata,  has 
(vhom  goeR  so  far  as 
leek  as  ever,"*     Br. 
Logical  questions  of 
es  in  favour  of  M. 
vrites,  "Now  I  have 
by  M.  Naville,  and 
ned  the  firm  convic- 
Ramses  and  subse- 
i.e.  Pithom,  and  by 
oth.     It  is  true  that 
IS  well,  had  regarded 
le  appearance  of  M. 
5  Egyptologist  who 
iiaskhata  as  the  site 
d  the  profane  one  of 
tion  on  the  statue  of 
his  majesty  it  was 
god  of  Thekut  was 
limself  came  to  the 

huku-t  were  one  and 
rn  Tell-el-Maskhata, 
he  Anastasi  papyrus, 
ius,  states  in  writing 
)  to  cross  the  fortress 
tion  of  the  ponds  of 

23rd,  1886,  p.  373. 


PORT  SAID. 


IsMAILlA — PJl-KaNTARA. 


419 


At  Neflah,  in  the  same  district,  the  road  and  the  Freshwater  Canal  running  to 
Suez  turn  towards  the  south-east,  whilst  another  branch  of  the  canal  takes  a  north- 
easterly direction  to  the  new  city  of  hmailia,  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Timsah.  While 
the  great  canal  was  in  progress  Ismailia  enjoyed  great  importance  as  a  chief  centre 
of  the  supplies  for  the  hands  engaged  on  the  works.  But  at  present  it  is  far  too 
extensive  for  its  reduced  population.  Its  open  spaces  are  deserted,  and  its  streets, 
fringed  by  shady  trees  and  skirted  here  and  there  by  gardens  and  shrubberies, 
resemble  the  avenues  of  a  park  more  than  the  thoroughfares  of  a  commercial  town. 
Nevertheless,  Ismailia  might  again  become  inhabite<l,  were  the  stream  brought  by 
the  Freshwater  Canal  made  more  generally  available  for  the  irrigation  of  the  oasis 
already  reclaimed  from  the  surrounding  desert. 

Nor  is  this  artery  much  used  for  navigation,  although  it  has  a  normal  depth  of 
10  feet  and  a  width  of  about  180  feet,  sufficient  to  give  access  to  vessels  of 
400  tons  burden.  Some  traffic,  however,  is  carried  on  by  means  of  the  Suez  Canal, 
and  the  port  and  open  waters  of  the  lake  are  often  crowded  with  large  vessels  riding 
at  anchor  in  these  inland  waters.  Exclusive  of  the  transit  trade,  the  movement  of 
the  port  of  Ismailia  amoimted,  in  1882,  to  over  two  hundred  and  seventy  steamers, 
with  a  gross  tonnage  of  nearly  600,000  tons. 

Along  the  line  of  the  canal  from  Ismailia  to  Port  Said  the  only  station  deserv- 
ing the  title  of  village  is  El-Kantara,  or  "  the  Bridge,"  so  named  from  a  small 
structure  of  this  sort  which  here  formerly  crossed  a  channel  flowing  between  Lakes 
Ballah  and  Menzaleh.  Standing  on  an  isthmus  between  inundated  tracts,  El- 
Eantara  formed  an  indispensable  station  for  all  caravans  along  the  main  highway 
between  Asia  and  Africa.  This  station  is  even  still  annually  used  by  several 
thousand  camels,  which  are  watered  at  the  great  reservoirs  that  the  Company  has 
here  constructed  near  the  banks  of  the  canal.  In  Lake  Ballah,  to  the  west  of 
El-Kantara,  a  large  "  gare,"  or  shunting  station,  is  to  be  formed  for  the  conve- 
nience of  steamers  using  the  canal,    v  ^.  •  v         V   ;  v 

Port  Said,  which,  like  Ismailia,  is  a  new  town,  but  full  of  life  and  bright 
prospects,  thanks  to  the  constantly  increasing  navigation  of  the  great  marine  high- 
way, has  been  founded  on  the  narrow  strip  of  sand  separating  Lake  Menzaleh  from 
the  Mediterranean.  .  The  creation  of  this  city  on  a  surf- beaten  strand  fully  twenty- 
four  miles  from  all  freshwater  streams,  from  any  cultivated  lands,  or  the  smallest 
clump  of  trees,  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  triumphs  of  modern  industry. 
Lying  between  the  open  roadstead  and  the  inner  basins  of  the  harbour.  Port  Said 
consists  of  some  fifty  islets,  separated  from  each  other  by  broad  streets  disposed 
mainly  at  right-angles.  Most  of  the  houses,  built  either  of  wood,  brick,  or  iron, 
are  used  as  warehouses  and  depots  for  all  kinds  of  produce  and  provisions,  as  rich 
and  well-stocked  as  similar  structiu-es  in  the  European  trading-places. 


r^mvW: 


420 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


At  a  distance  of  a  few  hundred  yards  from  the  European  town  stretches  the 
Arab  quarter,  in  which  more  than  one  building  in  the  stylo  of  the  "  Infidels  "  has 
already  sprung  up,  and  which  promises  ere  long  to  be  completely  surrounded  by 
its  flourishing  neighbour.  In  any  case  the  bed  of  Lake  Menzaleh,  which  is  here 
very  shallow,  oflFers  an  unlimited  space  for  the  development  of  the  city. 

The  outer  port  is  sheltered  by  two  breakwaters  built  with  blocks  of  concrote 
weighing  20  tons  each.     The  western  structure  is  8,300  feet,  the  eastern  6,300  feet 


Pig,  130.— Port  SaTd. 
Scale  1  :  90,000. 


.  .of  GreenwicK  58*iB 


SS'ao- 


»  ; 


■  -  yV 


Depths 


Lighthotue. 


0  to  16  Feet.  26  xevi.  .iixi  upwards.         Light-ship. 


'H  w 


long,  and  they  jointly  enclose  a  space  of  about  one  square  mile  in  extent,  which 
gives  ample  room  for  the  largest  vessels  to  ride  at  anchor,  and  which  in  front  of 
the  city  ramifies  into  several  basins,  affording  a  further  space  of  176  acres  for 
the  shipping.  Facing  the  city  on  the  east  or  Asiatic  side  are  vast  depots  of  coal, 
of  which  over  640,000  tons  were  imported  in  the  year  1883.  On  the  southern  or 
African  side  are  the  workshops  and  dry  docks  built  for  the  construction  and  repair 


m 


i^f^fyw^Hiw- 


,»Mll*f>    II     ^l|     **» 


jjPH! ,.iNiUiiil>ii>^ii>.'>rty>ii(y)i>ji|^^ 


EL-ARISH— PELUSIUM-SAN. 


421 


wn  stretches  the 
Infidels"  has 
y  surrounded  by 
eh,  which  is  here 
city. 

ocks  of  concrete 
astern  6,300  feet 


L£J 


e  in  extent,  which 
which  in  front  of 
3  of  175  acres  for 
ost  depots  of  coal, 
)n  the  southern  or 
truction  and  repair 


of  vessels,  and  especially  of  the  d 'edges  employed  in  the  canal.  Here  there  is  an 
incessant  movement  of  steamers,  }  twls,  and  other  craft  plying  from  bank  to  bank, 
while  larger  shipping  is  moored  near  the  quays,  and  men-of-war  cast  anchor  in  the 
roadstead  near  the  lighthouse. 

Although  situated  on  Egyptian  territory,  Port  Said  is  a  European,  or  rather  a 
French  city,  as  regards  its  inhabitants,  its  social  life,  and  local  traffic.  French  is 
the  dominating  language,  and  in  it  instruction  is  imparted  to  the  fifteen  hundred 
pupils  of  the  rival  establishments  opened  here  by  the  Capuchin  friars  and  the 
Freemasons.  Port  Said  is  the  healthiest  place  in  Lower  Egypt.  By  means  of 
cast-iron  pipes  it  derives  its  water  supply  from  the  Ismailia  Canal  at  the  rate  of 
about  35,000  cubic  feet  a  day,  a  quantity  which  barely  suffices  for  the  >frants  of  the 
inhabitants,  leaving  nothing  for  irrigation  purposes.  Hence  the  surrounding 
gardens  languish,  and  the  great  want  of  the  place  is  avenues  of  shady  trees,  such 
as  have  been  planted  at  Ismailia. 

Hitherto  the  Suez  Canal  Company  has  in  vain  made  every  e£fort  to  obtain  the 
concession  of  a  canal  derived  directly  from  the  Damietta  branch  of  the  Nile,  although 
it  has  offered  in  return  to  give  commercial  unity  to  Egypt  by  connecting  its  seaport 
with  the  local  railway  system  by  means  of  a  branch  constructed  across  Lake 
Menzaleh.  Fearing  to  be  supplanted  by  Port  Said,  Alexandria  employs  all  its 
influence,  to  check  the  progress  of  its  eastern  rival,  which  nevertheless  cannot  fail 
sooner  or  later  to  acquire  the  commercial  supremacy,  thanks  to  its  spacious  and 
convenient  harbour,  and  to  its  situation  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  inter-oceanic 
canal.*  ' 

El-Arish — Pelxjsium— San. 

East  of  Port  Said  Egypt  still  possesses  a  group  of  habitations  which,  as  tho 
chief  town  of  a  province,  may  claim  the  title  of  city.  This  is  El-Arinh,  which 
stands  on  an  eminence  commanding  the  approach  to  a  wady,  usually  regarded  as 
the  natural  frontier  between  Egypt  and  Palestine,  at  the  exact  centre  of  the  concave 
bend  here  developed  by  the  Mediterranean  coast-line.  But  of  the  ancient  cities, 
situated  in  this  north-eastern  district  of  Egypt  no  vestige  can  now  be  discovered, 
everything  having  been  thickly  overlaid  by  alluvial  deposits. 

Of  Pelmium,  the  "  City  of  Mud,"  nothing  is  visible,  except  a  mound  in  the 
midst  of  the  swamps,  not  far  from  a  depression  once  flooded  by  the  Pelusiac  branch 
of  the  Nile.  Farther  west  the  two  islands  Tenneh  and  Tunah  have  nothing  to 
show  except  shapeless  heaps  of  refuse.  More  important  remains,  however,  have 
been  left  by  San,  or  Tanis,  which  under  the  name  of  Ha-war,  or  Avaria,  was  the 
ancient  capital  of  the  "  Shepherd  Kings,"  and  at  one  time  one  of  the  great  cities  of 
Egypt.     The  mound  standing  near  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Menzaleh  still  bears 

•  Shipping  of  Port  Said,  exclusive  of  reaaels  in  transit,  in  1H80,  Hccording  to  Amici  :— 

Arrivals 1,507  rcssolH  of  997,611  tons. 

%,  Departures        ....        1,630        „         997,396    „ 


t^i 


3,037 


1,996,006 


422 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


the  ruins  of  three  temples  ;  and  hero  have  been  discovered  columns,  obelisks,  and 
the  remarkable  sphinxes  which  represent  the  type  of  the  Hyksos,  with  their  broad 
features,  large  nose,  and  prominent  cheek-bones. 

All  these  monuments  were  executed  in  materials  far  more  costly  than  similar 
works  in  Upper  Egypt.  The  building-stone  for  the  temples  was  brought  by 
Ramses  II.,  not  from  the  nummulitic  or  sandstone  rocks  lying  nearest  to  the  delta, 
but  from  the  pink  granite  quarries  of  Assuan,  on  the  southern  frontier  of  the 
empire.  But  of  these  sumptuous  edifices,  whoso  remains  lie  strewn  over  the  mound 
at  San,  nothing  was  respected  by  subsequent  generations  of  builders,  whether 
Romans,  monks,  Christians,  or  Arabs.  Not  one  of  the  fourteen  obelisks,  the  largest 
in  all  Egypt,  has  survived  ;  while  the  colossi  have  been  broken  into  small  fragments 
and  even  ground  to  dust.  Amongst  the  ruins,  however,  has  been  discovered  the 
precious  "  Stone  of  San,"  a  tri-lingual  stele  which  might  have  revealed  the  mystery 

Fig.  131.— Thb  San  Mohass. 
Scale  1 :  460,000. 


K 


Hooded  for  eight  or  nine  months.  Flooded  daring  the  liaiiig  of  the  Nile. 

OMileg. 

of  the  hieroglyphics,  had  not  ChampoUion  and  Young  already  found  a  clue  to  their 
interpretation  in  the  "  Rosetta  Stone."  I      •:    ;*       Ve 

The  enclosure  surrounding  the  great  temple  is  no  less  than  80  feet  thick,*  and 
the  modern  observer  may  well  ask  how  such  a  metropolis  could  have  been  raised  in 
the  midst  of  these  half-submerged  lands,  these  swamps,  and  quagmires,  and  saline 
depressions  now  skirting  Lake  Menzaleh.  But  the  district  seems  to  have  un- 
doubtedly undergone  vast  changes  since  the  oldest  recorded  times,  changes  which 
should  probably  be  attributed  to  local  subsidence.  ;       '  •  •         : 

Although  the  less  copious  of  the  two  Nilotic  branches  enclosing  the  delta,  that 
of  Damietta  is  utilised  to  a  fat  greater  extent  for  irrigation  purposes,  thanks  to  the 
higher  level  of  its  bed.  Along  its  course  are  situated  some  large  towns,  while  in 
many  places  numerous  villages  form  an  almost  continuous  city.  Bcnha-r-Asml,  or 
the  "  City  of  Honey,"  which  supplies  the  inhabitants  of  Cairo  with  considerable 

•  Flinders  Petrie,  Timet,  April  24, 1884.       ; 


iiiiiiliiiiiii^ 


•  »■  -  ■ssts 


W>»ii|IMr  Kl  «^«t»JlniMW" 


MANSUEAH— DAMIETTA. 


42B 


DB,  obelisks,  and 
ivith  their  broad 

tly  than  similar 
ivas  brought  by 
•est  to  the  delta, 
frontier  of  the 
over  the  mound 
uilders,  whether 
lisks,  the  largest 
small  fragments 
1  discovered  the 
lied  the  mystery 


31° 

^^3^ 

S' 

S^S 

:t£Bl<ira---- 

^'  ^^"^«/ 

i^«>/V# 

-....^Jyf.. 

!*.'     '  "*•■      "^ 

O     '"'...."■'•■■ 

.1...    ■•"••<•..:" 

50' 

^  ■*■•  ..i...t» 

'55' 

SS" 

riio. 

id  a  clue  to  their 

li 
feet  thick,*  and 

re  been  raised  in 

nires,  and  saline 

ms  to  have  un- 

I,  changes  which 

g  the  delta,  that 
es,  thanks  to  the 
towns,  while  in 
knha-r-Asml,  or 
ith  considerable 


quantities  of  this  commodity,  with  the  other  produce  of  its  gardens  and  orchards, 
derives  some  importance  from  its  position  ot  the  converging  point  of  the  three  lines 
of  railway  between  Alexandria,  Cairo,  and  Zagazig.  Here  the  river  is  traversed  by 
a  long  viaduct.  Near  the  station  another  "  tell "  or  mound  of  ruins,  situated  like 
the  modem  town  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Damietta  branch  of  the  Nile,  is  all  that 
now  remains  of  the  ancient  Athnbia. 

Mansurah — Damiktta. 

Mit  Qhamr  and  Ziftah,  which  face  each  other  on  both  banks  of  the  river,  are 
amongst  the  most  popiilous  cities  of  the  delta.  Lower  down  on  the  right  bank 
Samanhud,  the  Sebenuytoa  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  birthplace  of  Manetho,  the  his- 
torian, possesses  in  the  neighbourhood  the  remains  of  a  temple,  the  Iseum  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  which  is  now  known  by  the  name  of  Behheit-el-Hagar. 

Mansurah,  or  the  "  Victorious,"  which  follows  on  the  right  bank,  preserves  no 
monuments  of  the  past,  but  is  one  of  the  most  commercial  and  industrious  cities  in 
Egypt,  and  capital  of  a  province.  It  was  here  that  the  French  King  Louis  IX.  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Mohammedans.  Twenty-nine  years  previously — that  is,  in 
1221 — the  Crusaders  had  been  defeated  in  the  same  place,  and  it  was  to  commemo- 
rate these  triumphs  of  the  Crescent  over  the  Cross  that  the  "  Victorious  "  was 
founded. 

At  Mansurah  the  Bahr-es-Sogbeir  channel  branches  off  from  the  Nile,  and  flows 
to  Lake  Menzaleh,  which  it  has  divided  into  two  basins  by  a  peninsula  formed  of 
its  alluAdal  deposits.  At  the  extremity  of  this  low  marsh-encircled  peninsula  stand 
the  two  towns  of  Menzaleh  and  Matarieh,  inhabited  by  poor  commimities  of  fisher- 
men, whose  type,  according  to  Marietta,  betrays  their  lineal  descent  from  the  Hyksos, 
who  overran  Egypt  thousands  of  years  ago.  The  profits  of  these  fisheries  are 
almost  entirely  forestalled  by  the  sheikhs  of  Matarieh,  some  of  whom  have  become 
millionaires.  -r:..       -•      -   '  *"     ^     „:^.     .■.,-.        • 

Damietta,  or  Dumiat,  which  gives  its  name  to  the  east  branch  of  the  Nile,  still 
remains  the  largest  city  on  its  banks.  However,  it  does  not  stand  on  the  same  site 
as  its  Greek  predecessor  Tamiathia,  which  stood  on  the  left  bank  quite  close  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  But  immediately  after  the  unsuccessful  siege  laid  to  the  place 
by  Louis  IX.,  Sultan  Bibars  caused  it  to  be  demolished,  and  removed  the  inhabitants 
some  six  miles  farther  up,  to  a  point  less  accessible  to  an  enemy  arriving  by  sea, 
and  near  an  abrupt  bend  in  the  channel,  which  might  easily  be  defended  against  a 
hostile  fleet. 

The  modern  Damietta  manufactures  various  kinds  of  textile  fabrics  and  does  a 
considerable  trade  in  rice,  salt,  and  fish.  Here,  also,  vessels  engaged  in  the  coast- 
ing trade  between  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and  the  JEgean  Sea,  come  for  their  supplies 
of  provisions,  which  they  take  in  exchange  for  various  manufactured  goods.*    But 

Movement  of  the  Poit  of  Damietta  in  1880,  according  to  Amici :—  '        J 

1,198  shipa  of  83,216  tons. 


Arrivala 
Departures 


Total 


M76 
2,374 


79,996 
163,2n 


484 


NOETH-BAST  AFRICA. 


the  entrance  to  the  harbour  is  danjjerous,  and  shipping  is  sometimes  prevented  by 
the  rough  seas  for  days  together  from  entering  the  river.  The  great  mosque  of 
Damietta,  built  by  Amru,  aad  remarkable  especially  for  the  richness  and  variety  of 
its  marbles,  is  indebted  for  the  exceptional  celebrity  it  enjoys  to  its  "  miraculous  " 
column  still  covered  with  clotted  blood  and  dry  foam.  According  to  the  local 
tradition,  all  invalids  who  come  with  sufficient  faith  and  lick  the  stone  till  'their 
tongue  bleeds  are  sure  to  recover.     Nevertheless,  the  recent  history  of  Damietta  has 

Fig.  132.— Damibtta. 
Scale  1  .  mjOUO. 


\Z\'A*: 


ai'sa- 


-      .         8,800  yard..      -     V*,-^--.-'r\'^.,^^^^i^iJ--.'^ 

made  it  sufficiently  evident  that  a  far  more  efficacious  way  of  getting  rid  of  epidemics 
would  be  to  sweep  the  streets  clean  of  the  filth  encumbering  them  at  every  turn. 

In  an  often  inundated  plain  which  stretches  south-west  of  the  city  in  the 
direction  of  Lake  Burlos,  there  is  another  holy  place,  where  miracles  continue  to  be 
wrought,  not,  however,  by  Mussulman  hajis,  but  by  a  female  Christian  saint.  This 
is  the  Coptic  convent  of  Setti-Damiana,  or  "  Our  Lady  Damian." 


Menuf,  Tantah.  .:-."'■■■..        j...i' .:■:■:  '.'y 

In  the  part  of  the  delta  comprised  between  the  two  branches  of  Damietta  and 
Rosetta,  a  few  commercial  towns  are  scattered  in  the  midst  of  the  canals  and  irriga- 
tion  works.  Such  are  Menu/,  which  gives  its  name  to  the  large  Menufieh  Raya,  or 
canal,  where  have  been  found  the  fragments  of  a  trilingual  stone,  Shibin-el-Kour, 


I  l^;lpllf« 


nes  prevented  by 
great  mosque  of 
388  and  variety  of 
its  "  miraculous  " 
ling  to  the  local 
le  stone  till  'their 
yr  of  Damietta  has 


ig  rid  of  epidemics 
a  at  every  turn, 
f  the  city  in  the 
files  continue  to  be 
istian  saint.    This 


!s  of  Damietta  and 
)  canals  and  irriga- 
Menufieh  Raya,  or 
ne,  Shibin-el-Kour, 


TEURANEII— HAlfl— KUAFF. 


42fi 


lyinp^  in  n  laf^on  whose  winding  waters  (liHuharfi;<>  thnnxolvoH  into  Lako  Hurlos; 
Tanfah,  ii  city  of  morclmntH  ;  MahalM-el-Kcbir,  or  the  "Orcut  City,"  which  formerly 
enjoyed  a  monopoly  of  the  JCgyptiuu  silk  industry,  und  whoso  acutterod  (jimrters  are 
Hurroundcd  by  cotton  plantations. 

Of  all  the  towns  of  the  delta,  Tantah,  capital  of  the  province  of  Garbieh, 
occupies  the  most  central  position.  It  stands  exactly  midway  between  Cairo  and 
Alexandria,  as  well  as  between  the  Rosotta  and  Damietta  branches  of  the  Nile. 
Hero  converge  and  intersect  each  other  canals,  roods,  and  highways.  To  these  causes, 
combined  with  the  great  reputation  enjoyed  by  the  mosque  of  Seid-el-Radawi,  the 
greatest  saint  of  the  Egyptian  Mussulman  calendar,  is  to  bo  attributtnl  the  excep- 
tional importance  enjoyed  by  the  annual  fairs  held  at  Tantah.  In  the  eyes  of  the 
pilgrims  the  pool  which  receives  the  sweepings  of  the  mosque  possesses  healing 
properties  rivalling  those  of  the  Damietta  column  itself.  In  population,  olso, 
Tantah  competes  with  Damietta  for  the  third  place  amongst  the  cities  of  Egjrpt. 
Hero  is  also  the  famous  £1- Ahmadi  School,  which,  next  to  that  of  El-Azhar  at  Cairo, 
holds  the  first  rank  amongst  all  the  Arab  schools  in  the  country.  In  the  year  1877 
it  numbered  as  many  as  4,885  scholars. 


Terraneh,  Sais,  Fuah. 

On  the  Rosetta  branch,  which  is  skirted  for  half  its  course  by  a  line  of  railway, 
itself  fla;  ked  by  the  first  swellings  of  the  Libyan  range,  the  only  important  town 
is  that  from  which  this  channel  takes  its  name.  Terraneh,  perhaps  the  ancient 
Torenuthis,  is  the  chief  depot  for  the  natron  collected  in  the  saline  lake  of  the  Wady- 
Natrun,  near  the  convent  of  Saint  Macorius.  Teirieh,  which  lies  farther  down,  at 
the  outlet  of  the  narrow  belt  of  cultivated  lands  here  stretching  between  the  hills 
and  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  has  also  succeeded  to  an  ancient  city  whose  ruins  are 
visible  on  the  neighbouring  Tell-el-Odameh,  or  "  Bone  Mound."     -> 

Kafr-el-Za'iat,  where  the  railway  between  Cairo  and  Alexandria  crosses  the  river 
on  a  long  bridge  of  twelve  arches,  has  no  old  Egyptian  remains  in  its  immediate 
neighbourhood.  But  about  twelve  miles  farther  down,  on  the  same  east  side  of  the 
Rosetta  branch,  are  situated  the  extensive  ruins  of  Sfi  *he  Sais  of  the  Qreeks,  and 
now  called  Sa-el-Hagar  by  the  fellahtn.  Sa,  whioh  was  the  capital  of  Egypt  at 
the  time  of  the  Persian  invasion  under  Cambyseri,  is  perhaps  one  of  those  places 
which  ought  to  be  held  in  the  gfreatest  veneration  by  all  mankind ;  for,  according 
to  the  legend,  from  this  city  set  out  the  colonists  who  foimded  Athens,  bringing 
with  them  the  image  of  the  goddess  Neith,  who  became  the  Athena  of  the  Qreeks 
and  the  Minerva  of  the  Romans.  From  Sa  also  came  the  legendary  Danaidse,  who 
first  brought  under  cultivation  the  thankless  soil  o^  Argos,  so  different  from  their 
native  plains  enriched  by  the  inundations  of  the  Nile. 

Of  the  old  sanctuaries  of  Sais  little  remains  except  heaps  of  refuse,  and  its 
tombs  now  yield  to  the  treasure-seeker  but  few  objects  of  interest.  But  its 
enclosure  still  excites  surprise  at  its  enormous  pr  ^portions.     It   is  no  less  than 


420 


NORTII-KAST  AKRKA. 


82  fwt  hipli  and  53  foot  thick.     Tlin  holy  lukc  which  formerly  oxiHted  here  in  now 
a  more  nwunip. 

liolow  Ih'HHiik — whoro  tho  river  is  Hpnnno<l  by  an  iron  bridge,  and  whoHe  fuirH 
are  only  Iohh  fri'quented  thun  thone  of  Tuntuh — the  pleoHunt  town  of  Ftmh,  or 
"Madder,"  wcupicH  u  jxiHition  on  the  right  bank,  op|K)8ito  the  junction  of  the 
largo  navigiililr  Muhuiudieh  Canal,  which  affords  direct  communication  with  Alex- 
andria. Fuah,  Htill  noted  for  its  nuinorouB  minareta,  wuh  the  rival  of  Cairo  in  the 
fourteenth  century ;  but  it  no  longer  cultivates  the  valuable  plant  from  which  it 
taki'H  itH  name,  and  its  iuduHtriea  uro  reduced  to  the  manufacture  of  tarbutthus. 


ROSETTA. 

At  present  Fuah  has  been  eclipsed  even  by  Reahid,  or  Itonetta,  capital  of  the 
province,  which  lies  on  the  left  bunk  of  the  river  about  nine  miles  above  its  mouth. 
Founded  by  the  Arabs  in  the  ninth  century,  Reshid,  like  Fuah,  had  its  period  of 
prosperity.  During  the  eighteenth  century  its  port  was  the  most  frequented  in 
Egypt,  and  vessels  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade  called  here  from  every  part  of  the 
Levant  for  cargoes  (jf  rice,  which  still  forms  the  chief  article  of  export.*  The 
town  is  surrounded  by  delightful  gardens,  in  the  midst  of  which  the  remains  of 
ancient  structures  have  often  been  found.  Almost  every  house  in  Rosetta  is 
emlwllished  with  some  fragment  of  columns,  marble,  porphyry,  or  granite,  taken 
from  older  buildings.  The  famous  "  Rosetta  Stone,"  which,  in  the  hands  of 
Champollion  and  Young  became  the  poi]\t  of  departure  for  discoveries  of  supreme 
importance  in  linguistics  ond  history,  was  discovered  in  the  year  1799  by  the 
engineer  Bouchard,  of  the  French  expedition  under  Bonaparte,  at  some  distance 
to  the  north  of  the  town,  where  now  stands  Fort  Julian.  This  precious  tri-ling^al 
inscription,  originally  composed  in  honour  of  "  Ptolemy  the  Immortal,  bom  of  the 
sun,"  was  ceded  to  the  English  by  capitulation,  and  deposited  in  the  British 
Museum. 

When  the  Nile  falls  to  its  lowest  level  it  occasionally  happens  that  the  tides 
ascend  the  stream  to  even  beyond  Rosetta,  whose  inhabitants  are  then  obliged  to 
use  the  brackish  water  found  in  the  depressions.  So  bad  is  the  supply  of  this  indis- 
pensable article  that  in  the  year  1885  a  commission  was  appointed  to  examine  the 
question  on  the  spot,  and  adopt  measures  for  procuring  a  better  supply  for  the  town. 
Pending  the  completion  of  their  labours  the  supply  at  Edfeh  has  been  stopped,  and 
the  water  is  at  present  pumped  higher  up  the  Nile  at  Kututbeh,  a  point  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  highest  tides  from  the  Mediterranean. 

West  of  the  Rosetta  branch  the  whole  north-west  comer  of  the  delta  is  watered 


*  Shipping  of  Rosetta  in  1880  according  to  Amici : — 


Arrivals 
Departures 


738  vewels  of  20,124  toni. 
726        „         19,717    „ 


Total 


1,404 


89,841 


•uNi" 


-(•■fcfa 


DAMANAIIUU— KAKU-DVVAU-CANOl'IS— AUUKIIl. 


4'27 


stcd  hero  if»  now 

and  wh«>Ho  fuiiH 
wn  of  Ftmh,  or 
junction  of  tho 
ition  with  Alox- 

of  Cairo  in  the 
it  from  which  it 

turbutihuH. 


1,  capital  of  the 
above  its  mouth, 
[lod  its  period  of 
3t  frequented  in 
every  part  of  the 
>f  export.*  The 
\i  the  remains  of 
80  in  Rosctta  is 
)r  granite,  taken 
in  the  hands  of 
eries  of  supreme 
sar  1799  by  the 
it  some  distance 
eciouB  tri-ling^al 
>rtal,  bom  of  the 
1  in  the  British 

ns  that  the  tides 
B  then  obliged  to 
>ply  of  this  indis- 
d  to  examine  the 
)ply  for  the  town, 
jeen  stopped,  and 
,  a  point  beyond 

9  delta  is  watered 


by  cuniiU  dcrivM  from  the  main  Ktronm.  Tloro  th«'  plainM  ar(>  irrigated  by  tln> 
iMuriut,  Abti-Dibat,  l)atnatiahur,  and  Motmudich  CaiialH,  with  iiinuincraltir  siiiallor 
chunnols,  all  of  whicli  diMhargo  their  wutors  into  Lukeu  Mariiit  and  Kdku. 


DAMANAiirR — Kakr-Dwar. 

Damanahur,  consisting  of  a  group  of  numerous  hamlotH,  in  tho  capital  of  this  region 
of  arable  landn,  where  tho  tall  chiinneynof  tho  cotton-cloanning  factories  alnioHt  out- 
number tho  minarets  of  tho  moHijucH.  Between  Damanahur  and  Alexandria  this 
part  of  the  delta  is  connected  with  the  seaboard  by  a  narrow  isthmus,  wliero  road, 
railway,  and  canal  aro  uU  alike  protected  by  embankments  against  tho  waters  of 
Lakes  Abukir  and  Mariut.  This  strip  of  land  is  one  of  "  tho  gates  of  Egypt." 
Accordingly  during  tho  late  military  insurrection  Arubi  Pasha  caused  the  approaches 
fn)m  this  direction  to  bo  blocked  from  bank  to  bank  by  the  K({fr-Dwor  embank- 
ments. Instead  of  forcing  these  lines  the  English  General  Wolsoley  took  them  in 
flank  and  rear  by  suddenly  embarking  his  forces  ond  re-landing  them  at  Ismailia 
on  tho  Suez  Canal,  whence  he  advanced  into  the  heart  of  Egypt  by  the  opposite  gate 
of  tho  Wady-Tumil&t.  Tho  suuuchs  of  this  manouuvro  was  complete.  Tho  formid- 
able Kafr-Dwar  lines  became  useless,  and  Arabi  was  comi)olled  hastily  to  withdraw 
his  army  to  defend  the  approaches  from  the  Suez  Canal,  this  movement  being 
followed  by  his  crushing  defeat  at  Toll-el- Kobir. 


Canopis — AnuKiR. 

North  of  the  Kafr-Dwar  isthmus  Rosetta  is  connected  with  tho  peninsula  of 
Alexandria  by  another  belt  of  narrow  land,  which  is  also  utilised  by  a  lino  of  rail- 
way, and  which  passes  by  the  little  dune-encircled  town  of  Edkit,  or  Edk6.  At  the 
outlet  of  Lake  Abiikir  the  Maodieh,  that  is  to  say,  the  ford  or  passage,  indicates 
the  course  of  the  ancient  Canopic  branch  of  the  Nile,  the  most  westerly  of  all  the 
(ieven  fluvial  ramifications.  Canopis,  whence  this  branch  took  its  name,  has  left 
only  some  doubtful  remains  on  a  spot  frequently  washed  by  the  surrounding  waters. 
Throughout  the  whole  of  the  maritime  tract  adjacent  to  the  Maudieh  ford,  the 
sands  have  swallowed  up  the  sites  of  ancient  structures,  which  have  also  served  to 
supply  materials  for  building  the  neighbouring  villages  of  Mandarah,  Abukir,  and 
others. 

Abukir,  situated  on  the  shore  of  the  bay  to  which  it  gives  its  name,  probably 
on  the  very  spot  formerly  occupied  by  the  town  of  Zephyrion  and  the  temple  of 
Arsinoe  Aphrodite,  is  a  small  but  busy  seaport,  far  better  known,  however,  for  its 
historic  associations  than  for  its  local  trade.  It  was  in  the  Abukir  waters  that  in 
the  year  1798  Nelson  destroyed  the  French  fleet,  thereby  cutting  off  all  communi- 
cation between  the  conquerors  of  Egypt  and  the  mother  country.  And  although 
next  year  Bonaparte  was  still  strong  enough  to  annihilate  a  Turkish  army  which 


428 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


I 


had  disembarked  at  this  place,  the  fruits  of  Nelson's  famous  victory  were  soon 
after  reaped  by  the  total  failure  of  the  expedition,  and  the  surrender  of  the  French 
forces  to  the  British  after  the  battle  of  Alexandria. 

Alexandria. 

Alexandria,  one  of  the  great  trading  places  of  the  world,  and  the  second  city 
of  Egyp^  and  the  African  continent  in  size  and  population,  is  also  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  *or  the  originality  of  its  form.  Its  outline,  however,  has  been  greatly 
modified  since  the  period  when,  some  twenty-two  centuries  ago,  the  obscure  town  of 
lihacolis  received  from  the  Macedonian  conqueror  the  world-renowned  name  which 
it  has  borne  ever  since.  At  this  point  of  the  coast  the  rocky  marine  belt  running 
in  the  direction  from  south-west  to  north-east  has  been  broken  by  two  wide 
breaches.  Thus  was  created  an  island,  under  shelter  of  which  the  fleets  of  Phoeni- 
cians and  Greeks  formerly  rode  at  anchor.  Such  was  the  famous  island  of  Pharos, 
already  mentioned  in  the  Homeric  poems. 

When  Dinocrates  laid  out  the  city  of  Alexandria  on  new  lines,  he  did  not 
dispose  the  temples  and  palaces  along  the  continental  coast-line,  which  here  pro- 
jected to  a  point  in  the  direction  of  the  island  standing  at  a  distance  of  over 
1,500  yards  from  the  mainland.  But  Ptolemy  Soter,  one  of  the  first  sovereigns  of 
the  Greek  dynasty,  bridged  over  the  intervening  space  by  means  of  the  so-called 
"  Seven  Stadia  Embankment,"  leaving  two  open  channels  of  communication 
between  the  two  harbours  that  were  thus  created.  The  channels  have  been 
gradually  obliterated  and  the  causeway  enlarged,  partly  no  doubt  in  conse- 
quence of  marine  deposits,  but  much  more  by  the  action  of  the  Greek  and  Italian 
vessels,  which  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  accustomed  to  dis- 
charge their  ballast  of  stones  in  the  Alexandrian  waters. 

At  present  the  causeway  has  been  transformed  to  a  strip  of  land  over  1,300 
yards  broad  connecting  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  with  the  north-east  part  of  the 
former  island  of  Pharos.  Here  is  now  situated  the  "  Turkish  quarter,"  a  labyrinth 
of  irregular  and  winding  lanes,  pierced  here  and  there  by  a  few  broad  modem 
thoroughfares.  The  island  thus  changed  to  a  peninsxila  has  itself  become  covered 
with  streets,  houses,  barracks,  depots,  palaces,  and  buildings  of  all  sorts.  At  its 
south-western  extremity  stands  the  lofty  tower  of  the  modem  lighthouse,  the 
successor  of  the  famous  "  Pharos  "  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  a  monument  of  white 
marble  in  the  form  of  a  step  pyramid,  which  originally  stood  at  the  opposite  end 
of  the  island,  and  which  was  regarded  by  the  ancients  as  one  of  the  "  seven 
wonders  "  of  the  world.  Masudi,  who  saw  the  ruins  of  this  structure,  says  that  in 
his  time  it  was  still  "  four  hundred  cubits  high,"  and  according  to  Mahmud  Bey  it 
rose  to  an  elevation  of  over  400  feet.  No  vestiges  are  now  visible  of  the  light- 
house, whose  very  site  has  been  washed  away  by  the  marine  waters.  Nor  has  the 
neighbouring  fort  which  bears  its  name  even  been  constructed  with  the  materials 
of  a  monuDient  whose  name  alone  survives  as  the  common  designation  of  all  light- 
houses throughout  the  Greek  and  Latin  seafaring  communities. 


■"*v!'*^'St'>#iitS^ 


nHpfijiiirtMf^JP' 


■■ 'liiiiij^fllii^aiii^' w^^ 


m*^ 


victory  were  soon 
inder  of  the  French 


ALEXANDRIA. 


429 


While  the  alluvia  brought  by  the  marine  currents  were  developing  the  isthmus 
of  the  "  Heptastadium,"  which  was  further  enlarged  and  elevated  by  the  ruins  of 
a  city  more  than  once  destroyed  and  rebuilt,  the  other  parts  of  the  neighbouring 


ad  the  second  city 
Iso  one  of  the  must 
ir,  has  been  g^reatly 
the  obscure  town  of 
owned  name  which 
narine  belt  running 
oken  by  two  wide 
he  fleets  of  Phoeni- 
us  island  of  Pharos, 

V  lines,  he  did  not 
ne,  which  here  pro- 

a  distance  of  over 
e  first  sovereigns  of 
ins  of  the  so-called 

of  communication 
hannels  have  been 
o  doubt  in  conse- 
5  Greek  and  Italian 

accustomed  to  dis- 

of  land  over  1,300 
trth-east  part  of  the 
uarter,"  a  labyrinth 
,  few  broad  modem 
jelf  become  covered 
f  all  sorts.  At  its 
jm  lighthouse,  the 
monument  of  white 
at  the  opposite  end 
one  of  the  "  seven 
ructure,  says  that  in 
f  to  Mahmud  Bey  it 
isible  of  the  light- 
aters.  Nor  has  the 
[  with  the  materials 
Ration  of  all  light- 


Fig.  133.— Abukir  and  Ai-bxandria. 
Soale  1 :  800,000. 


50'I0' 


Feet. 


Depths. 


82  to  SO 
Feet. 


80  to  160 
Feet. 

,  6  Miles. 


160  Foet  and 
upward*. 


V  *.  x-'ii^Vi    J:,.ii 


seaboard  appear  to  have  undergone  the  opposite  movement  of  subsidence  during 
the  same  historic  period.  Roads,  quays,  old  quarries,  tombs  excavated  in  the 
cliffs  along  the  adjacent  coast,  as  well  as  the  works  known  by  the  name  of  "  Cleo- 
patra's Baths,"  are  still  constantly  encroached  upon  by  the  marine  waters,  even 


f^mmmffrnm 


f^ 


4B0 


NOBTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


when  they  are  at  their  lowest  level.  In  spite  of  the  extensive  operations  carried 
out  by  the  engineers  employed  by  Mohammed  Ali,  it  was  foimd  impossible  to 
drain  Lake  Mariut,  which  the  English  had  created  in  1801  by  opening  three  or 
four  channels  in  the  intervening  strip  of  coast  skirting  the  west  side  of  Lake 
Abukir. 

It  requii-ed  sixty-six  days  to  flood  this  depression,  which  in  certain  places  has 
a  present  depth  of  seven  feet.  It  will  certainly  prove  an  arduous  undertaking  to 
recover  for  agriculture  a  district  150,000  acres  in  extent,  lacustrine  in  its  lowest 
parts,  swampy  round  its  margin,  where  150  villages  are  said  to  have  stood  before 
the  irruption  of  the  waters  which  converted  Alexandria  into  an  insidar  city. 
After  the  marine  floods  have  been  drained  off  it  will  be  necessary  to  get  rid  of  the 
excessive  saline  particles  by  drenching  all  the  depressions  of  the  basin  with  fresh 
water  drawn  from  the  Mahmudieh  Canal.  At  the  time  of  Strabo  the  Mareotis 
vineyards  yielded  one  of  the  choicest  wines  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean seaboard.  In  this  lake  a  port  had  been  excavated  for  shipping  aU  the 
produce  brought  down  by  the  Nilotic  canals  from  the  interior  of  the  country.  At 
present  the  basin  is  no  longer  available  for  navigation,  and  the  Mahmudieh  Canal, 
instead  of  discharging  into  it,  skirts  its  shores  between  two  embankments. 

The  "European  City,"  stretching  west  and  south  of  the  Turkish  quarter, 
occupies  very  nearly  the  exact  site  of  the  city  built  by  Dinocrates  and  the  Ptole- 
mies. Its  broad  straight  streets  form  a  rogular  and  compact  mass  of  buildings, 
merging  towards  the  north-east  in  some  modern  suburbs,  whose  chief  thoroughfare 
is  the  old  Canopic  highway  leading  direct  to  Rosetta.  But  within  the  limits  of 
the  modem  city  no  traces  are  any  longer  visible  of  its  ancient  predecessor.  All 
that  still  survived  at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  when  the  population  had 
dwindled  to  scarcely  more  than  six  thousand  souls,  has  been  demolished  by  the 
builders  of  the  new  quarters  that  have  since  sprung  up,  since  the  revival  of  its 
former  prosperity.  A  few  fragments  of  sculptures  have  alone  been  rescued  and 
preserved  in  public  or  private  collections.  The  site  of  the  Soma,  the  magnificent 
tomb  of  Alexander,  and  the  position  of  the  famous  observatory,  associated  with  the 
illustrious  names  of  Eratosthenes,  Hipparchus,  and  Ptolemy  the  geographer,  are 
subjects  of  discussion  among  archaeologists.  The  traces  are  vainly  sought  of  the 
no  less  renowned  museum  and  library,  where  Euclid  and  Erasistratus  taught,  which 
were  frequented  by  Theocritus,  Aratus,  Callimachus,  and  Lucian,  and  where  had 
been  accumulated  as  many  as  seven  hundred  thousand  volumes,  all  consumed 
during  the  wars  of  Ceesar  in  Egypt. 

Another  equally  famous  library  stood  near  the  Temple  of  Serapis,  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  present  city.  But  it  is  matter  of  history  how  the  fanatical  Egyptian 
monks,  armed  with  the  edict  issued  by  the  Emperor  Theodosius,  proceeded  in 
Alexandria  and  throughout  the  whole  of  Egypt  to  systematically  destroy  the 
temples,  overthrow  the  statues,  and  commit  to  the  flames  all  the  papyri  and 
treasures  of  art  inherited  from  the  remotest  antiquity.  Thus  perished  the  library, 
in  which  had  been  carefully  collected  all  the  masterpieces  of  Hellenic  science  and 
poetry. 


Er 


■I  iini!i.(ii|;iiiiiiiimm  lunijii."^^ 


I.  fni»i;»  h»»|Km"'i%i^ii|  iijruiifn'ii 


**im9f'Ky*04t>*^ 


ALEXANDEIA. 


431 


jcrations  carried 
id  impossible  to 
)pening  three  or 
!st  side  of  Lake 

irtain  places  has 
I  undertaking  to 
ne  in  its  lowest 
ave  stood  before 
an  insiilar  city, 
to  get  rid  of  the 
basin  with  fresh 
bo  the  Mareotis 
of  the  Mediter- 
shippiug  all  the 
ihe  country.  At 
ahmudieh  Canal, 
kments. 

lurkish  quarter, 
s  and  the  Ptole- 
Eiss  of  buildings, 
lief  thoroughfare 
bin  the  limits  of 
iredecessor.  All 
I  population  had 
tmolished  by  the 
;he  revival  of  its 
been  rescued  and 
,  the  magnificent 
sociated  with  the 
!  geographer,  are 
ily  sought  of  the 
tus  taught,  which 
I,  and  where  had 
es,  all  consumed 

rapis,  beyond  the 
matical  Egyptian 
us,  proceeded  in 
sally  destroy  the 
[  the  papyri  and 
ished  the  library, 
ilenic  science  and 


"  At  that  time,"  writes  the  eloquent  historian  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Eoman  Empire,  "the  archiepiscopal  throne  of  Alexandria  was  filled  by  Theophilus, 
the  perpetual  enemy  of  peace  and  virtue ;  a  bold,  bad  man,  whose  hands  were 
alternately  polluted  with  gold  and  with  blood.  His  pious  indignation  was  excited 
by  the  honours  of  Serapis ;  and  the  insults  which  he  offered  to  an  ancient  chapel 
of  Bacchus  convinced  the  pagans  that  he  meditated  a  more  important  and 
dangerous  enterprise.  In  the  tumultuous  capital  of  Egypt  the  slightest  provoca- 
tion was  sufiicient  to  inflame  a  civil  war.  The  votaries  of  Serapis  rose  in  arms  at 
the  instigation  of  the  philosopher  Olympius,  who  exhorted  them  to  die  in  the 

Fig.  134. — Alexandria. 
8flalBl:7^000. 


Deiitha. 


0to82Fe«t. 


i»  Feet  and  npwarda. 
^^—  2,200  Tordi. 


defence  of  the  altars  of  the  gods.  These  pagan  fanatica  fortified  themselves  in  the 
temple  of  Serapis,  repelled  the  besiegers  by  daring  sallies  and  a  resolute  defence, 
and  by  the  inhuman  cruelties  which  they  exercised  on  their  Christian  prisoners 
obtained  the  last  consolation  of  despair.  The  efforts  of  the  prudent  magistrate 
were  usefully  exerted  for  the  establishment  of  a  truce  till  the  answer  of  Theodosius 
should  determine  the  fate  of  Serapis.  But  when  a  sentence  of  destruction  against 
the  idols  of  Alexandria  was  pronounced,  the  Christians  set  up  a  shout  of  joy  and 
exultation,  whilst  the  unfortunate  pagans  retired  with  hasty  and  silent  steps,  and 
eluded  by   flight   or    obscurity  the   resentment    of    their  enemies.     Theophilus 


■'"=:"«&;,. 


482 


NOKTU-EAST  ATEICA. 


proceeded  to  demolish  the  temple  of  Serapis  without  any  other  difficulty  than  those 
which  he  found  in  the  weight  and  solidity  of  the  materials.  But  these  ohjects 
proved  so  insuperable,  that  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  foundations,  and  to  content 
himself  to  reduce  the  edifice  itself  to  a  heap  of  rubbish,  a  part  of  which  was  soon 
afterwards  cleared  away  to  make  room  for  a  church  in  honour  of  the  Christian 
martyrs.  The  valuable  libriary  of  Alexandria  was  pillaged  and  destroyed,  and  ner  r 
twenty  years  afterwards  the  appearance  of  the  empty  shelves  excited  the  regret 
and  indignation  of  every  spectator  whose  mind  was  not  totally  darkened  by 
religious  prejudice.  The  colossal  statue  of  Serapis  was  involved  in  the  ruin  of 
his  temple  and  religion." 

On  the  eminence  where  the  Serapeum  has  left  nothing  but  a  shapeless  heap  of 
debris,  a  solitary  pillar  about  100  feet  high  still  stands  like  a  monument  of  death 
amid  the  surrounding  decay.  This  is  the  pillar  popularly  known  as  "  Fompey's 
Column,"  although  if  not  actually  built,  it  was  certainly  restored  in  honour  of  the 
Roman  Emperor  Diocletian.  Originally  it  may  probably  have  formed  part  of  the 
Serapeum.  The  capital  has  been  hollowed  out,  either  to  receive  the  pedestal  of 
some  statue,  or  possibly  in  early  Christian  times  to  serve  as  an  aerial  chamber  for 
some  Egyptian  rival  of  Simon  Stylites. 

Near  the  beach  to  the  north-west  of  the  city,  the  proximity  of  ancient  ruins 
was  till  lately  indicated  by  an  obelisk  of  pink  granite  usually  known  as  "Cleopatra's 
Needle,"  although  it  was  originally  brought  from  Heliopolis  and  re-erected  in 
Alexandria  during  the  reign  of  Augustus,  consequently  some  time  subsequent  to 
the  death  of  the  Egyptian  queen.  A  few  years  ago  it  was  again  transported, 
this  time  to  London,  where  it  now  adorns  the  new  granite  embankment  on  the  left 
side  of  the  Thames.  Another  "  needle,"  after  lying  for  some  generations  half 
buried  in  the  sands,  has  been  removed  to  the  New  World,  ambitious  to  have 
her  share  in  the  spoils  of  Egypt.  '  Presented  by  the  Egyptian  Government 
to  the  municipality  of  New  York,  it  has  been  set  up  in  the  Central  Park  of 
that  city. 

The  equestrian  statue  of  Mohammed  Ali,  standing  on  the  elongated  "  Consul's 
Square  "  in  the  heart  of  the  European  quarter,  is  a  sorry  compensation  for  all  the 
works  of  art  wantonly  destroyed  in  post  times.  The  city  was  even  again  threatened 
with  destruction  during  its  bombardment  by  f^e  English  in  the  year  1882.  On.  this 
occasion  Fort  Cafarelli  was  demolished  by  the  British  gnus,  and  after  the  attack 
the  work  of  destruction  was  continued  during  the  aight  by  incendiaries  and 
plunderers,  instigated  by  Mahommedan  fanaticism.  Even  two  years  after  the  catas- 
trophe some  of  the  best-built  and  wealthiest  quarters  still  presented  a  lamentable 
appearance.  Enormous  heaps  of  rough  stonework,  the  remains  of  ruined  houses, 
lined  both  sides  of  the  streets,  where  every  gust  of  wind  raised  dense  clouds  of 
lime-dust.  In  many  places  where  the  work  of  destruction  had  been  complete,  the 
district  presented  the  aspect  rather  of  a  quarry  than  of  an  inhabited  town.  The 
work  of  restoration  was  long  delayed  by  the  state  of  uncertainty  prevailing 
amongst  the  mercantile  classes,  and  by  tiie  ruin  of  so  many  owners  of  house 
property,  who  had  long  to  wait  for  the  promised  indemnities.     The  flags  of  the 


fficulty  than  those 
IJut  these  objects 
ns,  and  to  content 
>f  which  was  soon 
r  of  the  Christian 
estroyed,  and  ner  r 
excited  the  regret 
tally  darkened  by 
ed  in  the  ruin  of 

shapeless  heap  of 
lonument  of  death 
wn  as  "  Pompey's 
i  in  honour  of  the 
formed  part  of  the 
ve  the  pedestal  of 
aerial  chamber  for 

y  of  ancient  ruins 
)wn  as  "  Cleopatra's 

and  re-erected  in 
time  subsequent  to 

again  transported, 
inkment  on  the  left 
le  generations  half 

ambitious  to  have 
yptian  Government 
le  Central  Park  of 

elongated  "  Consul's 
)ensation  for  all  the 
en  again  threatened 
year  1882.  On  this 
ind  after  the  attack 
y  incendiaries  and 
ears  after  the  catas- 
lented  a  lamentable 
as  of  ruined  houses, 
sed  dense  clouds  of 
1  been  complete,  the 
babited  town.  The 
sertainty  prevailing 
y  owners  of  house 
I.     The  flags  of  the 


%::''-:. 


If 


/-' 


.1.  ' 


:./' 


V 


ALEXANDRIA. 


488 


f  ;V. 


footpaths  and  the  paTing-stones  used  in  the  streets  of  the  better-built  quarters  are 
imported  from  Europe. 

The  Egyptian  Institute,  the  principal  scientific  establishment  in  the  Nile  Valley, 
has  been  founded,  not  in  Cairo,  but  in  Alexandria,  as  if  the  intention  has  been  to 


Fii;.  135 — Albxanduia  and  Lake  Mamivt. 
Soale  1 :  :<U0,U00. 


29°40' 


L    .  of  broenwich 


89*50' 


Oto32 

;     Feet. 


Depthii. 


81  to  80 
Feet. 


80  to  160 
Feet. 


6Mi]M 


160  Feet 
and  apwarda. 


s^ij- 


revive  the  old  traditions  of  the  place  as  a  famous  seat  of  learning.  It  could  never 
be  forgotten  that  this  city  was  formerly  the  "brain  of  mankind,"  and  that  here  the 
great  school  of  Alexandria  has  been  established  and  conducted  by  such  men  as 
Plotinus,  Proclus,  Porphyrius,  and  Jamblicbus.  Thanks  to  the  influence  of  this 
Tmiversity,  there  was  brought  about  that  blending  of  national  myths  and  that  inter- 

28— AF. 


484 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


change  of  ideas  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  worlds,  between  India,  Greece,  and 
Egypt,  out  of  which  arose  the  modern  philosophies  and  religions. 

Nevertheless,  Alexandria  has  failed  to  revive  its  past  glories  as  a  centre  of  the 
sciences  and  letters.  At  present  it  is  essentially  an  emporium  of  commerce.  More 
than  one-third  of  all  the  Egyptian  exchanges  with  the  rest  of  the  world  are  effected 
in  this  seaport,  which  before  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Cunal  enjoyed  a  monopoly  of 
the  export  and  import  traffic  with  the  West.  In  18G6,  the  year  of  its  greatest 
prosperity,  caused  by  the  effects  of  the  American  Civil  War  on  the  cotton  trade  of 
the  world,  its  exports  rose  to  nearly  £20,000,000.  The  north-east  harbour,  wrongly 
called  the  "New  Port,"  although  no  improvements  have  been  executed  here,  is  very 
shallow,  and  frequented  only  by  small  coasting  craft.  During  the  last  century 
vessels  of  this  class  owned  by  Christians  were  compelled  to  cast  anchor  in  this  harbour. 

The  south-east,  or  "  Old  Port,"  the  Eunostos,  or  "  Haven  of  Welcome  "  of  the 
ancients,  is  alone  available  for  vessels  of  heavy  draught.  Unfortunately  it  is  of 
difficult  access,  the  channels  being  tortuous  and  obstructed  by  reefs,  amongst  which 
large  ships  cannot  venture  without  a  pilot.  In  rough  weather  even  light  craft  are  not 
free  from  the  risk  of  running  aground.  But  inside  the  pier,  which  forms  a  south- 
westerly prolongation  of  the  coast-line  from  the  peninsula  of  Pharos,  shipping  of  every 
description  finds  complete  shelter  and  ample  space  to  ride  at  anchor.  There  is 
altogether  a  water  surface  of  no  less  than  1,000  acres,  with  a  normal  depth  of  from 
28  to  33  feet. 

The  Mahmudieh  Canal,  which  has  its  outlet  in  this  port,  should  and  occasionally 
does  serve,  jointly  with  the  railway,  as  a  highway  of  communication  between  Alex- 
andria and  the  Nile  Valley.  But  notwithstanding  its  foul  condition,  the  water  of 
this  canal  is  utilised  chiefly  to  supply  the  inhabitants  of  this  seaport,  and  to  irrigate 
the  surrounding  plains.  At  times  the  canal  has  been  completely  exhausted,  leaving 
the  boats  frequenting  it  landed  high  and  dry  on  its  muddy  banks. 

The  local  industries  contribute  but  little  to  the  general  trade  of  the  place.  The 
chief  articles  here  manufactured  are  silk  and  cotton  woven  goods,  reed  and  palm 
matting,  essences  and  perfumery. 


Ramleh — Meks — MUDAR. 


M-, 


Like  all  other  great  cities,  Alexandria  has  its  complement  of  suburban  resi- 
dences, environs,  and  pleasure-grounds.  Along  the  canal  and  fortifications 
stretching  southwards  the  country  seats  enjoy  the  shade  of  avenues  of  palms, 
clusters  of  bananas,  mimosas,  and  other  tropical  plants.  Towards  the  north-east 
Nicopolis,  built  by  Augustus  to  commemorate  the  battle  of  Actium,  has  been 
replaced  by  the  modern  town  of  Ramleh,  or  "The  Sands."  During  the  last 
century  little  more  than  a  shifting  dune,  Ramleh  has  now  become  an  extensive 
aggregation  of  palaces,  country  residences,  villas,  hotels,  houses  in  every  form  and 
style  of  architecture,  painted  in  every  hue,  and  scattered  without  order  along  the 
beach  or  within  view  of  the  sea. 

Southwards  stands  the  ch&teau  of  Meks,  at  a  point  of  the  ooust-line  where  it 


«>j|HIWlhiptWpj|tMl-|l. 


NAUCRATIS. 


486 


idia,  Greece,  and 

8  a  centre  of  the 
ommerce.  More 
«rorld  are  effected 
3d  a  monopoly  of 
r  of  its  greatest 
10  cotton  trade  of 
barbour,  wrongly 
uted  here,  is  very 
the  lost  century 
>r  in  this  harbour. 
Velcome  "  of  the 
rtunately  it  is  of 
3,  amongst  which 
light  craft  are  not 
ih  forms  a  south- 
shipping  of  every 
inchor.  There  is 
al  depth  of  from 

I  and  occasionally 
on  between  Alex- 
tion,  the  water  of 
rt,  and  to  irrigate 
ixhausted,  leaving 

)f  the  place.  The 
Is,  reed  and  palm 


of  suburban  resi- 
and  fortifications 
venues  of  palms, 
ds  the  north-east 
Lctium,  has  been 
During  the  last 
ome  an  extensive 
in  every  form  and 
t  order  along  the 

$ou8t-line  where  it 


commands  at  once  the  shore,  Lake  Mariut,  and  the  port  of  Alexandria.  From  the 
limestone  rocks  of  this  coast  have  beer  obtained  the  materials  for  the  conHtruction 
of  the  great  city,  the  piers,  and  breakwaters  of  its  barbour.  Beyond  Meks  nothing 
occurs  except  groups  of  huts,  fishing  hamlets,  and  t^«e  remains  of  ancient  cities. 
In  this  direction  the  wilderness  begins  whore  the  din  from  the  busy  seaport  is  no 
longer  heard. 

West  of  the  swamps  and  coast-line  of  Meks,  the  ancient  city  of  Taponiris  is  still 
recalled  by  the  modern  village  of  Abmir.  Beyond  this  point  ranges  of  hills, 
detached  sections  of  the  plateau  which  stretches  southwards  in  the  direction  of  the 
Siwah  oasis,  follow  at  intervals  along  the  sea-coast.  Here  the  two  headlands 
known  to  the  ancients  by  the  name  of  Katabathmus  are  less  than  830  fo<  'ligh. 
The  village  of  Mudar  is  the  only  collection  of  houses  on  this  now  almoHi  unin- 
habited coast,  which  was  formerly  strewn  with  many  towns,  and  which  extends 
westwards  as  far  as  Cyrenaica.  Mudar  is  the  halting-place  for  caravans  journeying 
between  Alexardria  and  the  8iwah  ousis. 


Nauckatis. 

On  the  Canopic  branch  of  the  Nile  stood  the  ancient  city  of  Naueratis,  the  first 
Greek  settlement  in  Egypt,  originally  founded  by  a  colony  from  Miletus,  during 
the  reign  of  Amasis.  Being  the  only  place  in  the  country  where  the  Greeks  were 
pennitted  to  carry  on  a  regular  trade  with  the  natives,  Naueratis  soon  acquired 
great  importance,  and  for  a  time  became  a  chief  centre  of  Hellenic  culture  in  the 
delta.  But  after  the  foundation  of  Alexandria,  its  fame  was  eclipsed  by  the 
metropolis  of  the  Ptolemies  ;  it  lapsed  into  obscurity,  and  for  many  ages  its  very 
site  was  unknown.  Recently,  however,  Mr.  Petrie  has  discovered  some  ruins  and 
archaeological  remains  at  a  spot  which  has  been  identified  by  Egyptologists  as  the 
site  of  the  famous  iiellenic  emporium.  A  selection  of  pottery  and  other  antiquities 
has  already  been  forwarded  to  England  by  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund,  and 
deposited  in  the  Bronze  Room  of  the  British  Museum.  "  The  fragments  of  vases," 
writes  Mr.  Reginald  Stuart  Poole,  "  range  through  at  least  three  hundred  years,  and 
from  the  geographical  position  of  the  settlement  form  a  most  valuable  commentary 
on  the  vases  of  Rhodes,  especially  Eamiros,  and  on  the  early  art  of  Ionia. 

"  These  specimens,  fragmentary  though  they  are,  g^ve  us  most  interesting 
examples  of  each  class.  On  the  oldest  the  design  is  painted  on  a  pale  yellow 
groimd.  Similar  fragments  were  found  by  Mr.  Wood  in  the  earliest  stratum  of 
remains  under  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  The  specimons  with  figures  and 
animals  in  crimson  and  other  colours  on  a  pale  groimd  are  very  similar  to  early 
vases  of  Kamiros  and  lalysos  in  Rhodes,  of  which  there  is  a  fine  series  in  the  FKst 
Vase  Room.  The  subjects  are  very  varied,  animals  and  the  lotus-pattern  pre- 
dominating, with  occasionally  the  human  figure.  These  are  followed  by  the 
successive  archaic  styles  and  the  work  of  the  best  period. 

"  Taken  in  connexion  with  the  archaic  fictile  ware,  a  most  interesting  find  is  a 
large  fragment  of  the  sheL  .called  Tridachna  squamosa,  on  which  are  incised  patterns 


480 


NORTII-EAHT  AFRICA. 


of  an  Asiatic  origin.  We  know  that  tho  HhoU  is  not  found  in  tho  MwliteiTancan, 
but  belongs  to  tho  fuunu  of  tho  Hod  8cu  and  the  Indian  Ocean.  HpceiincnH  of  it, 
similarly  ornamented,  have  been  found  in  Assyria,  in  P';le8tino,  in  lihodon,  and  nt 
Cunino  in  Etruria.  Tho  discovery  of  a  fragment  at  Nuucratis  adds  one  more  link 
to  tho  chain,  and  we  can  hardly  resist  the  conclusion  that  all  these  shells  wore 
imported  by  the  PhicnicianH  by  the  trade-routes  of  the  lied  Sea,  and  afterwards 
fonned  objects  of  borter  in  their  traffic  witu  the  Greeks  and  EtruHcuns  at  least  as 
early  us  GOO  i».<!.,  or  even  earlier. 

"  Next  in  order  of  interest  are  the  figures  in  limestone,  alabaster,  and  tt.  a-cotta, 
some  recalling  Rhodes  or  Cyprus,  others  purely  Greek,  others  again  Gnoco- 
Egyptian.  Among  tho  most  noteworthy  is  u  very  beautiful  headless  figure  of  o 
girl,  ornamented  with  flower- wreaths,  which  reminds  us  that  the  Weaving  of  gar- 
lands was  u  well-known  craft  of  Naucratis.  It  is  hard  to  ussign  this  work  to  a 
purely  Egyptian  or  Greek  origin.  The  age  in  probably  about  600  ».c.,  and,  but 
for  the  modelling  of  tho  bust,  it  might  be  assigned  to  the  Bai'te  school.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  spite  of  a  somewhat  Greek  treatment,  there  is  nothing  Greek  which 
absolutely  recalls  it.  We  have  hero,  as  in  the  earlier  fictile  ware  of  Naucratis,  an 
intermediate  style,  such  as  that  already  recognised  in  the  vases  of  Eaniiros,  but  in 
this  case  distinctly  under  Egyptian  influence.  Tho  stamped  handles  of  diotae  are 
selections  from  a  great  series,  surely  indicating  the  trade-routes  of  this  Greek 
emporium,  while  the  Athenian  tctradrachms  equally  witness  to  tho  intercourse  with 
Greece.  '  "* 

"  These  discoveries  clearly  point  to  commercial  relations  at  a  very  early  age  with 
Miletus  and  other  cities  on  the  west  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  with  the  neighbour* 
ing  islands,  and  confirm  in  the  most  striking  manner  the  accounts  we  have  from 
Herodotus  and  other  ancient  authors,  of  the  establishment  of  Naucratis  under  the 
Saite  kings  as  an  emporium  and  centre  of  Hellenic  trade.  It  is  partly  to  the 
liberality  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Hellenic  Studies  that  the  results  at 
Naucratis  are  due,  the  work  having  been  aided  by  a  grant  made  by  them  for  ej^ca-N 
rations  on  this  site."  *  •  -  '     .       >.  ,    •   ^r.^ 


ti 


Agriculture. 


Egypt  still  derives  its  resources  almost  exclusively  from  its  agriculture,  as  in 
the  olden  times  when  lean  kine  and  fat  kine  were  the  respective  symbolic  repre- 
sentations of  the  misery  or  prosperity  of  the  land.  The  alluvial  soil,  which  has  an 
average  depth  of  about  32  feet,  might  be  rendered  extremely  productive.  But  its 
exhausted  strength  requires  to  be  restored  by  manure,  and  in  many  places  it 
becomes  saturated  with  saline  and  nitrous  particles,  unless  regularly  washed  by 
copious  inundations. 

On  the  whole  the  cultivation  of  the  land  is  still  in  a  rudimentary  condition. 
The  badly  harvested  wheat  crop  of  the  Nile  Valley  is  always  largely  mixed  with 
clay,  and  so  saturated  with  salt  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  keep.     Almost  as  soon  as 

"  Academy,"  Mhjt  30,  1886,  No.  682. 


I 


n0tt- 


HWOTMdl^^pv  •n^aiy. 


AOniCTJTiTURB. 


487 


I  MwlitoiTancan, 
SpecitiieiiH  of  it, 

II  Ithodon,  uiul  at 
1h  ono  more  link 
hcHo  hIioIIs  wcrt! 
,  and  afterwards 
iticuna  at  least  us 

',  and  tt.  a-cotta, 
8  again  Qrajco- 
llosB  figure  of  a 
Weaving  of  gar- 
i  this  work  to  a 
00  H.c,  and,  but 
school.  On  the 
ing  Greek  which 
of  Naucratis,  an 
Eaniirofl,  but  in 
les  of  diotae  are 
8  of  this  Greek 
}  intercourse  with 

3ry  early  age  with 
li  the  neighbour- 
ts  we  have  from 
iicratis  under  the 
is  partly  to  the 
at  the  results  at 
y  them  for  exca-v 


.7- 


(  i 


agriculture,  as  in 
symbolic  repre- 
oil,  which  has  an 
iuctive.  But  its 
.  many  places  it 
ilarly  washed  by 

entary  condition, 
rgely  mixed  with 
Almost  as  soon  aa 


it  is  gnthcrod  into  the  granaries  it  Womes  a  prey  to  weevil.  The  liiiNtHHl  also 
contains  foreign  gruiiiH  in  the  pro}M)rtion  of  one-fifth  ;  the  indigo  is  purelu'd  and 
earthy;  the  opium  adulterated  with  lettuce-juice ;  the  cotton  tibro  mixed  with  uU 
kinds  of  impurities. 

The  fields  cultivated  by  the  peasantry  grow  scarcely  any  largo  plants  except 
palms,  while  the  products  of  the  KuroiM>un  fruit-trees  are  UHually  of  very  indifferent 
quality.  The  tree  valued  beyond  all  others  is  still  the  date-palm,  each  plant  of  which 
yields  an  average  yearly  revenue  of  about  sixteen  shillings.* 

The  domestic  animals  are  budly  carMl  for,  nor  have  the  Egyptian  stc .  k-brec<Iera 
any  right  to  boast  of  their  really  splendid  breeds  of  asses,  especiu.ly  the  largo  white 
variety,  which  appear  to  have  come  originally  from  Yemen. 

Wheat,  barley,  durrah,  lentils,  peas,  haricots,  lupins,  saffron,  clover,  hemp,  the 
poppy,  melons,  and  divers  kinds  of  vegetables,  are  cultivated  in  all  the  small 
holdings  of  the  fellahin,  while  other  plants  unknown  to  the  ancient  Egyptians 
have  also  been  introduced  into  the  annual  rotations  of  crops.  Such  are  indigo, 
tobacco,  maize,  rice,  the  sugar-cane,  mulberry,  and  cotton  plant.  Progress  has 
shown  itself  especially  by  the  great  change  that  has  taken  place  in  the  method  of 
cultivation.  To  the  plants  grown  in  past  times  there  have  been  added  many  others; 
artificial  irrigation  also  now  supplements  that  of  the  periodical  inundations,  while 
steam  ploughs  have  in  many  districts  replaced  the  primitive  implements,  such  as 
we  see  figured  on  the  bos-reliefs  of  the  ancient  tombs.  The  pointed  sticks  by 
which  the  surface  is  scratched  rather  than  ploughed  in  Dar-Fdr,  have  also  every- 
where disappeared  in  Egypt,  except  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kom-Ombo. 

In  good  years  the  cereal  crops  amount  altogether  to  from  4,000,000  to  5,000,000 
quarters,  of  which  about  2,000,000  are  wheat,  1,250,000  bariey,  1,750,000  maize. 
Rice  and  lentils  are  also  exported  in  considerable  quantities.  The  sugar-cane  is 
cultivated  especially  in  Upper  Egypt  and  in  the  Fayum,  on  the  large  estates  of 
the  State  and  industrial  companies.  The  great  capital  required  for  the  establish- 
ment of  factories  and  "  smoking  obelisks"  necessarily  prevent  small  holders  from 
engaging  in  this  industry,  t 

Cotton,  however,  has  been  introduced  on  the  farms  of  the  peasantry,  thanks  to 
the  Greek  agents,  who  buy  up  the  raw  material  and  prepare  it  for  the  market  in 
their  small  j inning  mills.  But  no  foreign  hands  are  ever  found  working  jointly 
with  the  natives.  The  low  price  of  manual  labour  must  always  prevent  European 
agricultural  settleramts  from  being  estabUshed  in  Egypt.  Immigrants  from  the 
West  can  find  a  footing  only  in  the  largo  towns.  Introduced  into  Egypt  during 
the  government  of  Mohammed  Ali,  largely  through  the  efforts  of  the  Frenchman 
Jimiel,  the  cotton  plant  has  gradually  acquired,  under  the  name  of  mako,  a  certain 
importance  in  the  export  trode  of  Egypt.  Wlion  the  usual  supplies  of  raw  cotton 
were  suddenly  arrested  by  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  Secession  in  the  United  States, 
all  the  efforts  of  the  Egyptian  cultivators  were  directed  towards  the  production  of  this 
valuable  commodity,  vast  quantities  of  which  were  then  exported  from  Alexandria. 

•  Date-treos  of  Egypt  in  1875,  5,000,000  ;  annual  yield,  100,000  to  120,000  tons  of  fruit. 
t  Sugar  plantations  ir  1880,  38,000  acrea ;  yield,  46,760  tons;  value  of  the  crop,  £935,000. 


*V 


-  --'  ■■''*»WRf!W*»/p»¥^--- 


■<*•• 


488 


NORTII-KAST  AFRICA. 


But  after  a  hIioH  period  of  uncxumplcd  proflperity,  thu  invvituhlo  rpaction  R<<t 
in,  accotiipunivd  by  wholosalo  fuiluruH  and  comnicrciul  ruin.  Tbo  cultivation  of 
tho  cotton  plont  ccumxI  to  oncrouch  on  the  lunds  under  ceroul  cropn ;  novertlieleiw, 
it  huH  continued  to  hold  tho  foremost  runk  for  the  annual  value  of  itn  yield.  Kven 
the  cotton  howI,  of  which  no  uho  wuh  formerly  made,  has  acquired  very  connidenihle 
economic  importunco.  Tho  oil  extracted  from  it  by  iM)werful  machinery  in  not 
only  utilincd  by  thu  jieasantry  in  tho  preparation  of  their  ft>o<l,  but  in  ulao  employed 
to  adulterate  the  "  olive  oil  "  consumed  eH{)ocially  in  tho  south  of  Europe.  The 
mills  of  Douvres  ulone  import  whole  cargoes  for  tho  fabrication  of  these  oils, 
used  partly  for  alimentary  purposes,  partly  in  the  manufacture  <»f  Hoap. 

At  tho  iM'ginning  of  the  present  century  the  scientific  explorers  who  accom- 
panied  the  French  expedition  under  Bonaparte  estimated  ot  about  10,000  square 
miles  tho  total  area  of  tho  arable  lands  in  Egypt.  Hince  then  the  space  under 
cultivation  has  been  increased  by,  perhaps,  one- fifth,  thanks  to  the  development  of 
tho  network  of  irrigating  canals.  But  over  one-third  of  the  delta  still  remains  to 
bo  reclaimed,  either  by  draining  the  marshy  tracts  or  by  effecting  improvements 
in  the  present  irrigation  system.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  coastlands  extending 
from  Lake  Mariut  to  Lake  Menzaleh  are  occupied  by  stagnant,  brackish,  and  even 
saline  waters.  Amid  the  swamps  stand  bare  sandy  dunes,  and  along  the  edge 
of  tho  lakes  from  the  Arabian  to  tho  Libyan  desert  there  stretches  a  zone  of 
territory  with  an  average  breadth  ot  from  18  to  20  miles,  the  so-called 
Berari,  whose  surface,  lying  almost  flush  with  the  surrounding  waters,  has  been 
brought  under  cultivation  only  at  a  few  isolated  points. 

The  present  state  of  this  region  of  the  delta  is  somewhat  analogous  to  that  of 
the  Camargue  in  France,  although  the  remains  of  cities  scattered  over  the  rising 
grounds  are  sufficient  proof  that  there  was  a  time  when  these  now  abandoned  lands 
supported  a  numerous  population  of  agriculturists.  In  the  midst  of  the  muda 
along  the  sea-coast  the  explorer  is  surprised  still  to  meet  at  certain  points  groups 
of  houses  surrounded  by  date-trees,  vineyards,  and  fruit-gardens.  Hence  it  is 
obviously  possible  to  bring  the  sands  themselves  under  cultivation,  although  the 
process  certainly  proves  very  laborious.  The  sand  has  to  be  dug  sufficiently  deep 
to  enable  the  roots  of  the  plants  to  reach  the  necessary  moisture ;  at  the  same  time 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  penetrate  too  far,  which  would  have  the  effect  of  causing 
the  vegetable  fibre  to  rot.  The  boles  have  also  to  be  surrounded  by  hoardings,  in 
order  to  prevent  them  from  getting  choked  by  the  sands  of  the  shifting  dunes. 
The  ground  so  prepared  yields  pistachios,  figs,  and  all  kinds  of  fruits  of  better 
quality  than  those  grown  in  any  other  part  of  Egypt.     ' 

It  is  noteworthy  that  the  sandy  tracts  about  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalquivir  are 
brought  under  cultivation  much  in  the  same  way.  Hence  it  has  been  suggested 
that  immigrants  from  Egypt  may  probably  have  taught  the  natives  of  Andalusia 
to  reclaim  their  so-called  "  navasos  "  by  this  process.  ■,:■'":■ 


i   ) 


-MS- 


HP*— — 


*»»^"^»^»W» 


lllUKUTION— INDUHTUIEW. 


480 


itiiMo  roactinn  sot 

'ho  cultivution  of 

)pn ;  nuvurtlit'IcNH, 

itM  yield.     Kvcn 

very  conMulerublc 

iiim;l)inory  is  not 

t  JH  uIbo  oiiiploycd 

of  Europe.     The 

ion  of   those  oils, 

Huup. 

orors  who  accoiU' 
)ut  10,000  square 
m  the  space  under 
le  development  of 
ta  still  remains  to 
ing  improvements 
Htlunds  extending 
prackisb,  and  even 
id  along  the  edge 
tretches  a  zone  of 
iles,  the  so-called 
g  waters,  has  been 

nalogous  to  that  of 
red  over  the  rising 
w  abandoned  lands 
lidst  of  the  sands 
'tain  points  groups 
lens.  Hence  it  is 
ition,  although  the 
ig  sufficiently  deep 
;  at  the  same  time 
le  effect  of  causing 
id  by  hoardings,  in 
he  shifting  dunes, 
of  fruits  of  better 

B  Guadalquivir  are 
las  been  suggested 
tives  of  Andalusia 


lUKUlATION. 

For  the  future  of  Egyptian  agriculture  the  most  im[K)rtant  question  in  that 
connected  with  the  oifioieut  irrigation  of  the  lund.  It  iH  uiiturally  felt  l)y  many 
economists  that  tho  Nile  waters,  which  might  Im<  bo  largely  utilised  in  converting 
desert  spucoH  into  arable  tracts,  should  no  longer  Im)  allowed  to  run  waste  in  the 
MiMliferruncMin.  Since  tlui  Ix^ginning  of  the  present  century  much  hiis  been  done 
to  attain  this  result.  Tlie  network  of  canals  bus  been  extended  m  all  directions; 
the  so-called  "  nili "  channels,  formerly  floinled  from  the  main  stream  only  during 
tho  periodical  inundations,  have  been  transformed  to  "  seti  "  canals,  which  (Hnpense 
the  fecundating  fluid  uninterruptedly  throughout  the  whole  year ;  the  primitive 
and  somewhat  rude  methods  of  drawing  water  have  been  supplemented,  if  not 
altogether  replaced,  by  powerful  steam-engines,  by  which  the  irrigating  streams 
are  raised  to  a  higher  level.* 

Tho  works  carried  out  at  the  Sadieh  barrage  hi-  'o  unfortunately  p<)t  proved 
entirely  satisfactory,  and  some  alarm  has  even  been  caused  by  the  suggestion  of 
further  operations  intended  to  retain  tho  waters  above  tho  Silsiioh  gorge.  If 
executed  such  an  undertaking  might,  it  is  feared,  utterly  rura  tho  ultivated  tracts 
situated  in  higher  roaches  between  that  point  and  the  aeighbov  aood  of  '  asuai:. 
The  fertilising  alluvia  now  carried  down  to  the  plains  of  the  delta  mig)i  ilso  be 
arrested  above  the  gorge,  while  the  waters  lodged  in  tho  derived  o  ua.>*  might 
become  gradually  more  brackish,  as  has,  in  fact,  already  haj  >>'  ^  d  in  the  later  ! 
branches  of  tho  Ramadi  and  Ibrahimieh  districts,  where  some  forr  Tly  productive 
lands  have  had  to  be  abandoned  in  consequence  of  the  increased  salinity  of  the 
irrigating  streams.  For  the  same  reason  the  sugar  plantations  of  Upper  Egypt 
and  the  Fayum  are  no  longer  cultivated,  it  being  found  impossible  to  get  rid  of  the 
salt  with  which  they  have  become  superabundantly  charged. 

IndusTrigs. 

In  the  agricultural  districts  we  frequently  see  the  ancient  methods  of  tillage 
handed  down  from  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs  still  practised  without  modification 
side  by  side  with  the  modem  procepaes  introduc. .  t  '.  om  Western  Europe.  In  the 
same  way,  by  the  side  of  the  industrial  meiu-xis  inherited  from  the  ancient 
Egyptians  and  maintained  in  the  spirit  of  routine  resulting  from  long  usage, 
the  native  industries  also  present  processes  -^  more  recent  date  introduced  by  the 
Arab  and  Syrian  conquerors  of  the  la?  J.  Many  factories  on  a  large  scale  have 
also  in  still  more  recent  times  been  established  and  conducted  by  European 
capitalists  and  engineers. 

The  contrast  is  thus  everywhere  presented  between  an  Egypt  of  the  Pbciraohs, 

*  Nili  Canals  in  18R0 8,000  miles. 

Sefl 2,000    „ 

Steam  Pumps  in  1880 600 

Vv,r  8akleh8inl880 30,000 

'  *■;•  Sbadufs    „  70,000 


r 


Hi 

it  « 


440 


NORTH-EAST  AFEICA. 


changeless  in  its  forms,  and  a  new  Egypt  brought  within  the  influence  of  the 
restless  and  ever-progressive  European  world.  The  chief  industry  dating  from  the 
oldest  times  is  that  of  pottery,  the  raw  material  for  which  is  always  supplied  in 
abundance  by  the  mud  of  the  Nile  and  surrounding  wadies.  Along  the  banks  of 
the  main  stream  whole  houses  are  met  built  entirely  of  earthenware,  which  here  so 
often  replaces  the  ordinary  brickwork.* 

The  so-called  bardaks,  or  water-jars,  produced  in  large  quantities  espficially  at 
Keneh  in  Upper  Egypt,  are  noteworthy  both  for  the  variety  and  elegance  of  their 
forms  and  for  their  serviceable  character.  Many  are  charged  with  a  delicate  and 
durable  perfume,  while  all  are  made  more  or  less  permeable  to  water.  They  thus 
act  partly  as  filters,  partly  as  coolers,  keeping  the  fluid  fresh  even  in  the  hottest 
weather  by  the  process  of  evaporation.  The  transport  of  these  vessels  to  Cairo  is 
effected  in  an  ingenious  and  inexpensive  way.  Largo  numbers  joined  loosely 
together  with  their  mouths  downwards  form  perfectly  buoyant  rafts  of  convenient 
shape,  which  by  the  aid  of  two  or  three  boatmen  are  safely  floated  down  the  l^ile 
to  the  head  of  the  delta. 

The  industries  introduced  by  the  Arabs  are  the  same  as  those  that  have  been 
developed  in  all  other  Mussulman  lands — saddlery,  carpet-weaving,  leather- work, 
copper-work,  dampscening,  gold  and  silver  work.  The  iron  and  hardware  trades 
are  unimportant,  and  all  utensils  and  implements  of  all  sorts  made  of  this  metal 
are  imported  from  Europe.  Egypt  has  no  iron  mines,  and  in  early  times  the 
only  iron  ores  known  to  her  were  those  of  meteoric  origin.  The  very  expression 
"  celestial  substance,"  employed  to  designate  iron,  seems  to  show  that  the  ancient 
Egyptians  represented  the  firmament  as  a  metallic  vault,  some  fragments  of  which 
occasionally  broke  away  and  fell  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  t 

Trade — Railways  and  Telegraphs.    '^^       v    ,     v^^  >,?#e 

In  the  direction  of  the  surrounding  deserts,  the  valley  of  the  Nile  is  still 
restricted  in  its  commercial  relations  to  the  periodical  despatch  of  caravans,  which 
do  not  return  for  some  months,  and  occasionally  even  for  a  whole  year,  from  the 
interior  of  the  continent.  But  the  main  stream  itself  i$i  navigated  by  steam  as 
well  as  sailing  vessels,  while  the  inhabited  districts  are  traversed  in  all  directions 
by  the  locomotive.  By  steam  most  of  the  pilgrims  now  make  the  journey  to  the 
port  of  Mecca  and  back,  j: 

•  In  proportion  to  its  superficial  extent,  but  not  to  the  density  of  its  population, 
the  Nile  delta  is  one  of  those  regions  in  which  the  railway  system  has  been  most 
fully  developed.  Besides  this  means  of  communication,  over  600  miles  of  canals, 
exclusive  of  the  two  great  branches  of  the  Nile,  are  open  to  navigation  throughout 
the  year,  and  during  the  inundations  the  navigable  arteries  are  at  least  three 
times  longer. 

«'■.■-•         :  -  ".'■'>  :-'Vv  v,-%  •;■<'''    ■-' 

•  6.  Ilohlfs,  "  Drei  Monate  in  der  Libyscheii  Wiiste."  .  .     ■<- 

t  Fr.  Lenormant,  "  Premieres  Civilisations."  -    '  -       ^-^ 

X  Egyptian  steamers  on  the  Nile,  40 ;  Egyptian  steamers  on  the  lied  Sea  and  Mediterranean,  16  ; 
total  of  the  cummercial  fleet,  1,500  vessels ;  boats  and  other  rivef  craft,  10,300. 


k 


TEADE— RAILWAYS  AND  TELEGRAPHS. 


441 


he  influence  of  the 

stry  dating  from  the 

always  supplied  in 

Along  the  banks  of 

iware,  which  here  so 

mtities  especially  at 
nd  elegance  of  their 
i  with  a  delicate  and 

0  water.     They  thus 

1  even  in  the  hottest 
se  vessels  to  Cairo  is 
abers  joined  loosely 
;  rafts  of  convenient 
loated  down  the  Nile 

those  that  have  been 
javing,  leather-work, 
and  hardware  trades 
s  made  of  this  metal 
I  in  early  times  the 
The  very  expression 
how  that  the  ancient 
i  fragments  of  which 


r  of  the  Nile  is  stiU 
ih  of  caravans,  which 
whole  year,  from  the 
lavigated  by  steam  as 
ersed  in  all  directions 
ke  the  journey  to  the 

sity  of  its  population, 
system  has  been  most 
r  600  miles  of  canals, 
navigation  throughout 
ies  are  at  least  three 


3ea  and  Mediterranean,  16  ; 
00. 


From  the  head  of  the  delta  the  network  of  railways  is  continued  along  the 
right  bank  of  the  Nile  southwards  to  Siut.  For  the  purpose  of  forwarding  troops, 
and  other  military  purposes,  the  late  Khedive  had  also  caused  other  lines  to  be 
constructed  still  farther  south,  which  at  one  time  the  English  intended  to  carry  as 
far  as  Dongola.  All  the  sugar  plantations,  both  in  Upper  Egypt  and  in  the 
delta,  have  also  their  special  system  of  narrow-gauge  lines  coimected  with  the 
general  network.  Amongst  the  projected  lines  there  are  several  which,  when 
carried  out,  will  place  the  whole  of  the  Nile  Valley  in  direct  railway  commimica- 
tion  with  the  ports  of  the  Red  Sea. 

The  telegraph  has  preceded  the  locomotive  in  every  direction,  and  a  few  years 

Fig.  136. — Egyptian  Railways. 
Scale  1  :  6,000.000. 


Railwajra. 


Abandoned  lines. 


.60  Miles. 


Telegmpb  line  l>eyond 
the  railway  sntem. 


ago  had  already  been  extended  across  the  desert  southwards  to  the  equatorial 
regions.  But  the  small  number  of  private  messages,  as  well  as  the  low  proportion 
of  postal  correspondence,  less  than  one  letter  per  head  of  the  population,  shows 
that,  apart  from  the  Government  officials,  little  use  is  made  of  these  means  of 
correspondence  except  by  Europeans  and  other  strangers  domiciled  in  Egypt. 

Speaking  generally,  the  trade  of  Egypt  is  relatively  more  developed  than  that 
of  several  European  countries.  Calculated  by  the  number  of  inhabitants,  it 
amotmts  to  nearly  half  the  commerce  of  France,  while  even  exceeding  it  in  the 
relative  movement  of  the  shipping  in  the  ports  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  Sea. 
Even  before  taking  possession  of  the  country,  England  held  the  first  position  in 
this  respect,  about  forty-five  per  cent,  of  the  gross  toimage  of  all  vessels  frequenting 


44S 


NOBTH-EAST  AFEICA. 


the  Egyptian  ports  fljring  the  British  flag.  The  next  in  importance  are  Austria 
and  France,  both  ranking  before  Egypt  herself,  whose  flag  covers  little  more  than 
nine  per  cent,  of  local  traffic. 

Public  Instruction. 

Of  late  years  education  has  received  a  considerable  impulse,  although  most 
of  the  Mussulman  schools  are  still  mere  kutidbs  attached  to  the  mosques,  and  in 
which  instruction  is  limited  to  reading  and  writing  and  the  recitation  of  passages 
from  the  Koran.  Besides  the  primary  establishments  there  are  several  high  schools, 
in  which,  as  in  the  University  of  El-Azhar,  courses  of  mathematics  and  jurispru- 
dence are  added  to  the  general  curriculum. 

Since  the  time  of  Mohammed  Ali  elementary  schools  on  the  European  model 
were  founded  in  some  of  the  large  towns,  but  most  of  these  establishments  have 
been  closed  and  replaced  by  institutions  opened  or  supported  by  the  various 
European  colonies  and  religious  communities.  The  Egyptian  Government  has  also 
endeavoured  to  keep  pace  with  the  European  States  by  founding  higher  and  special 
schools  for  secondary  instruction.  Moreover,  there  are  at  Cairo  a  medical  college, 
a  polytechnic  establishment,  and  other  schools  specially  devoted  to  the  teaching  of 
law,  the  mechanical  arts,  languages,  mensuration,  and  similar  branches  of  practical 
knowledge.  ^N^evertheless,  most  young  men  anxious  to  prosecute  their  studies  in 
the  higher  departments  of  science,  generally  prefer  to  finish  their  course  in  the 
European  colleges.  / 

Of  modem  European  languages  French  is  the  most  widely  diffused  in  Egjrpt ; 
but,  under  the  new  administration,  the  budget  of  public  instruction  has  undergone 
retrenchment,  especially  at  the  cost  of  the  French  teachers  and  professors.  This 
step  would  seem  to  have  been  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  sooner  or  later  excluding 
the  French  language  altogether  from  the  civil  and  military  educational  establish- 
ments of  the  country.  ,;         ^; 


Government. 


V 


The  government  of  Egypt  still  practically  remains  what  it  has  ever  been — 
almost  a  pure  despotism.  According  to  the  accej-ed  political  tradition,  the  only 
right  enjoyed  by  the  mass  of  t'  <>  people  is  that  of  paying  the  imposts  and  obeying 
the  la  vf ;  but,  by  a  singular  complication,  caused  by  the  action  of  a  thousand  foreign 
intrigues  and  rivalries,  the  Egyptians  themselves  scarcely  know  whom  to  regard  as 
their  true  masters.  Hence  they  have  nothing  to  do  except  resign  themselves  to  a 
situation  from  which  there  is  no  escape,  repeating  the  while  the  old  Arab  saying, 
"  The  people  are  like  the  grain  of  sesame,  which  is  ground  so  long  as  it  yields 
oil."* 

Officially,  the  ruler  of  Egypt  is  a  prince  of  the  family  of  Mohammed  Ali, 
bearing  the  title  of  Khedive,  which  implies  a  rank  somewhat  intermediate  between 

*  Heinricb  isteplian,  "Dos  heutige  ^gypten." 


FINANCE— ARMY  AND  NATY. 


448 


ince  are  Austria 
little  more  than 


although  most 

mosques,  and  in 

ation  of  passages 

oral  high  schools, 

ics  and  jurispru- 

European  model 
ablishments  have 

by  the  various 
pemment  has  also 
ligher  and  special 
a  medical  college, 
to  the  teaching  of 
inches  of  practical 

their  studies  in 
their  course  in  the 

liffused  in  Egypt ; 

ion  has  undergone 
professors.  This 
or  later  excluding 

icational  establish- 


t  has  ever  been — 
tradition,  the  only 
uposts  and  obeying 
:  a  thousand  foreign 
whom  to  regard  as 
gn  themselves  to  a 
be  old  Arab  saying, 
o  long  as  it  yields 

of  Mohammed  Ali, 
itermediate  between 


those  of  viceroy  and  sovereign.  The  legal  sovereign  is  still  the  Sultan  of  Constan- 
tinople, in  whose  name  the  imposts  are  levied,  and  whose  monogram  is  stumped 
on  the  native  currency.  The  padishaw  continues  to  receive  a  yearly  tribute  of 
£700,000,  just  as  if  th'i  present  intervention  of  Great  Britain  had  not  effaced  the 
last  vestige  of  his  tutho  ity.  He  also  derives  an  income  of  from  £280,000  to 
£320,000  from  the  monopoly  secured  to  the  import  trade  of  Turkish  tobacro. 
Nevertheless,  at  least  three-fourths  of  the  tobacco  consumed  in  the  country  is 
introduced  by  an  organised  system  of  smuggling,  especially  across  the  frontier  of 
the  desert  towards  Palestine. 

Till  recently  the  official  language  was  Turkish,  not  Arabic,  which  is  neverthe- 
less the  mother  tongue  of  nearly  all  the  native  inhabitants  of  Egypt. 

But  the  political  power  has  passed  from  the  hands  of  the  Sultun,  and  is  now 
practically  exercised  by  the  Christian  states  of  Europe.  A  few  years  ago  the 
Condominium  was  jointly  exercised  by  England  and  France.  Their  agents  controlled 
the  finances,  which  they  disposed  of  at  their  pleasure,  thereby  substituting  their 
own  authority  for  that  of  the  Khedive.  The  European  nations  were  also  more 
powerful  in  Egypt  than  the  local  Government,  in  virtue  of  the  consular  tribunals, 
which,  in  the  terms  of  the  "  Capitulations,"  claimed  exclusive  jurisdiction  in  all 
matters  of  dispute  in  which  both  Europeans  und  natives  were  concerned.  But  the 
Condominium  has  lapsed,  and.  Great  Britain  alone  exercises  the  control  ever  since  the 
military  revolt  under  \rabi  Pasha — a  revolt  which,  although  made  to  the  war-cry 
of  "  Egypt  for  the  Egyptians,"  would,  if  successful,  have  resulted  in  handing  over 
the  country  to  new  Mameluks  of  native  origin  no  less  oppressive  and  extortionate 
than  the  former  Mameluks  of  foreign  race  —  Arabs,  Circassians,  Armenians, 
Sudanese,  and  others.  t.' •'>     •  * '  ^  >        '  •  -  .       ' 

The  ministers  appointed  by  England  decide  the  most  important  questions  in 
accordance  with  her  decrees,  without  even  taking  the  trouble  to  consult  the  official 
sovereign.  His  function  seems  to  be  simply  to  attach  his  signature  to  all  state 
documents.  In  return  for  this  service  he  retains  his  nominal  rank  and  personal 
revenues,  but  he  no  longer  possesses  even  the  privilege  of  putting  an  end  by  abdica- 
tion to  his  present  somewhat  ignoble  position. 

Finance — Army  and  Navy. 

The  political  situation  of  Egypt  is  all  the  more  strained  and  bewildering  that 
the  English,  while  exercising  sovereign  rights,  omit  no  opportunity  of  asserting 
their  set  purpose  to  quit  the  land  at  no  distant  date,  and  restore  to  the  Egyptians 
the  autonomy  they  had  so  long  forfeited  to  the  stranger.  At  the  same  time  their 
deeds  themselves  speak  another  language.  British  subjects,  even  Anglo-Hindus, 
Christians  and  Mussulmans  alike,  flock  in  hundreds  to  the  Nile  Valley,  where  they 
are  installed  in  the  places  of  emoliunent  withdrawn  from  the  native  and  non-British 
foreign  officials.  The  public  revenues  formerly  set  apart  to  meet  the  claims  of 
money-lenders  at  high  interest  are  now  applied  in  the  first  instance  to  pay  the 
salaries  of  these  new  functionaries.     They  are  also  to  some  extent  made  available  to 


444 


NORTH-EAST  AFRICA. 


defray  the  costs  of  the  British  military  occupation,  aitiiough  to  meet  these  heavy 
charges  it  has  also  been  found  necessary  to  draw  upon  the  revenues  of  the  home 
country.  The  conveyance  of  the  Queen's  troops  to  Sudan,  including  provisions 
and  supplies  of  all  sorts,  has  been  estimated  to  amount  to  at  least  £1,000  per 
head. 

In  spite  of  the  official  budgets,  which  at  the  beginning  of  each  financial  year 
show  a  balance  in  favour  of  the  treasury,  the  Government  has  for  some  time  been 
hopelessly  drifting  to  a  state  of  absolute  bankruptcy.  In  fact,  payments  would  have 
been  already  suspended  but  for  the  loan  of  £8,000,000  sanctioned  by  the  British 
Parliament  and  guaranteed  by  the  European  powers  in  the  year  1886.  The  lowest 
rate  of  interest  on  the  advance  made  by  foreign  bankers  and  capitalists  since  1870 
is  12 1  per  cent. ;  but  numerous  debts  have  been  contracted  at  even  double  that  heavy 
rate  of  interest.*  Thus  it  has  come  to  pass  that  within  the  short  space  of  ten  years 
the  Egyptian  people,  who  still  supposed  their  masters  to  be  the  wealthiest  in  the 
world,  found  themselves  saddled  with  a  debt  of  nearly  £120,000,000,  or  in  the  pro- 
portion of  over  £80  per  family.  .1       _  , 

The  Egyptian  army,  composed  of  about  3,000  men,  or  scarcely  more  than  one- 
fifth  of  its  former  strength,  has  been  reduced  to  the  position  of  a  mere  police  force, 
and  the  question  of  its  complete  suppression  has  even  been  discussed.  Meanwhile 
the  conscription,  without  being  officially  abolished,  has  fallen  into  abeyance. 

All  the  military  service  is  now  being  performed  by  the  British  troops,  which 
towards  the  end  of  the  year  1884  numbered  over  13,500  men,  and  which  in  the 
spring  of  tl »  next  year  had  been  raised  to  a  total  effective  strength  of  nearly  25,000 
for  the  whole  of  Egypt  and  the  Sudan.  Special  constables  have  even  been  introduced 
from  England,  while  the  local  constabulary  is  completely  under  the  control  of  the 
British  authorities. 

The  fleet  comprises  officially  about  a  dozen  steamers,  manned  by  perhaps  2,000 
hands.  .    c        ;  ';■;■ 


s::«. 


Future  Prospects.  '     -^* 

Certainly  the  Egyptian  people  would  not  be  justified' in  placing  too  much 
reliance  on  the  promises  held  out  to  it  of  political  independence.  Although,  like 
most  other  modem  nations,  it  has  also  its  constitution  drawn  up  in  a  charter  of 
forty-nine  articles,  it  elects  no  representatives,  nor  is  it  consulted  in  any  way  on 
political  matters.  The  Assembly  of  Delegates,  which  was  nnnually  convoked  under 
the  government  of  Ismail  in  order  to  take  into  consideruuou  the  financial  situation 
of  the  current  year,  has  ceased  to  meat  as  a  deliberative  body.  Nevertheless,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  national  sentiment  is  being  gradually  but  steadily 
developed  in  Egypt,  although  the  coimtry  has  forcibly  become  an  integral  part  of 
the  European  world,  and  although  the  European  powers  are  continually  interfering 
more  and  more  in  its  internal  affairs.  At  the  same  time  these  very  powers  will 
have  henceforth  to  reckon  not  only  with  the  European  element  settled  in  the  Nile 

•  MacCoan,  "  Egypt  08  it  is."         ,,.,_,. ^ 


KBLTQIOUS  ORGANISATION— ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS. 


446 


eet  these  heavy 
168  of  the  home 
iding  provisions 
ast  £1,000  per 

h  financial  year 
some  time  been 
lents  would  have 
i  by  the  British 
S85.     The  lowest 
alists  since  1870 
ouble  that  heavy 
pace  of  ten  years 
vealthiest  in  the 
)0,  or  in  the  pro- 
more  than  one- 
nere  police  force, 
jsed.     Meanwhile 
abeyance, 
ish  troops,  which 
and  which  in  the 
L  of  nearly  25,000 
in  been  introduced 
bhe  control  of  the 

by  perhaps  2,000 


placing  too  much 
a.  Although,  like 
ip  in  a  charter  of 
;ed  in  any  way  on 
ly  convoked  under 

financial  situation 
Nevertheless,  there 
ually  but  steadily 
an  integral  part  of 
tinually  interfering 
le  very  powers  will 

settled  in  the  Nile 


Valley,  but  also  with  the  native  population  itself,  which  is  being  brought  daily 
more  under  the  influence  of  modern  ideas.  The  time  is  probably  approaching  when 
the  cry  of  "  Egypt  for  the  Egyptians,"  already  raised  under  unhappy  auspices,  will 
again  be  heard  in  a  way  to  command  the  respect  and  consideration  of  European 
statesmen. 

Religious  Organisation. 

For  the  Egyptian  Mahommedan  world  the  chief  dignitary  of  the  Mussulman 
religion  is  still  the  Sheikh-el-Islam  of  Constantinople.  Hence,  in  modifying  the 
laws  of  the  country  without  first  obtaining  the  sanction  of  this  spiritual  head  of  the 
faithful,  the  British  Government  has  shown  a  complete  disregard  and  indifference 
to  the  most  hallowed  traditions  of  the  land.  In  Egypt  itself  the  chief  religious 
authority  is  centred  in  the  corporate  body  of  doctors  attached  to  the  University  of 
El-Azhar  in  Cairo. 

The  "  Jacobite  "  or  National  Church  of  the  Coptic  Christians  is  governed  by 
the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  who,  notwithstanding  his  official  title,  also  resides 
permanently  in  Cairo.  Like  the  patriarchs  of  the  orthodox  Greek  Church,  he  is 
chosen  not  from  the  active  clergy,  but  from  amongst  those  leading  a  monastic  life. 
The  priests  themselves  never  take  orders  imtil  they  are  married,  but  the  principle 
of  celibacy  is  so  far  recognised  that  once  become  widowers  they  cannot  contract  a 
second  marriage.  For  analogous  reasons,  marriage  with  the  widows  of  priests, 
henceforth  vowed  to  the  Church,  are  also  forbidden  to  all  the  faithful.  The  small 
section  of  the  Coptic  Christians  who  recognise  the  spiritual  headship  of  the  Roman 
pontiff  have  no  national  patriarch,  but  are  governed  by  a  bishop  always  conse- 
crated in  Rome. 

Administrative  Divisions. 

For  administrative  purposes  Egypt  is  divided  into  mudirteh,  or  provinces, 
governed  by  a  mudir,  or  prefect,  who  takes  the  title  of  mohqfez  in  those  provinces 
which  consist  only  of  t^  large  city  and  its  suburban  district.  The  mudirieh  are  in 
their  turn  divided  into  markaz  or  kiam,  administered  by  officials  bearing  the  title 
of  nazir,  and  these  again  into  districts  of  the  third  rank  known  by  diverse  names, 
corresponding  to  our  circuits,  cantons,  parishes,  and  the  like. 

The  mudirs,  or  chief  governors,  administer  their  respective  provinces  in  the  com- 
bined capacity  of  civil  prefects,  receivers  of  the  revenues,  and  military  commanders. 
All  the  other  provincial  authorities  are  placed  under  the  direct  jurisdiction  of  these 
mudirs,  who,  however,  discharge  most  of  their  multifarious  functions  by  means  of 
a  vekil,  or  lieutenant,  and  with  the  aid  of  the  notaries  who  form  their  divan  or 
private  coimcil.  The  kavm  and  the  bodies  of  police  placed  at  their  disposal  are 
charged  with  the  maintenance  of  order  amongst  the  fellahin  or  peasantry  of  the 
rural  districts.  This  duty  is  usually  attended  by  little  difficulty,  thanks  to  the 
naturally  peaceful  disposition  of  the  inhabitants  d  Egypt,  always  ready  to  yield 


'."■■■. *.^ 


A 


r^ 


44B 


NORTH-EAST  AFBIOA. 


obedience  to  tho  orders  of  the  authorities.  Nevertheless  the  recent  years  of  civil 
war  and  foreign  invasion  have  given  rise  to  many  local  disturbances,  fiands  of 
marauders  have  made  their  appearance  in  the  plains  of  the  delta  ;  and  for  the  first 
time  for  many  generations  the  unwonted  spectacle  has  been  witnessed  of  villages 
attacked  and  plundered  by  brigands. 

Tho  number  of  paid  functionaries  is  estimated  at  no  less  than  21,000,  amongst 
whom  as  many  as  1,'280  were  Europeans  of  all  nations  in  the  year  1882.  But 
besides  these  there  are  numerous  rural  dignitaries,  whose  salaries  are  drawn  directly 
from  the  products  of  the  imposts.  The  large  landed  proprietors  are  the  true  masters 
of  the  villages  standing  on  their  estates.  Thus  it  may  happen  that  a  single  person 
may  be  at  once  the  omdeh  of  a  whole  district ;  that  is  to  say,  the  official  whn«e  will 
is  absolute  in  all  matters  connected  with  the  levying  of  taxes,  and  with  the  corv^ 
or  forced  labour  service  required  for  the  maintenance  of  the  irrigation  works.  In 
the  same  way  in  the  teftiah  belonging  to  the  domains  of  the  Khedive  and  flie  mem- 
bers of  his  family,  for  whom  are  now  substituted  the  employes  of  the  European 
bankers,  the  administration  of  affairs  is  in  the  hands  of  the  representatives  of  the 
territorial  lord. 

In  other  villages  the  functions  of  mayor  are  exercised  by  the  sheikh-el-beled,  or 
"  district  chiefs,"  each  of  whom  has  jurisdiction  over  a  group  of  families.  Some 
villages  have  but  one,  others  several,  and  even  as  many  as  twenty  of  these  rural 
headmen.  In  theory  they  are  elected  by  the  community ;  but  as  a  rule  their 
authority  is  transmitted  from  father  to  eldest  son,  or  else  within  the  same  family 
circle  by  seniority  from  father  to  brother,  or  from  father  to  son  or  nephew.  In 
certain  remote  districts,  and  especially  in  the  Berari  of  the  delta,  the  sheikh-el- 
beled  are  absolute  masters — so  many  "  petty  kings,"  against  whose  decisions  there 
is  no  appeal.  .     •  ;     *  , 


iwnnyi'wwi-'iif^i"'"  '■'■  >;!»>"^"'"P'«i«""r"i*,'«"»';»?<y  iM>"'8'iF!i!"- 


ijuai.i  ■  im  iiimuijUJi  mjiii  ywywiwyii  iiyiii|iiiini«i«>ji»wwM 


mt  years  of  civil 
lances.  Bands  of 
;  and  for  the  first 
nessed  of  villages 

1  21,000,  amongst 
year  1882.  But 
are  drawn  directly 
re  the  true  masters 
lat  a  single  person 
official  who"e  will 
id  with  the  corvte 
gation  works.  In 
dive  and  the  mem- 
B  of  the  European 
resentatives  of  the 

1  sheikh-el-heled,  or 
of  families.  Some 
enty  of  these  rural 
)ut  as  a  rule  their 
n  the  same  family 
jn  or  nephew.  In 
lelta,  the  sheikh-el- 
hose  decisions  there 


APPENDIX  I. 


STATISTICAL  TABLES. 


AFRICA. 


Area,  according  to  Behtn  and  Wagner 
Estimated  population  (1882) 
Total  forei^  trade,  about . 
Approximate  area  of  the  Nile  Basin   . 
,.  „  Congo    „     . 


11,930,000  sq.  miles. 
206,82.5,000 
£40,000,000 

1,340,000  sq.  miles. 

1,280,000 


EQUATORIAL  LAKE  iiEGION. 

Approximate  area 172.000  sq.  miles. 

Population  (1885) 12,000,000 

Area  of  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza 26,500  sq.  miles. 


KINGDOM  OF  KARAGWE. 


Area     .... 

Population    . 

Chief  Town,  Wiirahanje. 


KINGDOM  OP  U-GANDA. 


Area         .        .        .        ,         . 
Area  with  dependencies    .        > 
Population        .         .        .         . 
Population,  with  dependencies 
-Chief  Town,  Rubaga. 


ZERIBA  REGION.* 


6,000  faq.  miles. 
350,000  (?) 


Estimated  area 
Approximate  population 


the  left  bank  o{  the  Upper  Nile  between  L«ke  Albert  Nynnia  and  the  Sobat  confluence. 


20,000  sq. 

miles. 

70,000 

>»  I 

2,775,000 

5,000,000 

' 

140,000  sq 

miles. 

10,000,000 

by  the  numerous  streams  flowing  to 
ice. 

448 


APPENDIX  I. 
SOBA'r  AND  YAL  BASIiSS. 


Estimated  area 
Population 


GO.nOU  sq.  milei. 
3,000,000  (f) 


ABYSSINIA  AND  8H0A. 

Area  in  iq.  mile*.       rnpulatian. 

AbvMiiiia  proper  ('rigr*,  AmhHra,  Gojam,  &c.)        .         .  80,000  2,000,000 

gho'i 10,000  l./iOO.OOO 

Territory  of  thn  Bokob,  MengaH,  Beni-Amer,  &c.      .         .  28.000  100,000 

Maiwawah  and  Shoho  territory 10,000  60,000 

Territory  ot  the  Afars  (Danakil),  Obok,  and  Assab .  40,000  200,000 

Territory  of  the  iHsa  and  olhor  dependent  Somali  tribes  6,000  60,000 

HHirar  and  neifthbonring  districts 8,000  1,200,000 

Galla  States  of  Southern  Abyssinia 64,000  3,600,000 

TitHl,  Abyssinia  and  dependencies         .        .        •  262,000  8,610,000 


Adminibtbative  Divihons  of  Abyisima. 


V 


OoremmeDts. 

Provinoei. 

Fluvial  Basins. 

CUmatio  Zones. 

Towns. 

j 

Dembea  .... 

Blue  Nile 

Dega,  Voina-dega  .     . 

Gondar 

Chelga    .     . 

,,         Atbara  .     .     . 

II              >>           •     ' 

Chelga 

Yantungera . 

Atbara 

II              II           •     • 

Dagossa  .     . 

Blue  Nile 

II              II           •     • 

Kuarra    .     . 

II              II           •     • 

Beghemeder 

„         and   Takkaznh 

•1              i»           •     • 

Sarama 

Ouna .     .     . 

,»          »i            >i 

Dega 

Kainteh  .     . 

II 

Sainteh  .     . 

If       

II 

Ajihaha  .    . 

Dawont  .     . 
WaJla    .     . 

„         and  Takkazeh 

II 

II 

* 

Talanta  .     . 



Woggara     . 

Takkazeh,  Atbara .     .     . 

Voina-dega,  Dega  .     . 

Simen     .     . 

Dega    ...... 

Inchatkab 

Tselemt  .     . 

If 

Voina-dega,  Kwalla    . 

Ermecho 

Atbura 

Kwalla 

. :  •- 

'I'sagadeh 

>> 

II 

KoUa  Woga 

ra . 

»»     ....... 

II 

Waldebl.a 

Tukkazeh 

II 

Wolkait . 

II 

Nngada 

QOJAM       .      . 

Aohefer  . 

Blue  Nile 

Voina-dega    .... 

Isinala 

Macha     . 

Dega,  Voina-dega   .     . 

Uojam     . 
Damnt     . 

IJ               

Voina-dega,  Kwalla     . 

Monkorer 

Agaumeder 

>'           ,  "„  ■  ,.■ 

Ashfa         tt 

1 

Dahanah 

»)               

Dega,  Voina-de., Kwalla 



Lasta       .    .  j 

8edeb      . 

Jl           11             i> 

Wag  .     . 

»l               ...... 

II           II         ... 

Sokata 

Wojerat . 
Enderta  . 

II              

Jl              -•..•• 

,,     Voina-Dega  .     . 

Makaleh 

S.ika  .     . 

II                         •         .         .         •         • 

II             II           •    • 

Avergaleh 
^u     .     . 

Red  Sea  Watershed    .     . 

Voina-dega,  Kwalla     . 

Zcbul,  Ang( 

)t 

II              II      •     • 

Kobbo 

Sloa'  .     . 

Takkazeh 

II              II      •     • 

Samreh 

Tembien 

1        ,1        

i»              II      •     • 

Abbi-Addi 

Tioufi .    .    . ' 

Adet  .     . 
Geralta   . 

;     ; 

1          II              11      •     • 
II              11      •     • 

Haussen 

\ 

Wambarta 
Haramat 

If         

11              11      •     • 
Degii,  Voina-dega    .     . 

ChaUkut 

Adua .     . 

Takkazeh,  Mareb  .     .     . 

11             11           •    • 

Adua 

Shireh     . 

Vo'na-dega,  Kwalla     . 

.--          fc 

Agamoh  . 

,,             »i      •     •     • 

Dega,  Voina-dega  .     . 

Addigrat 

0  culeh— Ki 

isa 

Mareb 

11             11           •     ' 

Saraweh . 

Voina-dega,  Kwalla     . 

Kodo-Fallass 

:'    •    ■    ■       \ 

k   Hamiisen 

Mareb,  Barka    .     .     .     . 

II               11      •     • 

'ViiHiiirii 


APPENDIX  T 


449 


}.  miUt. 


rnpnUtion. 
2,000,000 

1,/)00,000 

100,000 

fiO.OOO 

200,000 

60,000 

1,200,000 

3,500,000 

8,610,000 


Ua 


Towna. 


11a 


a 

ilia 


Gondar 
Chelga 


Surama 


Inchatkab 


NHgada 
Isinala 

Monkorer 

Ashfa 

Bokata 
Maliuleh 


Kobbo 

Samreb 

Abbi-Addi 

Haussen 

Chalikat 
Adua 

Addigprat 

Eodo-Fallasai 


ABYSSINIAN  TOWNS  IN  THE  BASIN  OP  THE  BLUE  NILE. 

Oondar,  population  acoordinK  to  O.  Rohlft 4,000 

Fonjii 

Jenda        

Chelga 

ArnhH-Muriuni,  population  according  to  Lejean         ....         4,000 
Ifag  and  UariU,        „  „  „  ....         4,000 

Samara  (Dobra-Titbor)  ,,  ,,  ....         .3,000  P 

Kortnita,  population  according  to  Stocker  .        .         .        .         ,         1,000 

Dobra-Mariani 

Bahrdar 

Ismala 

Miihdora-Mariam,  population  according  to  Lejean     ....         4,000 

Yejibbeh 

fiaiao 

Debra-Wnrk  population  according  to  Lofobvre  ....        3,000 

Dima  „  „  Combea  ....        2,600 

Mota  

Dambacha 

Gudara 

Mankuaa 

Buri 

Ashfa 

Magdala 


ABYSSINIAN  TOWNS  IN  THE  TAKKAZEH  BASIN  AND  ON  THE  RED  SEA. 

Inchatkab 

DobHrok  

Furas  Saber,  population  according  to  Ferret 

Lalibala  „  „  Rohlfs 

Sokota,  population  in  1881 

Antaio 

Chalikut         „  ,, 

Makaleh   .         . 

P  imreh    .... 

Uausaen,  population  according  to  Lefebvre 

Addigrat  „  „  „ 

Senafeh 

Halai,  population  according  to  Ruasel 

Digsan  „  ,,      Lefebvre 

Abbi-Addi      „  „      Rohlfi 

Adua 

Aksum  „  .,  „ 

Kodo-Felassi  „  „ 

Atsega  „  „       Heugiin 

Keren  „  ,      „  „ 

Arkiko  „  „       Bohlfs 

Massawah  and  suburba,  in  1881 

Af-Abad,  population  according;  to  Sapeto 

Dolka 

Zulla,  in  1881 


TOWNS  OF  EAST  SHOA  AND  AD.IACENT  LANDS 

Ankober,  estimated  population  .. 

Aliu-Amba        „  „  , 

Licheh  „  .,  , 

Angolala  „  „  , 

Debra-Bei'ham  „  .,  . 


2,000 
l,2rD 
1,500 
1.000 
2,000 


1,200 
•2,000 

2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
3,000 
0,000 
1,200 
1,800 
1,800 
1,500 
7,000 
6,000 
6,500 
1,000 


7,000 
4,000 
3,000 
1,000 
2,500 


'\ 


B— AF. 


"1^ 


460 


APPENDIX  1. 

DANAKIL  (AFAR)  TERIUTORY. 
AuiiBii,  oitimatod  population 


Ruhelta 


6,000 
2,000 


EUROPEAN  POSSESSIONS. 

Iliirror  in  1882,  according  to  MuUer 20,000 

,„   .        .  10,000 

;L"'"^'''* .       .       6,000 

Zoilah 

Trado  of  Ilarrar  in  1870,  £160,000. 


TOWNS  OF  WKSr  SHOA  AND  NORTH  OALLA  STATES. 

Rogoh,  population  according  to  Chiarini '"'^ 

Suku  „  ..  K™pf "»"*"' 

Boiiga  ...■••••'■' 

Fichoh 

Woroilltt 

DUdu'a 

Gorii 


rieno 
Ghobisso 
Miigar 
Chora 


States  and  Pmovincbb  of  Siioa  ani>  NKioiinoimiNo  Landi. 


Btiitei. 


ShOA  PftOPEB 


PrOvinceii. 


Afar     Terbi- 

TORY    .      .       . 

somaliland     . 
Foreign    Pos- 

BE88I0N»  .       . 


Efat  .  .  .  ■ 
Argobba  .  .  . 
Godem  .  .  . 
Efrata  .... 
Mann  .... 
Toarulet  .  .  . 
Marabieteh  .  . 
Shna-meda  .  . 
Tulaina  .  .  . 
Fatigar     .     .     . 

Biilgiir      .     .     . 

Dembi.     .     .     . 

Etju     .... 

Dnuri  .... 

Wollo  .... 

Bornna      .     .     . 

Sodtlo  .... 

Giirageh  .     .     . 

Kabena     .     .     • 

Tibet)  .     .     .     ■ 

Gudru .... 

JimmH-Lagamar* 

Noiino.     .     .     . 

Liinmii 

Innarya    .     .     . 

Shora  .... 

Buiur  .... 

Giima  .... 

Goma  .... 

Cera    .... 

Jiiiima-Kuka .     ■ 

Yangaro  .     .     . 

Kaffa  .     .     .     . 

Ghimira    .     .     . 

Modaito    .     .     • 

Northern  Tribes 

l88a      .     .     ■     ■ 

Gadibursi.     .     . 

Assab 


FluTiol  Baaiiu. 


Awash  and  Nile . 

AWHSll  .... 


and  Nile. 


Nile 


Awash  . 


Nile 

*»        

Awash 

.,      Walii,  Gug8.t 
Gngsa  .     -     . 

Nile,  Gugsa  .     .     . 


Gugsa,  Nile 
!',       Nile 


:Nile 
Giigsa 


Awash. 


Obok  and  Tajurah 


Zeila 
Harrar 


CliinaUo  Zones. 


De^a,  Voi'na-dega  . 
Voina-dega,  Kwalla 

Dega,  Voina-dega 


Votaa-deg^    .     . 
Voina-doga,  Kwalla 


Dega,  Voina-dega  . 
Voina-dega,  Kwalla 


Dega,  Voina-dega 
Voina-dpga,  Kwalla 
Dega,  Voina-dega 


Voina-dega 


Voina-dega,  Kwalla 


Plains  and  Deserts 


Webi 


Valleys  and  Plains 


Chief  Tuwnt. 


Ankober 

Farroh 

Kok-fara 


liicheh 


Rogeh 


Woreillu 

Toleh 

Gorieno 

Mogar 


Lagamara 
Saka 


Folia 

Bonga 

Ausfia 


Assab 
Obnk 
Zeila 
Harrar 


APPENDIX  I. 


451 


6,000 
2,000 


TIPPER  NUHIA. 

Approximate  aron 224,000  sq   niiloi. 

Estimated  populntioii 3,000,000 


20,000 

16,000 

6.000 


TE8. 


10,000 
12,000 


NDI. 


Aegii  . 
degu 


Kwiilla 


dega  . 
K  walla 


-dega 
K  walla 
'dpga 


Kwalla 


deserts 


Plains 


Chief  Tuwni. 


Ankober 

Farreh 

Kok-fara 


liicheh 


Kogeli 


Woreillu 

Toleh 

Oorieno 

Mogar 


Lagamara 
Saka 


Folia 

Bonga 

Ansfia 


Asaab 
Obok 
Zeila 
Harrar 


Town*  of  Uppbr  Nuuia. 

Bimbnihi  ^adasi),  population 

Famaka  (Fazogl)  ,,  ... 

BosoroB,  populalion  according  lu  Boltram    . 

Karkoj  „  

Bonilr  ,,  

Wod-Modineh,  population  uciordiiig  to  Marno 
Messalamieh  ,,  „  Ijejean 

Abu-Ahraa  „  „  ^lukhtar 

Doka,  population  according  to  Mukbtar 
Khartum,  po|>ulation  in  1882 
Halfaya  ,,         according  to  tbo  Knglish  itafT 

Shendi  ,,  .     ,,  „  „ 

QoB-Rojob        ,,  ,,  ,,       Uokoby     . 

Filik  ,,  ,,  ,,  ,,  .         . 

OaUbat  (Motammeb),  population  according  to  Cuprulti 

8uk  Abu-Sin,  population 

Kaiwala,  population  in  1882.         .         . 

Kd-I)nmfT,  population  according  to  the  Engliith  Ntaff 

Berber,  population  in  1882 

Huakin  and  El-Kof,  population  in  1882        . 

Tokar,  population 

Export  trade  of  Suakin  in  1870 


1,000 
2.000 
8,000 
2,000 
8,000 
2,000 

18,000 
7,000 
6,600 

70,000 
3,600 
2,600 
1,600 
1,000 
B,000 
3,000 

10,000 
2,000 

10,000 

11,000 
4,000 

£260,000 


Bhipping  in  1880,  aoconling  to  Amici,  768  vessoli  of  171,081  toni. 


HDOFAN. 


Approximate  arou 
Estimated  popu'ntion 


100,000  sq.  miles. 
300,000 


Chief  Exports  to  EotFT  kbpoue  thk  War. 


£80,000 

66,000 

2,600 


Ostrich  fvathem .... 

GumH    .........••'• 

Hidot  and  ukins 

£143,500 
Total  trade  of  Kordofan,  according  to  Prout,  in  1870:    Imports,  £60,000 ; 
Exports,  £132,600.     Total,  £182,600. 


Chikf  Towns  of  KohuopAn. 

£l-Obeid,  population  before  the  war 

Abu-Hartiz 

Melbe'is 

Bara  


30,000 


Par-f6r. 


Approximate  area  .        .    '    ■ 

Population  according  to  Nachtigal 

Mason      . 


200,000  sq.  milea. 
4,000,000 
1,600,000 


•^#\! 


•Mpi^wpMflM 


462 


APPENDIX  T. 
Cni«»  Towwi  or  l)*R-FdB. 


Kl-Fnihnr,  poptilntion  ucconlinR  to  F.imor 
KoJiL,  poptilutiun  acrording  to  Urowiio 

Omdhanfta 

Tom  (Torra,  Toran)      .... 
F()ja(Fojoh) 


C,tti«,' 


Approximatfl  aroa 
Entimated  Population 
Kxtnnt  of  arable  Ismli 


NUBIA. 


100,000  iq  inilet. 
1,000,000 

1,320  iq.  miloi. 


CMWr  Town*  or  Nubia. 


At)u-Ham«d. 

Korosko. 

Marawi. 

Nuri. 

KorU. 

Ambiikol. 

Adu-dfltn. 

Dabbeh. 


Abu-Gotai. 

Old  Dongola. 

New  Donnola,  population  according  to 

Enaor,  7,000. 
Hemneh. 
Wady-UiUra. 
Dorp. 


EaYPT. 

Total  area 

Area  of  the  delta 

Area  of  arable  lands 

Population  in  1882 

„         per  total  area  :  U  to  the  gq.  mile. 

„  per  area  of  arable  lands :  570  to  the  gq.  mile. 

„  according  to  sex  :  men  .... 
women      .... 


374,000  iq.  milni. 
13,000 
11,700 
0,806,400 


3,216,247 
3,262,869 


Distribution  of  thb  P..pulation  accoemmo  to  thb  Cbn»us  of  May  Srd,  1882, 


ChristiHna. 


Sedentary 

Nomad 

Foreigners 

Mahommedans 

Copts 

Roman  Catholics 

Greeks 

Protestants 

Armenians 

Jews 


6,469,716 

245,776 

90,886 

6,061,026 

408,903  ^ 

67,389 

42,066 

4,636 

1,627  J 

15,769 


Ul4,521 


FoltEIONBBS   IN   EOTPT  (1878). 

«     .  '>9.963 

Greeks ^' 

French *'"» 

T.    1.                                                                                                 ...  14,024 

"^''"* 3  795 

^"«  '^'^ ;         .         .         .  2  480 

^""'^'7. ...  1,003 

Spaniards ' 

Germans 

Persians 

Hucsians ___ 

Total «8'0«* 


s?^^^~ 


^ 


*»(■«»' 


AI»l»ENI>IX  I. 


4R8 


PopulHtinn  <)l  Kfrypt  in  IHOO 3,614,  <00* 

Mnan  riitn  of  mortiility 26  to  27  pr  I.OOO 

Proportion  miffKrinn  from  ophlhiilinia 17  per  1,000 


000  iq  milet. 

000 

,320  iq.  milM. 


lation  according  to 


)0  iq.  milni. 

)0 

)0 

>0 


Amia  and  Population  or  th«  Rotptian  Oakw  in 

O"!*-  Kxtent  of  nmble  land 

KhaiKPh 4  gq.  miles 

Dakhol 34 

Farufrch i 

Buhariult 4      ^ 

Biwah 16      „' 

t'*'* P      „ 

Farodgha .  ? 

Total  .        .         .  48 


1182. 


ropiilaffnn. 

0.1(1 

16,203 

44n 

(1,170 

5,600  (P) 

40 
3,006 


36,737 


AuA  ANu  Population  of  thi  Khedival  Po«iRRiioN»  bifuhk  tiir  Wak. 


Area  In  iiq.  milek. 

Egypt 374,000 

Oaaoi 4g 

Zcriba  RoRion 140,000 

Bubut  and  Yal  BaiiinB         ....  60  000 

Upper  Nubia  (Sonar,  4c.)          .         .         .  224,000 

Lower  Nubia 100,000 

Kordol&n 100,000 

Dar-F<ir 200,000 

Total        ,  1,208,048 


Population. 

0,806.000 

36,000 

10.000,000 

3,000,000 

3,000,000 

1,000,000 

300,000 

1,600,000 


2/5,641,000 


Iay  8aD,  1882. 

,716 

,776 

886 

,026 

,903  \ 

,389 

1,066  )  614,521 

,536 

,627  J 

,769 


29,963 

14,310 

14,524 

3,795 

2,480 

1,003 

879 

762 

368 

68,064 


Tear. 

1870 
1876 
•1880 
1882 
1883 


Tranbit  Tbadb  op  thb  Suez  Canal. 

No.  ofreaeli.  Tonnnge.  Beoelpti. 

486  654,916  £206,370 

1,494  2,940,708  1,156,000 

2,026  4,344,519  1,695,000 

3,198         --  7,122,126'  2,536,343 

3,307  8,061,407  2,741,000 

Mean  tonnage  of  vessels  in  1870,  1,343  ;  in  1877,  2,016. 


Mean  transit  dues  of  each  voRSel , 

Net  profits  (1883) 

Number  of  passengfcrs'in  1883 


£830 

£1,226,972 

119,177 


8UIPPINO  ACCOBDINO  TO   NATIONALITIES  IN    1883. 


VeueU. 

Tonnsfrs. 

British 2,666 

6,795,684 

French        

166 

405,846 

Dutch 

103 

254,274 

Genran 

109 

176,764 

Italian 

61 

153,493 

Austrian 

67 

121,711 

Spanish 

32     ^ 

78,663 

Russian      ... 

18 

36,061 

Norwegian          .... 

20 

35,502 

Belgian 

13 

24,326 

Egyptian 

21 

13,973 

Turkish 

10 

11,236 

*  Estimated  at  the  rate  of  eight  persons  per  house,  the  houses  being  letumed  at  908,700. 


•} 


.J,*j 


-'a 


~»- 


■^ilMi^iiisi  *j(w<Hihiiii*i>f'«>«iJi|gitiWtf^i>!^>J.p^^j"^^ 


uaii, ._ 


454 


APPENDIX  L 

Capital  Account  op  thb  Suez  Canai,  Compant  (1882). 

397.438  Bhures  of  £20.  .         •         •         ••.•.•,:  ^' ''*'>''' 

301,848  obligations  of  £20,  each  isBued  at  £12,  beanng  interest  at       ^  ^^^^^^ 
6  per  cent,  on  par  .        ■         •         •        '^^'        '  .     '      I'arn'aan 

83,993  delegations  of  £20  each,  bearing  interest  at  6  per  cent.    .       W,»<^0        ^ 
99,990  thirty-three-year  bonds  of  £5,  at  8  per  cent,  interest         .  499,950 

16,152  bonds  of  £20  at  3  per  cent.         .         •        '       ;         '        '  ' 
399,76.i  bonds  of  £3  88.  each  at  6  per  cent.,  issued  for  the  con- 

solidation  of  unpaid  shares,  redeemable  at  par       •        •        •  ^'If'Z: 

100,000  foun.ler's  shares,  which  on  surplus  profits  yielded  interest  126,697 

Shipping  ov  8ubz  in  1880. 

„,      .  .         681  vessels  of  682,110  tons. 

^^"^ .        663        „         677,626    „ 

Cleared  

Total •      »'^**        "     1'369,73B    „ 

Shipping  op  Ismailia  in  1882. 
271  steamers  of  696,000  tons 

Shipping  of  PoHT-SAiu  in  1880  (bxclcsivb  of  thb  Transit  Tkauk). 

„,      ,  .         .     1,607  voBselB  of  997,61 1  tons. 

^"^^''f .     1,630        „         997,395    „ 

Cleared I . 

Total 3,037        ,.       1,995.006    .. 

Shipping  of  Damietta  in  1880. 

„  ,      ,  .  1,198  vessels  of  83,215  tons. 

Entered '  7q  qor 

Cleared '        '  '  ^jUl.       "       .^.^    " 

Total.         .         .         .         .         •  •  2.374        „        163.211     .. 

Shipping  op  Kosbtta  in  1880.  ,    *^ 

Entered    .        •        •        •      ■•        •        •       -       738  vessels  of  2  J 124  tons. 

Cleared *      i!!        "  '  " 

Total  .        .        .        .        •        •        •     l.-'e*        ••        3^'^*^    " 

Shipping  of  Alexandria  in  1880.  '"  ^ 

P  ,„™,,  .     3.305  vesselK  of  1,292,296  toiiB. 

SeS    ::;:...  3^0   „    1^303^7  ,.     > 

Total •    «.fi65        „  2,696,123     „ 

Total,  1881     .        .        *-'      i        ♦    7,363        „  2,677,414     ,, 

...                                                                 ,  .    ;£6,000,000 

Mean  value  of  importa 13  000,000 

„  exports '       : 

Total  mean  trade  of  Alexandria    .        ....        •  .  £    ,      . 

t   •       • 

EoTPTiAN  Commercial  Navt. 

Steamers  on  the  Nile 

„     Bed  Sea  and  Mediterraiwan *° 

*'  1  600  * 

Sailing  vessels  of  all  classes  •        •  ,  '„_. 

River  craft '        . 

tolSM.  :;v 


inan,. 


"fi)nmi»i.w.*i 


umnm\i  [t^w  ^m*  u^ni 


APPENDIX  I. 


• 


455 


182). 


£7,948,760 

6,036,960 

1,679,860 

499,950 

303,040 


Total  Tradb  of  Eotpt  in  1880. 

Imports £8,596,000 

Exports 12,271,000 

Total ,.         .         .         .  £20,867,000 


1,335,201 
126,697 


(jf  682,110  tout). 
677,626    „ 


1,369,736    „ 


(SIT  Tkauk). 

of  997,611  tons. 
997,395  „ 


1,995,006 


Shii-pimo  in  1880. 

Entered 8,119  vocsels  of  3,102,772  tons. 

Cleared 8,040        „         3,106,546    „ 

Total 16,169       „         6,209,317    „ 


British 

Austrian 

French 

Egyptian 

Italian 

Sundries 


Shippino  accokdinq  to  Nationalities. 


2.656  vessels  of  2,963,275  tons. 
744        „  766,220    „ 

492         „  699,288     „ 

7,136         „  690,442     „ 

616        „  422,966     „ 

4,143        „  412,777    „ 


Impobtb  and  Exports  accohuino  to  Nationalities.   - 


of  83,215  tons. 
79,996    „ 


163,211     „ 


)  of  20,124  tons. 
19,717  „ 


39,841  „ 


f  1,292,296  tons. 
1,303,327  „ 


2,696,123  „ 
2,677,414  „ 

.  ;C6,000,000 
.  13,000,000 

.  £18,000,000 


.  •  .    40 

18 

.  1,500 

.  10,300 

1  OoTernraent  in  1876  for  £8,976,682 
)laced  at  the  lUdpasal  of  Uie  Company. 
08  accruing  on  the  176,602  Bhare»  up 


Great  Britain 

Bussia  . 

France  «  ■ 

Italy     .        .        . 

Austria         .        » 

'J'urkey 

Greece 

America 

India,  China,  Jupau 

Sundries 

Total   . 


Importi  from,  1888. 
£2,886,026 
215,889 
910,320 
228,009 
683,391 
110,346 
20,073 
116,631 
311,323 
115,631 


'rf 


£5,696,739 


Ezporta  to,  1882. 

£7,322,368 

979,412 

964,294 

747,689 

436,350 

..       383,633 

77,027 

p         30,966 

166,633 

£11,108,262 


Chief  Articles  of  Import  and  Export  (1882). 


Import. 

Cotton  goods  . 

£1,340,037 

Cotton    . 

Coal        ...        . 

769,272 

Cotton  seed    . 

Clothing,  &c. 

221,600 

Sugar     . 

Indigo     .... 

210,428 

Beans     . 

Timber    .... 

182,645 

Maize 

Wines  and  spirits    . 

175,616 

(lumH 

Sugar      .... 

172,333 

Hides      . 

Machinery 

168,818 

Rico 

Woollen  goods 

114,865 

Lentils   . 

Petroleum 

112,607 

Ostricli  feathei 

Rice        .... 

97,257 

Wool      . 

Oik        ...       . 

68,606 

Export 


£7,670,634 

1,190,458 

676,844 

671,134 

164,385 

142,068 

138,686 

120,086 

68,436 

66,426 

46,616 


iW 


'i^&il.  , 


466  APPENDIX  I. 


Population  of  thk  chief  EovrxiAN  Towns  AccoRDiNa  to  thb  census  of  1882. 


('airo 

374,838 

Gizeh 

11,410 

Alexandria      . 

213,010 

Mit  Ghumr    . 

11,225 

Damictta 

34,044 

Ziftah     . 

11,140 

Tantah  . 

33,750 

Suez 

10,919 

Ansiut    . 

31,675 

Mellawch 

10,777 

Mahallet-el-Kebir. 

29,908 

Abutig   . 

10.772 

IMansurah 

26,942 

Beni-Siiof 

10,085 

Modinet-el-Fayum 

25,799 

Fuah      . 

9,903 

Damanahur    . 

23,353 

Esneh    . 

9.4?2 

Zagazig 

. 

19,815 

Sohag     . 

8,774 

Akhmin . 

18,777 

Kaliuli   . 

8,636 

Eosetta  . 

16,666 

Menzaleh 

8,450 

Port  Said 

16,560 

Benha-l'Assal 

8,364 

Menuf 

16,281 

Dessuk   . 

7,677 

Shibin-ol-Kom 

16,250 

Belbeis  . 

7,309 

Minieh    . 

15,900 

Ramleh  . 

4,342 

Seneh    . 

15,402 

Ehargeh 

3,787 

Sanhiires 

15,392 

Kasr-Dakhel . 

3,539 

Girgeh   . 

15,239 

Ismailia 

3.364 

Tantah  . 

13,789 

Abukir   . 

2,530 

Manfalut 

13,234 

El-Arish 

2,430 

Samanud 

11,557 

Aqbicultuual  Returns. 


Land  under  tillage    . 
Steppe  lands     .... 
Desert,  marsh,  and  waste  . 
Sugar  plantation!)  in  1880 
Sugar  crop       .... 
Date-trees  in  1875    . 
Average  date  crop    . 
Cotton  plantations  in  1883 
Cotton  crop  in  1883  .,    . 

Cotton  seed       „  . 

Raw  cotton  exported  in  !866  (the 

„  „  to  Great  Britain  in  1882 

Cereals  exported  to  Great  Britain  in  1882 


cotton  famine  year ' 


11,000  eq.  miles. 
60,000        „ 
313,000        „ 
38,000  acres. 

46,760  tons,  value  £935,000. 
6,000,000 
100,000  to  120,000  tons. 
450,000  acres. 
£6,760,000 
£1,164,000       rt:-,J, 
£16,000,000      ;   .    -> 
£5,034,786 
£780,364 


■■             Trkioation  Works.  ; 

-       ■   ■                       '■  \ 

Nili  Canals  open  in  1880 8,000  miles. 

Sefi 2,000    „ 

Steam  Pumps 300 

Sakiehs .  30,000 

Shadufs 70,000 


Railways  ANn  Tbleouaphs. 


Railways  open  iu  1884 
Private  agricultural  lines 

Total.        ^       . 


Railway  passengers  iu  1870      .        .         .         * 
„    1880      .         .         .        , 

Goods  traffic 

Telogrnpbg  in  Bgjrpt  and  the  Egyptian  possessions  in  1878 


900  milos. 
250    „ 


1,150     „ 

2,172.668 
3,093,840 
5,260,000  tons. 
.  4,700  miles. 


APPENDIX  I. 


457 


U8  OF  1882. 


Postal  Sbkvicb  (1883). 


11,410 

11,225 

11,140 

10,919  . 

10,777 

10,772 

1U,086  . 

9,903 

9.422 

8,774 

8,636 

8,450 

8,354 

7,677 

7,309 

4,342 

3,787 

3,539 

3,364 

2,530 

2,430 


10  tiq.  miles. 

10 

>0        „ 

10  acres. 

0  tons,  value  £935,000. 

OO 

90  to  120,000  tons. 

L'O  acres. 

»0 

00      '  -  ■ 

30         .   'J 

36 

64 


1,000  miles. 
!,000     „ 
300 
,000   . 
,000 


Iietters  posted  to  foreign  coiintrieit 
Newspapers,  books,  packages,  &c  . 
Letters  posted  for  the  interior 
Books,  &c.,        ,,  „ 

Total      .... 


Educational  Returns. 

Attendance  at  all  Mohammedan  schools  in  1820 
•»  II  II 


»» 


n 


II 


2,407,000 
1,365,000 
4,196,713 
1,741,000 


9,709,713 


• 
Years. 

VITAL    STATISTICS. 
Birthn. 

Deaths. 

Kzoess  of  Births. 

1873         .... 

.       184,742 

133,720 

61,022 

1874         .... 

.      177,732 

144.924 

32  808 

1875        .... 

.      182,820 

119,912 

62,908 

1876        .... 

.       186,679 

132,008 

64,671 

1877        .... 

.      173,629 

138,668 

34,861 

1820 

3,000 

1866 

.       60,000 

1873 

.       90,000 

1878 

.     137,550 

. 

6,370 

. 

152 

Mohammedan  schools  in  1878     . 
Foreign  schools  in  1880     . 

Attendance,  6,419  natives  ;  5,828  foreigners. 

Newspapers  (1879)  French,  9  ;  Arabia,  7  ;  Italian,  5  ;  Greek,  3;  Sundries,  6.    Total  29. 


FINANCE  (1883). 

Revenue. 

Bevonue  irom  land  and  other  direct  contributions          .         .  .  £6,367,684 

Indirect  revenues,  including  customs, posts,  octrois,  and  salt-tax  1,854,294 

Railway  and  telegraphs         ...,,,.        .         .        .         ,  .        389,104 

^    •                Total .  .£7,611,082 


Expenditure. 

Tribute  to  Turkey .  £678,397 

Public  debt    .        .      '.         .        . 3,348,164 

Co<<t  of  adminiGtration 4,165,357 

Total £8,181,918 

Surplus £570,838 


^1 


Public  Dbrt. 


900  miles. 
250    „ 


1,150 


2.668 
3,840 

0,000  tons. 
4,700  miles. 


Unified  4  per  cent.     .  •     r       .        *. 

Privileged  debt         .         .        . 

Domain  loans  at  5  per  cent. 

Daira  Sanieh  loans  at  4  to  5  per  cent. 

Floating  debt,  estimated  at 

Turkish  debt  secured  upon  the  tribute 

Loan  guaranteed  by  the  Powers  in  1885 

Total      . 


£56,726,420 
22,446,800 
8,264,820 
8,991,820 
5,000,000 
11,918.800 
7,000,000 

£120,338,660 


468 


APPENDIX  I. 

Civil  List 

ual  allowance  to  Khedive        .  .        • 

„     late  Khedive  .        •        •        ■ 
„    other  members  ot  the  family . 


Total 


£100,000 

40,000 

175,000 

£315,000 


The  Khbdival  Dynahty. 


Mohammed  All,  loimder  of  the  dynasty 
Ibrahim,  son  of  Mohammed 
Abbas,  grandson  of  Mohammed 
8aid,  son  of  Mohammed      . 

Ismail         •        •         ■        ■        . 
Mohammed  Tewflk,  son  of  Ismail 


Born. 

Died. 

Keifm«d. 

lynasty      .        1769 

1849 

1811-48 

1789 

1848 

1848 

1813 

1864 

1848-54 

1822 

1863 

1864-63 

1830 

1863-79 

il                .         1852 

1879 

A»MINI8TBATIVE  Dm«0N8,    W.T.,   THBIK  ChIEP   ToWNS.   AhEAS.   AND   P..PULATI0N8   FOH   1882. 


Begions. 


Lower  Egypt  (pop. 
3,875,613)  .     .     . 


Isthmus 
32,471)   . 


(pop. 


Upper  E»vpt  (pop.  < 
2,643,564)  .     . 


Provinces. 


Caiio 

Alexandria,  wiih  Siwiih 

Damiettii 

Rosetta 

Beheiah     .     .     .     •     ■ 

iSharkieh 

Dakhalieh 

Gharbieh 

KHliubieh 

Menufieh    ...._. 

Port  Said  and  Ismidlia  . 

Suez 

El-Arish 

Assiut 

Ben'-Siief .     .     .     • 

Fayum  and  Oasis    . 

Esneh  and  Oaais .     . 

Girgeh 

Gizeh 

Keneh 

Kosspir 

Minieh 


Chief  Towns. 

Area  in  Sq. 
Miles. 

Population. 

Cairo 

8 

374,838 

Alexandria 

33,280 

236,400 

Damietta   . 

360 

43,616 

Roiietta .     . 

60 

19,378 

Damanahiir    . 

4,310 

372,836 

Zagazig     .     . 
Mi^nsurH))  . 

1,745 
824 

437,737 
684,204 

Tantah .     .     . 

1,236 

912,167 

Kaliub  .     .     . 

330 

266,607 

Menuf  . 

630 

643,934 

Port  Said  . 

SueZ        .      . 

El-Arish    . 

•  1 

.  ( 

2,490   1 
36,430 

21,298 

11,176 

3,986 

Assiut   .     . 

61,480 

650,276 

Beni-Suef .     .     • 
Medinet  el-Fayuni 

.     •  1 
.     .  ( 

20,170   1 

194,902 
207,398 

Esneh 

::67,820 

245,851 

Girgeh  .     . 
Gizeh    . 

6,280 

616,125 

9,900 

274,816 

Keneh  .     . 
Kosseir .     . 

. 

34,830   1 

384,026 
2,430 

1  Minieh.     . 

. 

j        44,360 

295,073 

/ 

^ 

t 

s*- 

L.^ 

'i' 

'1/0  I 


£100,000 

40,000 

175,000 

£316,000 


Kei{{n«d. 

1811-48 

1848 

1848-54 

1854-63 

1863-79 

1879 


ULATIONB   FOR   1882. 


rea  in  Sq. 
Miles. 


8 

38,280 

360 

60 

4,310 

1,745 

824 

1,236 

330 

630 

2,490   I 

36,430 
61,480 

20,170   I 

::67,820 
6.280 
9,900 

34,830   I 

44,360 


Population. 


•■    ,      t.'*.A. 


374,838 
236,400 
43,616 
19,378 
372,836 
437,737 
584,204 
912,167 
266,607 
643,934 
21,296 
11,176 
2,986 
650,276 
194,902 
207,398 
245,851 
616,125 
274,816 
384,026 
2,430 
296,073 


APPENDIX  IT. 


A  syinoptical  table  of  all  the  eaces  and  tribes 

OF  NORTH-EAST  AFRICA.* 


Wa-Oanda 


Wa-Nyoro 
Wa-Soga 
Wa-Oamba 
Wa-Karagwe 

Wa-Songora 
Wa-Sambara 
Wa-Tutwa 
Wa-Sukuma 

Wa-Zinza 
Wa-Nyambo 


I.  BANTU  GROUP. 

North-west  side  Victoria  Nyanza,  from  the  Somerset  to  the  Alexandria  Nile 
.    (Taiigur6),  the  most  numerous  and  powerful  Bantu  nation  in  the   region 

of  the  Great  Lakes. 
Between  f'.merset  Nile  and  Albert  Nyanza. 
East  from  1  he  Somerset  Nile. 

East  from  the  Wa-Soga  territory  ;  limits  undefined. 
West  side  Victoria  Nyanza,  from  the  Alexandria  Nile  southwards  to  the  Wa-Zinza 

territory. 
West  sido  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  between  the  Wa-Karagwe  and  the  coast. 
South-east  coast  Victoria  Nyanza,  north  ot  Speke  GuU. 
South  of  f-j poke  Gulf. 
Laige  nation  with  num«ioui  subdivisions  (Wa-Kima,  Wa-Vira,  Wa-Smas,  Wa- 

H»ndi,  &c.),  south  Cv)a8t  Virtoria  Nyanza,  south  of  Speke  Gulf. 
South  coast  Victoria  Nyauiiii;  west  from  hhe  Wa-8ukuma. 
Lar){e  tribe  in  Karagwe  ;  spck  the  Zougora  language,  a  distinct  Bantu  dialect. 


I[.  NEGRO  GROUP.  ; 

Numerically  the  Negro  is  by  far  the  moat  important  elemeut  in  Egyptian  Suddn.  It 
is  in  almost  undisturbed  possession,  not  only  of  the  main  stream  from  the  great  lakes 
to  and  beyond  the  Sobat  junction,  but  also  of  the  Sobat  Valley  itself,  and  of  the 
countless  headwaters  of  the  White  Nile  converging  from  the  west  and  south-west  at 
Lake  No,  above  the  Sobat  junction.  Within  this  area  is  probably  concentrated  one- 
half  of  the  population  of  the  whole  Nile  basin,  from  the  equatorial  lakes  to  the 
Mediterranean,  a  population  which  has  been  roughly  estimated  at  about  forty  millions. 
Here  are  several  large  and  powerful  Negro  nations,  some  still  enjoying  political 
autonomy,  such  as  the  Zandeh  (Nyam-Nyam),  the  Mittu,  and  the  Monbuttu,  who 
occupy  the  low  water-parting  between  the  Nile,  Congo,  and  Tsad  basins,  some 
brought  within  the  limits  of   the  KUedive's  possessions,  such  as  the  Bari  and  Nuer 


*  Enlarged  from  A.  H.  Keaue's     Ethnology  of  Egyptian  Sudtn."     London:   1884. 


MM 


4C0 


APPENDIX  II. 


of  the  Bahr-ol-Jebel,  the  Bongo  (Dor),  Eol,  and  Krej  of  the  western  affluents  of  the 
White  Nile,  the  Funj  of  Senaar,  and  the  Shilluks  and  Dinkas  about  the  Sobat  con- 
fluence. The  most  numerous  and  widespread  are  thi  Zandfh,  the  eastern  portion  of 
wliose  territory  has  alone  been  explored.  They  are  divided  into  several  independent 
states,  stretching  from  the  Bahr-el-Jebel  half  across  the  continent,  probably  to  tho 
territory  of  tho  Fans  in  the  far  West. 

Of  the  reduced  nations,  the  Shilluks  and  Dinkas  are  by  far  the  most  important. 
The  Shilluks  appear  to  be  of  the  same  stock  as  the  Funj  of  Senaar,  who  by  fusion 
with  the  Arabs  formed  a  powerful  kingdom,  which  in  the  last  century  extended 
northwards  beyond  the  Atbara  confluence.  Of  the  Dinkas,  who  number  several  millions, 
as  many  as  twenty -five  distinct  tribes  are  mentioned  by  I).  G.  Beltrame,*  who  has  resided 
several  years  amongst  the  native  communities  of  the  White  Nile. 

Although  grouped  as  Negroes  proper,  very  few  of  these  Nilotic  peoples  present 
the  ideal  type  of  tL«  Blacks,  such  as  we  find  it  amongst  the  Ashantis  and  other 
inhabitants  of  Upper  Guinea.  The  complexion  is  in  general  less  black,  the  nose 
loss  flat,  the  lips  less  jjrotruding,  the  hair  less  woolly,  the  dolichocephaly  and  prog- 
nathism less  marked — in  a  word,  the  salient  features  of  the  Negro  race  less  prominent 
thai'  o'hC'v'icro.  Apart  from  the  more  minute  shades  of  transition  due  to  diverse 
inter'  li'ij;  lag  with  the  Hamites  and  Semites.f  t^o  distinct  typos  may  be  plainly 
diFfii'i.!'Ti->hed — one  black  and  long-headed  (Shilluk,  Dinka,  Ni,c>i,  Mittu),  the  other 
leociiir:  or  ruddy  brown  and  short-headed  (Bongo,  Zandeh,  &-\).  'Ihe  complexion  of 
tiie  inttor  may  possibly  be  due  to  the  properties  of  tho  rod  earth  prevalent  in  their 
I  'triers  |  But  no  theory  has  been  advanced  to  account  for  their  brachycephaiy,  which 
IS  <!il  tho  more  difficult  to  explain,  inasmuch  as  it  is  characteristic  neither  of  the 
aLcri  "i  ,;il  Negro,  nor  of  the  intruding  Hamito  an^5  Semite  elementp. 

([•'<■  In-^einfurth  tolls  us  that  the  Bongos  are  "  J.ardly  removed  from  the  lowest  grade 
of  brachycpphaly  "  {op.  cit.  i.,  263),  and  tho  8P.ne  is  largely  true  of  the  Zandeh.  Eat 
this  feature  apjjears  to  be  altogether  far  mure  general  amongst  the  Negro  races  than 
is  usually  supposed.  Of  the  eighteen  Hkulls  fiom  Equatorial  Africa  in  the  Barnard 
Davis  Collection  (now  in  the  museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons,  London),  as  many 
as  four  are  distinctly  round-headed.  Craniology  thus  fails  in  Negroland,  as  it  does 
in  so  many  other  regions,  as  a  constant  factor  in  determining  racial  types. 

The  Nilotic  races  appear  to  form  a  connecting  link  between  those  of  Baghirmi  in 
the  Tsad  basin,  and  the  non-Bantu  peoples  between  tho  Kilima-Njaro  highlands  and  the 
east  side  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  who  have  been  recently  visited  by  the  Eev.'  T.  Wake- 
field  and  Mr.  Thomson.  The  Wa-Kavirondo  nation  of  this  region  are  allied  in  speech 
to  the  Shilluks  end  the  yambu  of  the  Sobat  Valley.  ^  The  language  of  their  neighbours, 
the  Oigob  (Masai),  alKO  presents  a  remarkable  pecriiarity  in  the  presence  of  grammatical 
gender,  which  it  h»  .i  in  common  with  all  the  dialects  or  Tie  Nilotic  Negroes,  except  the 
Dinka.  ||  This  p^^int  is  of  great  philological  interest,  grammatical  gender  being  a  feature 
hitherto  suppof-cid  to  be  restricted  to  the  three  inflecting  families  (Aryan,  Semitic,  and 
Hamitic),  b^jides  the  Hottentot,  by  Lepsius,  partly  on  this  ground,  affiliated  to  the 
Hamitic.  In  Oigob  gender,  re];>8eQtrd  by  I  masculine,  and  »  feminine,  is  fully 
developed.  Thus  :  ol  =  he,  that  r^ian  ;  il  =  tho."f>  men  ;  en,  eng  r=  she ;  ing  =  those 
women  ;  el-e  =  this  man ;  en-a  —  th?8  woman  ;  witl.  ■  ueh  compare  the  Bari :  lo  =  this 
man  ;  na  =  this  woman  ;  the  Boisg  j ;  bah  =.  he  ;  AoA  ==  she ;  and  the  Shilluk  :  nenno  = 
he ;  ndno  =.  she.     Lepsius,  however,  is  inclined  to  regard  the  so-called  gender  pai-ticles 

•  "  Orammntica  e  Vocabolario  della  lingua  Denka,"  Rome,  1880,  p.  231. 

t  In  Senaar  alone  the  Araba  reckon  us  many  as  six  gradations  between  the  pure  Negro  and  the 
Semite  :  1.  El-Asraf,  or  yellow ;  2.  El-Kat  Fatalobin,  the  Abyssinian  ;  3.  El-Akdar,  or  red ;  4.  El- 
Aaiaq,  orblue;   6.  El-Ahsdar,  or  "green";   6.  Ahbit,  the  Nubian. 

t  Schweinfurth,  "  Heart  of  Africa." 

§  Rev.  T.  Wakefield,  in  "  Proceedings  of  the  Geographical  Society,"  for  December,  1882. 

II  Lepsius.  "  Eiiileitung,"    Xv:  >f.-i:  'WJ^    '■     SiY  vV       V;,.:        .^  -*  1"     « 


J.iRPflWWf;""' 


:s/i5L   *- 


r-;irfHir.%J.'.^iltei5K  ■ 


imOiritTfiii'i 


APPENDIX  II. 


461 


stem  affluents  of  the 
about  the  Sobat  con- 
he  eastern  portion  of 
)  several  independent 
ent,  probably  to  tho 

the  most  important, 
lenaar,  who  by  fusion 
ast  century  extended 
mber  several  millions, 
ame,*  who  has  resided 

ilotic  peoples  present 
Ashanti's  and  other 
less  black,  the  nose 
ihocephaly  and  prog- 
:o  race  less  prominent 
lition  due  to  diverse 
typas  may  be  plainly 
r>i,  Mittu),  the  other 
.  The  complexion  of 
th  prevalent  in  their 
brachycephaiy,  which 
jristie  neither  of  the 
atf. 

pom  the  lowest  grade 
of  the  Zandeh.  But 
the  Negro  races  than 
Africa  in  the  Barnard 
ns,  London),  as  many 
Negroland,  as  it  does 
al  types. 

those  of  Baghirmi  in 
jaro  highlands  and  the 
bytheEev.  T.  Wake- 
ion  are  allied  in  speech 
,ge  of  their  neighbours, 
resence  of  grammatical 
;ic  Negroes,  except  the 
.  gender  being  a  feature 
)8  (Aryan,  Semitic,  and 
ound,  affiliated  to  the 
I  n  feminine,  is  fully 
nff  =  she ;  ing  =  those 
ire  the  Bari :  lo=^  this 
I  the  Shilluk  :  nenno  = 
-called  gender  particles 


Ben  the  pure  Negro  and  tho 
.  El-Akdar,  or  red ;  4.  £1- 


of  theOigob  simply  as  "class  prefixes"  analogous  to  those  of  tho  Bantu  system. 
They  certainly  seem  to  indicate,  besides  sex,  the  qualities  of  strength,  vigour, 
courage  (masculine),  or  else  anything  soft,  effeminate,  weak  or  delicate  (feminine). 
Thus  the  Masai  call  themselves  il  Oiffob  =z  "  the  men,"  using  the  masculine  particle, 
whereas  their  Wa-K\vafi  neighbours  are  stigmatised  with  the  femiaine  particle,  as  im- 
Barawkio,  plural  em-BarawUi,  implying  weakness  or  effeminacy.  It  is  also  noteworthy 
that,  as  with  the  Bantu  prefixes,  the  masculine  and  feminine  articles  are  re]  ited  in  a 
more  or  less  modified  form,  both  before  the  noun  and  its  adjective.  Thus  :  ol-doeno 
oibor  =  the-mountain  the-white  (masculine)  ;  en-anga  na-ibor  =  the-dress  the-white 
(feminine).  These  forms  are  most  instructive  as  probably  supplying  the  crude  begin- 
ning of  the  highly  developed  alliterative  Bantu  system  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other 
those  of  true  grammatical  gender  as  fully  elaborated  in  the  higher  orders  of  inflecting 
speech.  Compart,  for  instance,  with  the  foregoing  examples,  the  Zulu-Kafir  :  in-Kosi 
en-Kulu  =  the-chief  the-great ;  and  the  Latin :  domin-a  me-a  ■=  lady-the  my-the,  where 
the  parallelism  between  the  respective  initial  and  final  "  euphonic  concords  "  is  obvious. 
Here  also  wo  see  how  the  different  morphological  orders  of  speech  merge  imperceptibly 
one  in  the  other,  and  how  groundless  is  the  new  philological  doctrine  that  these  several 
orders  are  definitely  fixed,  and,  like  Ouvier's  animal  and  vegetable  species,  incapable  of 
further  transformation. 

Although  Islam  has  made  considerable  progress,  especially  amongst  the  Funj  of 
Senaar,  the  Shilluks,  Uinkas,  and  other  Nilotic  Negro  tribes,  the  bulk  of  the  people  are 
still  practically  nature-worshipi)ers.  Witchcraft  continues  to  flourish  amongst  the 
Equatorial  tribes,  and  important  events  are  almost  everywhere  attended  by  sanguinary 
rites.  When  preparing  for  battle,  the  "  medicine-man  "  flays  an  infant  and  places  the 
bleeding  victim  on  the  war-path  to  be  trampled  by  the  warriors  marching  to  victory. 
Cannibalism  also,  in  some  of  its  most  repulsive  forms,  prevails  amongst  the  Nyam-Nyam, 
who  barter  in  human  fat  as  a  universal  staple  of  trade ;  and  amongst  the  Monbuttu, 
who  cure  for  future  use  the  bodies  of  iiie  slain  in  battle,  and  "drive  their  prisoners 
before  them,  as  butchers  drive  sheep  to  the  shambles,  and  these  are  only  reserved  to  fall 
victims  on  a  later  day  to  thei  •  horrible  and  sickly  greediness."  *  Yet  many  of  these 
peoples  are  skilled  agriculturists,  and  cultivate  some  of  the  useful  industries,  such  as 
iron  smelting  and  easting,  weaving  and  pottery,  with  great  success.  The  form  and 
ornamental  designs  of  their  utensils  display  real  artistic  taste,  while  the  temper  of  their 
iron-implements  is  often  superior  to  that  of  the  imported  European  hardware.  Here 
again  the  observation  has  been  made,  that  the  tribes  most  addicted  to  cannibalism  also 
excel  in  mental  qualities  and  physical  energy.  Nor  are  they  strangers  to  the  finer 
feelings  of  human  nature,  and  above  all  the  surrounding  peoples  the  Zandeh  anthro- 
T-ophagists  are  distinguished  by  their  regard  and  devotion  for  the  weaker  sex. 


Kavirondo 

Xuri 

Kara 


Xanda 

Shefalu 

Modi 

Shuli 

Lahore 

Gnmhil 

Kirim 

Mala 

Uking 


f 


■< 


L 


KHst  side  Victoria  Nyanza,  dominant  froir  the  Wa  Soga  territory  to  the  Kercw6 
Island,  south-east  corner  of  the  lake.  Speech  appears  to  he  Negro  Hnd  akin 
to  Shilluk.  "  The  Wa- Kavirondo  are  hy  no  means  attractive  in  their  appear- 
ance,, nnd  contrast  unfavourably  with  the  Masai.  Their  heads  aro  of  a  dis- 
tinctly lower  type,  eyes  dull  and  muddy,  jaws  somewhat  prognathous,  mouth 
unplcHsantly  large,  anl  lips  thick,  projcciing  and  evertel  ;  they  are,  in  fact, 
true  Negroes." — Joseph  Thomson,  "  Through  Masai  Land  "  p.  474. 

Nanda  uplands,  north  of  Kavirondo,  fierce  wild  tribes  of  uncertain  a£Bnities. 

North  IT-Nyoro,  akin  to  the  Bhilluks. 

Between  the  Lower  Somer.-et  Nile  and  the  Madi  Mountains,  and  limited  westwards 
by  the  Buhi'-el-Jebel;  ■       -     ' 


,  Middle  and  Upper  Sobat  basin. 


December,  1882. 


o  SchweiTifurth,  op.  eit.,  ii   p.  93. 


Vff.' 


402 


APPENDIX  II. 


Janghey 

Jibba 

liin\jak 

lialok 

Fallanj 

N'mak 

Kama 

Sttro 

Amam 

llari 

Monbiitlu 

Zandeh 


Mittu  {Mattu) 

Bongo  {Dor) 

Shir 

Hoi. 

Agar 

Soji 

Lehti 

Nuer 


Dinka 


Shilluk 

Duniir 

Ayarr 

Mok 

Tandy 

B6t 

Ayell 

Takruri 


Futy 

Krej 
Fertit 


)>  Lower  Sobat  Basin. 


Both  M(los  Btthr-el-Jebul,  4'— .5°  N.,  limited  noithword  by  the  Shir  territory. 
About  headwaters  of  the  river  WeJle,  beyond  the  Egyptian  frontier. 
From  south-west  frontier  Egyptian  SudUn  for  unknown  distance  westwards  ;  iiro 
the  Niam-Niam  of  the  Nilotic  tribes. 

M   r  K         )  ^""^  district  north  of  Monbuttuland.     The  Mittu  call  their  country 
'  at!k  I,  i!^"   I      More,  which  is  not  an  ethnical  but  a  geographical  name  (Schwein 
I  Abbakah       I      ^^^y^  ..  Q^^  ^f  Africa,"  i.  p.  403). 

Luba  ' 

Upper  Course  Tondy  anil  J  ur  rivers,  thence  to  Zrtndeh  frontier. 

Buhr-ol-Jebol  6°— 6^  N.,  between  the  Dinka  and  Bari  territories.  i 


Tribes  of  uncertain  affinity  along  Rol  river,  oast  of  the  Bongo  and  Mittu. 


1  K^"'  }  ^^°°*  ^°^®'  *'°'*^  Bahr-el-Jebel,  T-Q"  S. 


Abuyo,  Agar,  Ajak,  , 

Aliab,  Arol,  Atwot,  |  Along  Bahr-el-Jebel,  and  right  bank  White   Nile,  6'— 12° 

Awan,  Bor,  Donjol,  |      N. 

.lur,  Gok,  Riah  ' 


Largest  of  all  the  Nilotic  Negro  tribes  (Beltrame). 

Kwa,ti,  Dyakin,  i  j^^^j,  ^^^^  Bahr-el-Jebel  an^. White  Nile,  9°— 12°  N. 
Dyok,  Roah        ;  ^ 


Unclasscd    tribes   south   of  the   D^nkas    north-east  of   the  Bongos,   7°— 8°    N., 
'         between  Molmul  and  Biial  riverti ;  probably  akin  to  the  Bongos. 


Gallibat  district,  Abyssinian  frontier,  originally  from  Dar-Fur  (James's  '•  Wild 

Tribes  of  the  Suddn,"  p.  30). 
The  dominant  race  in  Senaar,  supposed  to  be  of    Shilluk   stock,  but  now  largely 

mixed  with  the  Arabs  of  that  region. 

[  About  headwaters  of  the  Bahr-el-Arab,  beyond  Egyptian  frontier. 


-■.\N 


III.  NUBA  GROUP. 


The  Nobatse  of  Diocletian  are  commonly  assumed  to  be  the  modem  Nubians.  But, 
although  not  yet  recognised  in  British  official  reports,  the  Nubian  race  and  name 
have  even  a  more  venerable  antiquity  than  this  statement  would  imply.  In  a  passage 
quoted  in  note  22  we  find  mention  already  made  by  Strabo  of  the  Nov^Sai ;  and  in  another 
passage  the  same  writer,  who  flourished  three  hundred  years  before  the  time  of 
Diocletian,  describes  these  Nubse  as  "  a  great  nation  "  dwelling  in  Libya,  that  is,  Africa, 
along  the  loft  bank  of  the  Nile  from  Meroe  to  the  bends  of  the  river.*  The  word  itself 
has  even  been  identified  by  some  writers  with  the  land  of  iVwi  or  JVoJ,  that  is,  "  Gold," 
the  region  about  Moimt  Elbeh  on  the  Bed  Sea  coast  over  against  Jiddah,  where  the 
Egyptians  worked  the  precious  metal  from  the  remotest  times. 

But  this  identification  must  be  rejected  since  the  discovery  that  the  cradle  of  the 

•  'E€  (ipWTtpuiv  Si  p'ianitt  roii  NtiXow  Nui'i^ai  icnrnicntiiTd/  tt>  ry  Ai/3uy,  fiiya  tfli'Of,  &c.  (Book  17, 
p.  1117,  Oxford  ed.,  1807  ) 


jjjii^ii'  ,^ 


the  Shir  territory. 
Ill  frontier, 
distance  weotwards ;  are 

Mittu  call  their  country 
jraphical  name  (Schwein 

Dntior.         i- 
ritories.  i 


)ongo  and  Mittu, 


ank  White   Nile,  6'— 12° 
egro  tribes  (Beltrame). 


ile,  9"— 12*  N. 


the   Bonu!08,   7° —8'    N., 
the  Bongos. 


Dar-Fur  (James's  'Wild 
ik  stock,  but  now  largely 

'  '    '.      .1/-    -  .V^^^v^.- 

n  frontier.  , 


odem  Nubians.  But, 
bian  race  and  name 
imply.  In  a  passage 
^oSjSai ;  and  in  another 
■8  before  the  time  of 

Libya,  that  is,  Africa, 
ver.*     The  word  itself 

Mh,  that  is,  "  Gold," 
ist  Jiddah,  where  the 

;hat  the  cradle  of  the 
liya  lOios,  &0.     (Book  17, 


i»jiii!»>iai>'W.." 


APPENDIX  II. 


468 


Nuba  race  is  not  to  the  oast  but  to  the  west  of  the  Nile,*  in  the  Kordofan  highlands. 
The  linai  syliablo /dA»  of  the  very  word  Kordo-fan  is  explained  to  moan  in  tho  Nuba 
language  land,  country,  thus  answering  to  tho  Arabic  dar,  as  in  iJar-Fur  =  tlie  land  of 
the  I)tr  people.  Both  the  Fur  and  the  Kordo,  if  those  latter  are  identical  with  the 
Kargn  of  the  Jebel-Kargo,  are  themselves  of  Nuba  stock  and  spooch ;  and  tho  term  Nuba 
is  still  current  in  Kordofan  both  in  an  ethnical  and  a  geographical  sense,  indicating  the 
Jebel-Nuba  uplands  inhabited  by  the  Nuba  tribe.  Ilore,  thurofore,  is  tho  true  home  of 
the  race,  some  of  whom  appear  to  have  migrated  northwards  soniu  two  thousand  years 
ago,  settling  partly  in  the  Kargey  oatsis  (Diocletian's  Nobato)),  partly  in  the  narrow 
valley  of  the  Nile  about  Meroe  (Strabo's  Nubce). 

Since  those  days  there  have  always  been  Nuboo,  Nobatte,  or  Nubians  in  tho  Nile 
Valley,  mainly  in  the  region  of  the  Cataracts ;  and  we  read  that  after  their  removal 
hither  from  Kai'gey,  the  Nobateo  dwelt  for  some  time  peacefully  with  the  Blommyes 
(Hamitic  Bejas).  They  even  made  common  cause  with  them  against  the  Bomans;  but 
the  confederacy  was  crushed  by  Maximinus  in  451.  Then  the  Bejas  withdrew  to  their 
old  homes  in  the  Arabian  desert,  while  the  Nobato),  embracing  Christianity  in  545, 
developed  a  powerful  Christian  state  in  the  Nile  Valley.  Silco,  founder  of  this  kingdom 
of  Dongola,  as  it  was  called  from  its  capital,  bore  the  title  of  "  King  of  the  Noubads 
and  of  all  the  Ethiopians,"  that  is,  of  the  present  Nubian  andBeja  nations.  His  empire 
lasted  for  700  years,  and  was  finally  overthrown  by  the  Arabs  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
since  which  time  the  Nile  Nubians  have  been  Mohammedans.  They  also  gradually 
withdrew  to  th  '"•  present  limits  between  Egypt  and  Old  Dongola,  the  rest  of  their 
territory  thence  to  Khartum  being  occupied  by  the  Sheygyeh,  Bobabat,  Jalin,  and  other 
powerful  Arab  tribes. 

There  are  thus  two  main  divisions  of  the  Nuba  race  :  the  Nubas  proper  of  Kordofan, 
found  also  dispersedly  in  Dar-Fur ;  and  the  Nile  Nubas,  commonly  called  Nubians  in 
European  books  of  travel,  but  who  now  call  themselves  Barabra.f  By  the  latter  the 
term  Nuba  has  been  rejected,  and  is  even  regarded  as  an  insult  when  applied  to  them 
by  others.  The  old  national  name  appears  to  have  fallen  into  discredit  in  the  Nile 
Valley,  where  it  has  become  synonymous  with  "  slave,"  owing  to  the  vast  number  of 
slaves  supplied  for  ages  by  the  Nuba  populations  of  Kordofan  and  Dar-Fur.^  The 
Nile  Nubas  themselves  supply  no  slaves  to  the  market.  Constituting  settled  and  semi- 
civilised  Mohammedan  communities,  they  are  treated  on  a  footing  of  perfect  equality  in 
Egypt,  where  large  numbers  are  engaged  as  free  labourers,  porters,  ''  costermongers," 

*  This  is  also  confirmed  by  Ptolemy,  who  (iv.  8)  speaks  of  the  Nubsa  as  ''maxime  occidentales 
Avalitarum." 

t  Plural  of  Berber!,  that  is,  people  of  Berber,  although  at  present  they  do  not  reach  so  far  up  the 
Nile  as  that  town.  But  during  the  eighteenth  century  thi«  place  acquired  considerable  influence  as 
capital  of  a  large  Nubian  state  tributary  to  thr  Funj  kingn  of  Senaar.  It  is  still  an  important  station 
on  the  Nile  just  below  tho  Atbara  confluence,  at  the  point  where  the  river  approuches  nearest  to  the  Red 
Sea  coast  at  Suakin.  It  may  here  be  mentioned  that  tho  term  Barabra  is  referred  by  some  authorities, 
not  to  the  town  of  Berber,  but  to  \h%Barabara  people,  whose  nume  occurs  amongiit  the  113  tribes  recorded 
in  the  inscription  on  a  gateway  of  Thutmes,  by  whom  they  were  reduced  about  1700  B.C.  This  identi- 
fication seems  to  some  extent  confirmed  by  the  generic  name  Kent  applied  in  the  same  inscription  to  many 
of  these  "  Ethiopian  tribes,"  and  still  surviving  in  the  form  of  Kenus  (plunil  of  Kensi),  the  name  of  the 
northern  division  of  the  Nubian  (Barabra)  people  towards  the  Egyptian  fiontier.  It  is  further 
strengthened  by  a  later  inscription  of  Ramses  II.  in  Kam>ik  (1400  B.C.),  where  mention  again  occurs  of 
the  Beraberata,  one  of  the  southern  races  conquered  by  )iim.  Hence  Brugsch  ("  Reisebericht  aus 
^gypten,"  pp.  127  and  165)  is  inclined  to  regard  the  modern  "Barabra"  as  a  true  ethnical  name 
confused  in  classic  times  with  the  Greek  and  Roman  Barbaras,  but  which  has  resumed  its  historic  value 
since  the  Moslem  conquest. 

X  Thus  in  Sakakini's  fibular  returns  of  the  average  prices  of  slaves  sold  in  Egypt  from  1870  to 
1880,  all,  of  whatever  j»rop«miMM,  are  grouped  under  two  heads— "  Nubians  "  and  "  Abyssinians,"  none 
being  true  Nubians  or  Abyssinians,  but  either  Nubas  and  other  Negroes  from  Kordofan  and  the  Upper 
Nile,  or  else  Barea,  Bas^,  Shan-Gallas,  and  other  Negroid  peoples  from  the  Abyssinian  uplands. 
According  to  these  returns  ihe  latter  command  the  highest  prices  in  the  slave  mfrket,  £°20  to  £50  for 
adults,  the  Nnbaa  fetching  only  from  £18  to  £40.  -      ^.  „  ^  -    ;  ■ 


464 


APPENDIX  TI. 


ivK, 


*:«., 


and  in  varioun  other  purBiiits.  They  are  a  Htronpf,  miiHcular  peoplo,  uhaentially  agricul- 
tural, more  warlike  and  cntTgetio  than  the  HujyptiaiiH,  wlioin  they  uIho  exc^el  in  moral 
qualities.  Tlioir  Mohammedanism  is  not  of  a  fanatical  typo  ;  and  although  the  preHeut 
Mahdi  is  a  Nubian  of  Dongohi,  he  has  found  his  chief  nupport  not  amongflt  Iuh  country- 
men, but  amongst  the  more  recently  converted  Negroes,  and  especially  the  Arab  and 
llamite  communities  of  Kordofan  and  other  parts  of  Eastern  Huddu. 

There  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  jthysical  appearance  of  the  two  great 
branches  of  the  Nuba  race.  The  Nubian  (Barabra)  type  is  obviously  Negroid,  very 
dark,  often  abnost  black,  with  tumid  lips,  largo  black  dreamy  eyes,  doii  jhocephalio 
head  (73-72  as  compared  with  the  normal  Negro  73-40,  and  the  old  F^^ptian  75-68), 
woolly  or  strongly  frizzled  hair.  The  scant  beard  is  still  worn  under  the  chin,  like  the 
figures  t.f  the  Negro  t'ugitives  in  the  battle-pieces  sculptured  on  the  walls  of  the 
Egyptian  temples.  But,  as  amongst  all  mixed  peoples,  there  are  considerable  devia- 
tions from  the  normal  Nubian  standard,  some  showing  affinities  to  the  old  Egyptian,  as 
already  remarked  by  Blumenbach,  some  noted  for  their  fine  oval  face  and  regular 
features,  others  for  their  long  or  slightly  crisp  hair,  and  bronze,*  reddish  brown,  or 
deep  mahogany  complexions.  In  general  it  may  be  said  with  Burkhardt  that  the  nose 
is  loMs  flat,  the  lips  less  thick,  the  cheekbones  less  prominent,  the  colour  less  dark  ("of 
a  coppery  tinge  "),  than  amongst  the  true  Negroes.  The  Nile  Nubians  must  therefore 
be  regarded  as  essentially  a  mixed  race,  presenting  every  shade  of  transition  between 
the  original  Nuba  type  and  the  various  Hamitio  and  Semitic  elements  with  which  they 
have  intermingled  in  the  Nile  Valley. 

The  original  Nuba  type  itself  must  be  studied  in  the  Kordofan  highlands,  where  it 
persists  in  its  greatest  purity.  The  Kordofan  Nuba?  are  unanimously  described  by 
Russeger,  Petherick,  Lepsius,  and  other  intelligent  obnervers  as  emphatically  a  Negro 
race.  " Negerstamme,"  "Negerfolk,"  "Negroes,"  "Niggers,"  are  the  unqualified 
terms  applied  to  them  in  all  books  of  travel,  so  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  at  all  on  this 
point.f  Its  importance  is  obvious,  for  it  settles  the  question  of  the  true  affinities  of  the 
Nile  Nubians,  about  which  so  m<ich  controversy  has  prevailed.  ' 

It  is  remarkable,  howevnr,  that  Lepsius  traces  the  Nile  Nubians,  not  to  the  Kordofan 
Nub'is,  but  directly  to  the  Dana  Negroes  of  the  Nile  Valley.  These  Uaua  are  the  oldest 
peoplo,  of  wlioiD  tl\ox-e  is  any  record,  in  this  region.  Their  name  occurs  on  it  tomb  at 
Memphis  dating  from  the  tin.  n  of  Pepi,  sixth  dynasty,  2500  b.c.  They  are  again  men- 
tioned 1.1  the  Wady-Halfa  inscription  amongst  the  tribes  reduced  by  Usertesen  II.,  of 
the  twelfth  dynasty,  AUubIou  is  also  made  to  the  Vauat  country,  and  in  many  subse- 
quent inscriptions  the  Uaua  figure  largely  as  at  the  head  of  all  the  Negro  races  beyond 
the  Egyptian  frontier.  In  fact,  the  word  became  the  conventional  or  stereotyped  name 
of  the  Nile  Negroes  generally  down  to  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies,  after  which  it  suddenly 
disappears  from  historic  records. 

This  disappearance  has  not  been  explained.  But  it  was  probably  due  to  the  already 
mentioned  irruption  of  the  Bugaitaa  (Bejas),  by  whom  the  Uaua  were  reduced,  if  not 
extern  linated.  There  is  consequenily  no  necessary  connection  between  them  and  the 
Nubians,  whose  more  recent  migration  from  Kordofan  to  the  Nile  Valley  may  be  regarded 
as  clearly  established. 

Whatever  doubt  might  remain  on  this  point  is  removed  by  a  consideration  of  the 
linguistic  argument.  In  his  masterly  treatise  on  the  Nubian  language  quoted  farther 
back,  Lepsius  himself  has  shown  that  the  speech  of  both  branches  of  the  Nuba  race  is 
identical,  presenting  merely  some  slight  dialectic  varieties,  easily  explained  by  tue 
length  of  time  that  has  elapsed  since  the  migration.     The  structure  is  the  same,  and  the 

*  Tho  bronze  shade  is  also  noticed  by  Lepsius,  op.  eit.  p.  74 :  "  Bei  den  Nnbiem  herrscht  eiae 
dunkle  Broncefarbe  vor,  dunkler  als  die  der  Habossinier."  He  adds :  "  Der  alte  Negertypui  bricht  nicht 
selten  wieder  ziemlich  deutlich  durch ;  namentlich  ist  das  WoUhar  ziemlich  haiifig." 

t  All  have  woolly  hair,  says  Riippel  ("  Re'sen  in  Nubien"),  pouting  thick  lips,  Hhort  flat  nose,  corn- 
plexicm  quite  black.     Further  comment  is  needless. 


o,  ohsontiaUy  agriciil- 
f  uIno  »>x('mI  in  mural 
althouffh  the  preHeat 
amongst  hitt  ooiintry- 
ocittlly  tho  Arab  and 
,u. 

nee  of  the  two  great 
riously  Negroid,  very 
eyeB,  doa'^hocephulio 
old  Fj.;_>i<uan  75'68), 
ider  the  chin,  like  the 
on  the  walls  of  the 
re  considerable  devia- 
0  tlie  old  Egyptian,  as 
>val  face  and  regular 
e,*  reddish  brown,  or 
irkhardt  that  the  nose 
(  colour  less  dark  ("of 
ubians  must  therefore 
of  transition  between 
uents  with  which  they 

an  highlands,  where  it 
imously  described  by 
emphatically  a  Negro 
"  are  the  unqualified 
no  doubt  at  all  on  this 
he  true  affinities  of  the 

ns,  not  to  the  Kordofan 
386  Uaua  are  the  oldest 
le  occurs  on  a  tomb  at 
They  are  again  men- 
id  by  Usertesen  II.,  of 
jr,  and  in  many  subse- 
he  Negro  races  beyond 
lal  or  stereotyped  name 
after  which  it  suddenly 

ably  due  to  the  already 
la  were  reduced,  if  not 
between  them  and  the 
Valley  may  be  regarded 

'  a  consideration  of  the 
Lnguage  quoted  farther 
les  of  the  Nuba  race  is 
isily  explained  by  tue 
ire  is  the  same,  and  the 

den  Nubiem  herrgoht  eine 

lite  Negertypua  bricht  nioht 

buiifig." 

3k  lips,  xhort  flat  nose,  com- 


AITKNDIX   n. 


465 


subjoined  list  of  a  f<'W  ronimon  words  in  tho  Dongolawi  of  tho  Nih>  uud  in  four  Kordo- 
fun  (lialucts  shows  that  thu  vocabulary  also  is  osHoiitially  one  : — 


KngUah 
Mouth  .     . 

UongoUwl 

(ifu.). 

iixil 

Jtbel  Knrgo 

Jebcl  Kolajl. 
■Ill] 

J«b<l  Nuba. 

.rebel 
KiUrin. 

iiwol 

ogl 

iiljo 

Foot      .     . 

godum 

kiigodi 

kiiddo 

koiiido 

kot 

Cow       .     . 

ti 

ti 

•  h 

ti 

toh 

Firo .     .     , 

iff 

ik 

ukii 

f 

ika 

Ono  .     .     . 

won 

lior 

bora 

bor 

bor 

Two      .     . 

owl 

orni 

om 

era 

om 

Throo    ,     . 

toski 

toju 

toje 

toju 

toju 

It  is  incredible  that  the  speech  of  tho  Uaua  Negroes  and  Kordofan  Nubas,  if  origi- 
nally the  same,  could  have  muiutaiued  its  identity  with  such  slight  changon  as  the.so  for 
a  period  of  nearly  4,400  years — that  is,  from  tho  tinio  of  Topi  (2500  n.c;.),  whoTi  niontion 
firHt  occurs  of  the  Uaua.  It  seems  safe  to  conclude,  that  whilo  tho  identity  of  tho  Nile  and 
Kordofan  Nubas  is  ostabliMhod,  neither  brunch  has  any  obvious  or  uocossary  connection 
with  tho  extinct  Uaua  of  tlio  Egyptian  rocords. 

Independently  of  this  consideration,  tlm  Nubian  1;  'uago,  first  clearly  elu(udatod  by 
Lopsius,  prosonts  some  points  of  interest  both  to  t'  ilologist  and  ethnologist,     its 

Negro  character  is  shown  in  its  phonology,  in  the  mte  lack  of  grammatical  gender, 

and  in  some  structural  peculiarities.  Sucli  is  the  intix  j  inserted  between  the  verbal 
root  and  the  plural  pronominal  object,  as  in  ai  tokki-j-ir  =  I  shako  thom.  As  in 
Bantu,  the  verbal  conjugation  is  highly  developed,  presenting  such  a  multiplicity  of 
forms  that  in  Lepsius'  Grammar  the  complete  paradigm  of  a  single  verb  fills  us  many 
as  110  pages.  The  Nubian  language  never  appears  to  have  been  cultivated,  or  oven 
committed  to  writing*  Hence  it  is  not  likely  to  afford  the  key,  as  some  have  suggested, 
to  the  numerous  undeciphered  inscriptions  occurring  along  tho  banks  of  the  Nile  as  far 
south  as  Sonaar. 

It  enables  us,  however,  to  dispose  of  the  so-called  "  Nuba-Fulah"  family,  originally 
constituted  of  heterogeneous  elements  by  Frederick  Miiller,  and  generally  nccepted  by 
anthropologists  on  the  authority  of  that  distinguished  ethnologist.  We  have  already 
seen  at  the  outset  that  the  Fulahs  are  a  non-Negro  race,  most  probably  allied  to  the 
western  Hamites  of  the  Sahara.  The  Fulah  speech,  also,  appears  from  Krause's 
Grammar  to  be  a  non-Negro  language,  betraying  not  the  remotest  resemblance  to  the 
Nuba.  Thus  the  Nubas  are  of  Negro  stock  and  speeeh,  and  so  the  "Nuba-Fulah" 
family  is  dissolved,  its  disjecta  membra  finding  each  its  place  amongst  its  own  kindred. 


Nuba 

Kargo 

Kulfan 

Kolaji 

Tumali 

Fur 

Kury'ara 


NvBAB  Profsu. 
*  Kordofan,  chiefly  in  central  and  southern  districts,  11° — 13°  N. 

Wbstbrn  Nubas. 

The  dominant  race  in  Dar-Fur,  to  which  country  it  gives  its  name ;   speech 

appears  to  bo  akin  to  Nuba. 
Dar-Fur  and  Kordofan  ;  a  brunch  of  the  Fur,  whoso  laugunge  thoy  still  speak. 


Nile  Nubas  ("Nubians,"  "Bamabra"). 

Mattokki  {Kenwi)     .     From  Asuan  (First  Catiiract)  to  Sebu  and  Wadi-el-Arab 
Saidokki,  Mahai,  or 
Mariti         .         .     From  Korosko  to  Wady-Halfa  (Second  Cataract) 


*  It  is  notiiworthy,  however,  that  Eutychius  of  Alexandria  (930)  includes  the  "  Nubi  "  among  the 
six  kinds  of  writing,  which  he  tells  us  in  a  somewhat  doubtful  passage,  were  current  amongst  the  Hamitio 
peoples. 

80— AF. 


Mt^iimmmnuSiTt  mmOiim 


400  ArrRNDIX  IT. 

Dongoltiwi        .         .     IVovinpn  DoriKola,  from  Wudy-IIulfii  to  Jobdl  Dora,  nonr  M'     i\  whore  the  Mhoy- 

Kyoh  Ariili  territory  iHtgini. 
DanofeU  .        .         t     Bucont  Nubiiiii  iiiiiiiiKrunU  into  Korilofiin  and  Dur-Fur:  cninfly  from  Don^rola, 

whonco  thu  nuiiio  Duiuigulo.     Moat  u(  thuin  now  iijMjak  Arubiu  (Munzigor) 


IV.  HEMITIO  (IKOUP. 

Of  tliis  (liviMiou  of  tlio  Ciiuoanic  atook  two  hraiiLlioH  ar«  ropronentod  in  North-Etist 
Africa:  1.  Thi)  Yoktuiiidtm,  or  Ilimyarittm,  from  prtjliiutoriu  tiiium,  mainly  in  tho  AhyH- 
siniun  highlands  boyond  tho  Egyptian  frontior — Tigr6,  Anihara,  Hogon,*  ond  othors 
Bpoaking  more  or  Umh  corrupt  diulootM  of  tlio  (Uiouzor  old  Ilimyaritic  lungungu  of  Hoiith 
Arabia.  2.  Tho  lnuiaolitoH,  or  Arubn  propor,  a  fow  probably  from  prehistoric  times, 
especially  in  Huuaar ;  but  tlio  grout  majority  since  the  AL  limmiodau  invusicm  in  tho 
Bovunth  contury,  chiefly  in  tho  stoppc-lands  west  of  tho  Niii  irom  tho  Sobat  conflueneo 
northwards  to  Dongolu.  Womo  of  tho  early  arrivals,  such  as  tlio  Jowabere  and  El 
Uharbiye,  Uj'pear  to  have  settled  in  tho  Nilo  Vulloy  south  of  Egy])t,  whore  thoy  became 
assimilated  m  speech  to  the  surrounding  Nubian  population.  Many  othurs  moved  went- 
wards  through  Konlofan  and  Dar-Eur  to  VVadai  and  the  Tsad  basin,  and,  speaking 
generally,  no  port  of  North  and  North-East  Africa,  except  the  Abyssiuian  uplands,  can 
be  said  to  bo  entirely  free  from  tho  Arab  element. 

Unfortunately  this  is  also  the  disturbing  element,  but  for  the  presence  of  which  there 
would  be  no  fanaticism,  no  slavo-dealors,  no  Mahdis,  no  "Egyptian  question,"  to  con- 
found tho  councils  of  European  statesmanship.  I'roud,  if.'  Morant,  bigoted,  and  insolent, 
these  Arab  tribes  "  are  for  the  most  part  nomads  or  wu'.ilerers,  each  within  certain 
well-known  limits.  All  are  large  owners  of  cattle,  camels,  horses,  and  slaves.  Those 
last,  along  with  the  Ai  h  women  generally,  cultivate  some  fields  of  durra,  or  com,  suffi- 
cient for  the  wonts  of  lue  tribe.  The  Vrab  himself  would  consider  it  a  disgrace  to 
practise  any  manual  labour.  He  is  essentially  a  hunter,  a  robber,  and  a  warrior,  and, 
after  caring  for  his  cattle,  devotes  nU  hi    energies  to  slave-hunting  and  war."  t 

Some  of  these  Arab  tribes  are  ery  r.'  .mrous  and  powerful.  They  command 
great  influence  amongst  the  sum  .m'  .^  p.'  lations,  and  are  often  in  a  position  to 
defy  tho  supreme  authority,  or  comi  -to  accept  their  conditions  in  the  administration 
of  Eastern  Suddn.  T  )  most  im  .  ■  -t  are  the  Sheygyeh,  Kobabat,  Jalin,  and  Kaba- 
bish,  between  Dongola  and  Khar  \  .  ;  the  Baqqiira,"  lence  southwards  nearly  to  the 
Sobat  confluence;  the  Horr^an,  Rekhabin,  and  Alawin  of  Sonatir;  the  Hamr,  El-IIomr, 
Mahfimid,  and  Habanieh  ui  Kordofan  and  Dar-Fur.  In  general,  the  Semitic  type  is 
fairly  well  preserved,  although  the  Sheygyeh  and  some  others  are  distinguished  by  a 
dark,  almost  black,  complexion.  Traces  of  intermixture  with  the  Negroes  are  also 
evident  in  many  districts,  while  complete  fusion  of  the  two  elements  seems  to  have 
taken  place  in  parts  of  Senaar  and  Nubia.  In  religion  all  alike  are  zealous  Mohamme- 
dans, to  whom  some  system  of  domestic  slavery  seems  almost  indispensable.  Hence 
even  were  the  export  of  slaves  to  Egypt  and  Arabia  suppressed,  the  institution  would 
Btill  survive  in  a  mitigated  form  in  the  interior  of  the  country. 


Dahalaki. 
Mauuai   , 


(a)  IIiMYAHiTic  OB  Abyssinian  Ubanch.^ 

Great  Dahalak  Islnnd,  near  Massawa. 

The  mixed  population  of  Massawa,  of  Tig^e  speech. 


*  Tho  position  of  the  Bogos  or  Billn,  who  occupy  a  debatable  tract  at  the  north-east  comer  of 
Abyssinia  on  the  Egyptian  frontier,  is  somewhat  doubtful.  Leo  Reiuisch  regaids  their  speech  as  a 
Qheez  dialect  ("  Die  Bilin  Spiauhe,"  Vienna,  1882) ;  yet  he  classes  them  subsequently  with  the  neigh- 
bouring Hamite  peoples,  as  will  be  seen  farther  on. 

t  Lieut.  Colonel  Stewart's  "  Report  on  the  Buddn  for  1883,"  p.  8. 

X  The  "Ethiopian"  of  some,  the  "Agazi"  of  other  writers,  the  latter  term  denoting  peoples  of 
Oeez  speech.     "  Alle  dieso  Vblker  haben  einen  innem  Zusummenhang ;  sie  Bind  A     winier,  alto  Christeu, 


Ml     n,  whore  the  Hhoy- 


(iiiofly  from  Dongola, 
ale  Arabic  (Munaigor) 


on  tod  in  North- Kiist 
,  mainly  in  thn  AbyH- 

llo^oH,*  and  othors 
itir  lunguugo  of  South 
roni  proliistoric!  tinum, 
uioduu  inviiHion  in  tlio 
u  tho  Sobut  t'onlluonoo 
;ho  Jowabore  uud  El 
l)t,  whore  thoy  bocame 
ny  othors  moved  woht- 

baftin,  and,  spoaking 
byBsinian  uplaudtt,  can 

iroHonco  of  which  there 
tian  quoBtion,"  to  con- 
bigoted,  and  insolent, 
,  each  within  certain 
)B,  and  slaves.     These 
of  durra,  or  com,  sutfl- 
isidor  it  a  disgrace  to 
er,  and  a  warrior,  and, 
ig  and  war."  + 
irful.      Tliey   command 
often  in  a  position  to 
ns  in  the  administration 
abat,  Jalin,  and  Kaba- 
ithwards  nearly  to  tho 
r ;  the  Hamr,  El-IIomr, 
aral,  the  Semitic  type  is 
are  distinguished  by  a 
I  the  Negroes  are  also 
elements  seems  to  have 
)  are  zealous  Mohamme- 
indispensable.     Hence 
I,  the  institutiou  would 


at  the  north-east  comer  of 
h  regaids  their  speech  as  a 
subsequently  with  the  neigh- 


ster  term  denoting  peoples  of 
lindA     ssinier,  alto  Christen, 


V 


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I  I  i>i;iiMwjwpi 


APPENDIX  II. 


467 


Hotumlu  ■ 

Karneahim 

Az-Shuma 

Dokono    . 

llaiab 

Bejuk 

Afensa 

Hogo>  {Bilin)* 

Takue 

Marea 

Algeden   , 

Sabderat  . 

Dembela  . 

Harrar    . 

Tigre 

Amhara  , 


Mudun  (Samhar)  coast  district  about  Massawa  and  as  fur  as  Aqiq. 


>  Anseba  province,  north-east  frontier  of  Abyssinia  inland  from  Mudun. 


I  Beit-Bidel  and  Dombela  districts,  about  the  headstrcams  of  the  Barka  (Baraka) 
I         and  Marob  (Gash)  rivers,  west  of  Anseba. 

Abyssinian  enclave  in  Somaliland,  east  from  Shea ;  9°  40'  N. ;  42'  E, 

The  predominant  nation  in  North  Abyssinia. 

The  |iredominant  nation  in  South  Abyssinia,  now  politically  subject  to  the  Tigrd. 


Shtygyeh  {Shaikieh). 


Uobabat  . 
HasMitieh 
Homran  . 
Abu-Rof . 
Shukrieh  . 
Dobeina  , 
Yimanieh 
Jalin  (Jakaliu 


KababishX 


Baqqdra 


(4)  IsMAELinc  OB  Arab  Branch. 

From  Dongola  along  left  bank  Nile  to  Abn-Hanimed.     Noted  for  their  extremely 
dark  complexion,  yet  claiming  to  be  of  unmixed  Arab  descent. 
.    From  Abu-Hammed  to  the  Atbara  confluence. 

About  the  Atbara  confluence,  between  the  Robabat  and  Jalin  north  and  xouth. 
.    Middle  course  of  the  Atbara  and  Mareb  rivers  as  far  as  the  Bas6  (Eunamu)  territory. 
.    Widespread  throughout  West  Senaar. 

.  I  Lower  and  Middle  Atbara  (left  bank),  and  southwards  to  Henaar.  T 

.  Mainly  about  the  Blue  Nile  confluence,  Khartum  district ;  but  widely  difi'used  as 
traders  and  settlers  throughout  Senaar,  Taka,  Eordofan,  Dar-Fur,  and  even 
KaflF^.t 

.  Widely  i-pread  west  of  the  Nile  between  12° — 16°  N.,  but  especially  along  the  route 
from  Obeid  (Kordofan)  to  the  Nile  at  Dongola.  The  name  means  "  Goat- 
herds," although  they  are  also  large  breeders  of  horses  and  camels. 

.  Mainly  south  of  the  Kababish  along  west  bank  of  the  Nile  and  Bahr-el-Arab 
nearly  to  its  source.  The  term  Baqqara,  unknown  in  the  Arab  national  gene- 
alogies, has  given  rise  to  some  misunderstanding.  It  is  not  the  name  ot  iiny 
)iarticular  tribe,  but  an  expression  applied  collectively  to  all  tribes  which 
breed  and  deal  in  cattle,  in  contradistinction  to  thoae  whose  wealth  consists  in 
horses  and  camels.  Hence  there  areBaqq&ra  in  many  parts  of  Sud&n,  although 


and  bedienen  sich  des  reinsten  athiopischen  Idioms,  des  Tigr6  "  (Munziger,  op.  eit.  p.  73).  This  use  of 
the  term  "Ethiopian"  is  very  confusing,  as  it  is  also,  and  more  properly,  employed  as  the  collective 
name  of  the  eastern  division  of  the  Hamitic  family.  The  Himyarites  (Abyssinians)  are  intruders  from 
Arabia ;  the  Hamites  are  the  true  autochthones,  hence  best  entitled  to  the  title  of  "  Ethiopian,"  which  by 
the  ancients  was  applied,  although  somewhat  vaguely,  to  all  the  native  populations  stretching  south  from 
the  frontier  of  Egypt  proper. 

•  The  Bogos  are  classed  by  Beinisch  {he.  eit.  p.  94)  with  the  Hamites,  or  "  Kushit-s,"  as  he  caUs 
them.  But  he  elsewhere  rightly  affiliates  them  to  the  Abyssinian  Semites,  as  speaking  a  pure  Tigr6 
(Geez)  dialect,  herein  agreeing  with  Munziger  in  his  "  Ostafrikanische  Studien,"  who  is  our  best  autho- 
rity on  these  fragmentary  ethnical  groups  on  the  north  and  north-east  frontiers  of  Abyssinia. 

t  The  Jalin  claim  special  consideration  as  the  most  numerous,  intelligent,  and  purest  of  all  the 
Sudanese  Arabs.  They  trace  their  descent  from  Abbas,  uncle  of  the  Prophet ;  but  their  Arabic  speech, 
preserved  and  spoken  with  great  purity,  indicates  the  Hejas  as  their  original  home.  The  chief  Jalin  tribes, 
as  enumerated  by  Munziger,  are:  Muhammadab,  Mikringa  Bagelab,  Tftdieh,  Gebftlab,  Ealiab,  Gum- 
mieh,  Gummeab,  Oereshab  Nifeab,  Sadob,  Jaudallahab,  Mekaberab,  Meirefab,  MoselUmab,  Omarab, 
Timerab,  Kitejab,  Giaberab,  Aliab,  Ginberab,  Seidab,  Shatinab,  Megpiadab.  The  final  ab  of  these  tribal 
names  is  not  an  Arabic  but  a  Beja  patronymic  ending,  borrowed  from  the  neighbouring  Hadendoahs  of 
the  Mareb  Valley,  with  whom  they  have  long  been  intimately  associated.  Some  of  the  Jalin  tribes  of  the 
Barka  district  have  even  adopted  the  To-Bedawieh  language,  and  pass  for  Hamites. 

t  "  Es  ist  nicht  unmoglich  dass  die  beiden  Volker  [Eababish  and  Baqq&ra]  von  einem  Stamme 
entsprossen,  sich  die  Weide  vertheilt  haben,  wodurch  die  Trennung  stereotyp  wurde.  Die  Kuhhirten 
hielten  sich  an  den  g.-asigen  Siiden,  die  Kababish  an  den  trockenen  abor  von  Mimosen  stark  bewaldeten 
Norden,  derallein  dem  Kameel  und  der  Zioge  Convenirt."     (Munziger,  op,  eit.  p.  561.) 


msmmmmmm 


SMlfWlC'  iWWW**^ " 


'■yw^^  ■  i,!f f ■  .■,'-g^7^-ffff,ffl?.'|»;*wii'M*y I  mm/^wwrn^m  ' 


468 


APPENDIX  II. 


Allawin   . 
Ainriin     . 
Hiiweitdt 
Maazeh    . 


Aulad'AU 
Hawarah , 


they  nro  chiefly  concentrsted  about  the  loft  bank  of  the  White  Nile,  and 
further   west  towards  the  headstreams    of    the  Bahr-el-Arab   (Baqq&ra-el- 
Uomr).     ITie  word  is  derived  from  baqnr  =  an  ox. 
El-Arish  district  on  the  road  between  Eg-jpt  and  Palestine.  •  ■  2    ' 

Itsthmus  of  Suez.  '    ' 

Arabian  desert  between  the  Suez  Oanal  and  the  Nile.  ''  ■  ■' 

i.e.  The  "  Goatherds,"  a  power<''yi  tribe  rang^n.q;  over  the  Arabiiin  steppef  from  the 
Nile  to  the  Ked  Sea,  between  the  paralleJs  of  Assiut  and  Beni-Suef.  Have 
been  identified  by  >iaspero  with  the  anciert  Libyan  Mazu  people,  but  have  now 
been  assimilated  in  speech  and  religion  to  the  Arabs. 
The  dominating  tribe  in  the  Libyan  desert  west  of  the  Nile  delta. 
West  of  Keneh,  Upper  Egrypt ;  till  recently  supplied  the  Khedival  Government 
with  most  of  its  irregular  cavalry.  Total  population  of  all  the  Axab  tribes  in 
Egypt,  about  2.i0,000.      •      ,"  •  .,  1.,-    ;     . ..      . 


V.  HAMITIC  GROUP. 


■•^■1 


i' 


TiBU  Branch. 


£;;y-&-,vt,*)  ^irtia^iisSal. 


The  true  affinities  of  the  Tibus,  long  a  subject  of  discussion  among  anthropologists, 
may  now  be  determined  in  the  light  of  the  fresh  materials  recently  brought  to  Europe  by 
Dr.  Nachtigal,  and  partly  published  in  his  monumental  work,  "  Sahara  und  Suddn."*  The 
Tibu  domain  comprises  the  whole  of  East  Sahara  from  about  12°  E.  longitude  to  the 
Egyptian  frontier,  and  from  Fezzan  southwards  to  Kanem,  Wadai,  and  Dar-Fur.  There 
are  two  main  branches  :  1 .  The  Teda,  or  Northern  Tibus,  possibly  to  be  identified  with 
the  Tedamansii,  a  tribe  of  Garamantes  plac  3d  by  Ptolemy  in  Tripolitana  ;  2.  The  Daza, 
or  Southern  Tibus,  through  whom  they  gradually  merge  southwards  iu  the  Kanembu, 
Kanuri,  Zoghawa,  Baele,  and  other  Negro  or  Negroid  peoples  of  Oentral  and  Eastern 
Sudan.  The  Tibu  language  follows  precisely  the  same  course,  passing  from  the 
Northern  and  primitive  Teda  through  the  more  highly  developed  Daza  to  the  mixed 
Kanuri  and  other  forms  in  the  Tsad  basin. 

But  the  physical  and  linguistic  features  revolve,  so  to  say,  in  different  planes, 
implying  apparent  antagonism  between  the  ethnical  and  philological  conditions.  Both  are 
found  in  their  purest  and  most  original  state  amongst  the  Northern  Tedas,  a  point  that 
has  been  clearly  established  by  Nachtigal.  But  while  the  Teda  physical  type  is  not  to 
be  disting^shed  from  that  of  the  neighbouring  Imoshagh  or  Tuarik  (Berber  Hamites) 
of  the  Western  Sahara,  the  Teda  language  shows  no  affinity  either  with  the  Hamitic  or 
the  Negro  groups.  It  stands  entirely  apart,  constituting  the  nucleus  of  a  widespread 
linguistic  family,  with  extensive  ramifications  in  Dar-Fur,  Wadai,  Kanem,  Bomu, 
Baghirmi,  and  generally  throughout  Central  Sudan.  In  this  region  it  appears  to  have 
been  profoundly  affected  by  Negro  influences  ;  but  no  such  influences  can  be  detected 
in  the  Tibesti  uplands,  probably  the  cradle  of  the  Tibu  race  and  the  centre  of  dispersion 
of  the  Tibu  language. 

It  follows  that  the  Tibus  must  be  regarded  as  a  branch  of  the  Hamitic  stock,  who, 
during  their  long  isolation  in  Tibesti,  have  had  time  to  develop  an  independent  idiom 
no  longer  traceable  to  a  common  Tibu-Berber  source.  A  notable  feature  of  this  idiom  is  the 
absence  of  grammatical  gender,  placing  it  even  on  a  lower  level  than  many  Negro 
tongues  of  the  Upper  Nile  and  liilima-Njaro  regions.  It  appears,  however,  to  supply 
what  may  be  called  the  "  raw  material,"  out  of  which  gender  has  been  elaborated  in  the 
Hamitic  languages.  T^us  0  seems  to  be  characteristic  of  masculine,  d  or  t  ot  feminine 
terms,  as  in  o-mri  =  man;  d-di  =  woman.  With  this  feminine  dental  may  be 
compared  the  Berber  t,  which  b  both  pre-  and  post-fixed,  as  in  akli  =  negro ;  taklit  = 
negress. 

*  Two  volumes  only  have  so  far  appeared  (Berlin,  1879,  1881).  The  remainder,  with  rich  philo- 
logical data,  are  anxionily  awaittd  by  btudeiits  of  ^Mrican  ethnology. 


Wpj^iP^"t!,!.'-^lf|:.J| 


•  »iiV«ii>nMiyi'>(> Ti'ii  I »MtVnif  WfiijjDimiiliiWffiit  II 


APPENDIX  II. 


469 


lie  White  Nile,  and 
l-Arab   (Baqqfera-el- 


lian  steppef  from  the 
id  Beni-Suef.  Have 
people,  but  have  now 

-  ■■•■,-    ;"»b  - 
lelta. 

Lhedival  Government 
all  the  Arab  tribes  in 


ig  anthropologists, 
mght  to  Europe  by 
undSuddn."*  The 
1.  longitude  to  the 
ndDar-Fur.  There 
)  be  identified  with 
ana  ;  2.  The  Daza, 
i  in  the  Kanembu, 
lentral  and  Eastern 
passing  from  the 
Daza  to  the  mixed 

in  different  planes, 
conditions.  Both  are 

Tedas,  a  point  that 
bysical  type  is  not  to 
■ik  (Berber  Hamites) 

with  the  Hamitic  or 
BUS  of  a  widespread 
lai,  Kanem,  Bomu, 
a  it  appears  to  have 
(noes  can  be  detected 
B  centre  of  dispersion 

Hamitic  stock,  who, 
n  independent  idiom 
ure  of  this  idiom  is  the 
rel  than  many  Negro 
•8,  however,  to  supply 
been  elaborated  in  the 
ne,  dortoi  feminine 
inine  dental  may  be 
ili  =  negro ;    taklit  = 

emainder,  with  rich  philo- 


BaeU 

Ennedi 
Zoghawa 


Fulah 


Masai  proper 


^.^v«  r^if 


Kwajl 


Wa-atik 


North  Dar- Fur,   th»'nce  north- westwards  to  Wanganya  and  Borku ;    Rpeech  akin 
to  the  Dasa  or  Southern  'libu  ;  type  Negroid. 


Bbhbeh  Bhamch. 

West  Dar-Fur,  where  a  few  Fulah  communities  have  penetrated  in  recent  times 
from  the  Tsad  basin. 


..;  1  ,!•;   ■  Masai  Branch,    .u'.-:.;'  ■  ■;.  i, 

A  widespread  and  powerful  nation,  who  occupy  nearly  the  whole  region  east  of 

Lake  Victoria  Nyaiiza,  between  the  parallels  of   Mount    Kilimanjaro   and 

•.  ;.    Mount    Chibcharaguani    (3°   8. — 1°   N.)      Typo    quite    distinct    from    the 

surroundifig  Bantu  and  Negro,  and  apparently  allied  to  the  Humitio  Qallas. 

Language  also  appears  to  bo  remotely  connected  with  the  Hamitic  family. 

Twelve  main  divisions,  of  which  tlie  chief  are  Ngaj6,  Molilian,  Lyserti,  and 

Leteyo.      "  These  have   the  finest  physical   development    and— but   ibr  a 

prominence  of  the  cheek-bones,  a  tendency  to  a  Mongolian  shape  and  upward 

slant  of  the  eyes,  the  choculate-coloured  skin,  and  the  hair  with  a  tendency  to 

become  frizzy — they  might  (jass  muster  as  very  respectable  and  commonplace 

Europeans.    The   Ngajd-Masai  are    the  purest  breed,  and  are  to  be  found 

chiefly  around  Kilimanjaro."      ("  Through  Masai  Land,"  p.  413.) 

A  sub-branch  of  the  Masai,   who  seem  to  have  suffered  degradRtion  by  mixture 

with  the  Neg^o  population.    Their  original  home  was  Mbaravui  Laud,  betwet-n 

Kilimanjaro  and  U-Sambam,  west  and  east.     Since  1830  have  been  scattered 

in  aU  directions  by  the  Masai,  with  whom,  however,  they  now  live  peaceably 

in  many  districts.     Some  have  been  evangelised. 

Large  and  poweiful  nation,  north  of  Masai  Land,  in  the  highlands  some  thirty 

miles  beyond  Lake  Baringo,  and  in  the  northern  parts  of  Lykipia,  whence  they 

have  expelled  the  Masai.     "They  are  strong-boned,  ugly  looking  fellows, 

though  their  heads  are  not  markedly  Negroid."      (■*  Through  Masai   Land," 

p.  629.)    Joseph  Thomson  tells  us  that  their  language  is  distinctly  allied  to 

the  Masai,  and  this  explorer  considers  that  "  they  doubtless  form  a  connecting 

link  between  the  latter i-ace  and  the  Nile  tribes"  {«*.  p.  631). 

A  hunting  tribe  scattered  in  very  small  communities  over  Masai  Land,  especially 

in  the  dense  forests  of  Kenia,  Kikuyu,  the  Mau  range,  Chibcharagnani,  and 

other  places  where  the  elephant  abounds.    In  appearance  they  resemble  the 

lower  class  of  Masai,  to  whose  language  their  speech  is  also  allied.     By  the 

Masai  themselves  "  they  are  on  the  whole  looked  upon  as  a  species  of  serf,  and 

treated  accordingly."    ("  Through  Masai  Land,"  p.  448.) 


South  Etbiopian  Bbanoh. 
Obomo  ob  Gali.a. 

The  word  Omri  may  serve  in  a  way  to  connect  the  Tibu  Hamites  with  the  Galla,  a 
chief  branch  of  the  Eastern  Hamites,  who  also  call  themselves  Oromo,  Orma,  Ormu  = 
men.  To  these  Eastern  Hamites,  who  skirt  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Red  Sea  from 
the  Equator  to  Egypt,  and  of  whom  the  ancient  Egyptians  themselves  were  a  branch, 
the  vague  terms  Cushite  and  Ethiopian  are  frequently  applied.  By  the  intervening 
Abyssinian  highlands  they  are  divided  into  a  southern  and  a  porthem  group,  the  chief 
branches  of  the  former  being  the  Afars  (Dankali),  the  Somali,  Galla,  Kaffa,*  and 
outlying  Wa-Huma ;  of  the  latter,  the  Saho,  Bogos,  or  Bilin  (?),  Beja,  or  Bishari ;  the 
old  Egyptians,  modern  Kopts,  and  Fellahin,  besides  the  Agau  and  some  other  scattered 
communities  in  Abyssinia. 

*  At  Keren,  in  the  Bogos  country,  Leo  Beinisch  tells  ns  that  in  1880  he  picked  up  enough  of  the 
Kaffa  language  from  three  slaves  to  determine  its  connection  with  the  Hamitic  family.  To  the  saine 
connection  he  refers  the  Agaumeder  and  Khamant  of  Gondar,  and  some  others  on  the  north  frontier  of 
Abyssinia,  about  whose  true  affinities  some  doubt  still  prevails  ("  Oesterreichisohe  Monatschr.  f.  den 
Orient,"  March  16, 1884,  p.  94). 


Andorobbo 


mmmmBmm^  A&^ijm^m<^>i 


II  iR^iflllH  ^JlJPkfjIltVIU 


kv 


f' 


m 


APPENDIX  n. 


k 


The  Wa-huma,  to  whom  the  attention  of  ethnologists  has  scarcely  yet  been  seriously 
directed,  present  some  points  of  great  anthropological  interest,  probably  affording  a 
solution  of  the  difficulties  connected  with  the  constituent  elements  of  the  Bantu  races  in 
East  Central  Africa.  Speke  had  already  observed  that  the  chiefs  of  the  Bantu  nations 
about  the  great  lakes  were  always  Wa-Huma,  a  pn«toral  people  evidently  of  Galla 
stock,  and  originally  immigrants  from  the  Galla  country.  Since  then  it  has  been  ascer- 
tained that  several  Wa-Huma  communities  live  interspersed  amongst  the  mixed  Bantu 
nations  of  the  lacustrine  plateau,  and  J.  M.  Schuver  was  recently  informed  that  the 
Negro  inhabitants  of  the  Afilo  country  were  governed  by  a  Galla  aristocracy.* 

From  these  and  other  indications  it  seems  highly  probable  that  in  point  of  fact  the 
Bantu  peoples  are  fundamentally  Negroes  in  diverse  proportions  affected  by  Wa-Huma 
or  Galla,  that  is  Hamitio,  elements.  The  Wa-Huma,  who  imder  the  name  of  Wa-Tusi.f 
are  found  as  far  south  as  the  U-nyamezi  country,  are  by  recent  observers  unanimously 
described  as  a  very  fine  race,  with  oval  face,  straight  nose,  small  mouth,  and  generally 
speaking  regular  Caucasic  features.  Such  a  type  U  found  everywhere  cropping  out 
amid  the  surrounding  Negroid  populations  throughout  the  Bouthem  half  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  the  conclusion  seems  irresistible  that  it  should  be  referred  to  these  Wa- 
Huma  or  Hamitic  Gallas,  probably  for  ages  advancing  as  conquerors  from  the  north< 
east  into  the  heart  of  the  contiiient. 

No  distinct  mention  is  made  of  the  Wa-Huma  speech.  It  is  known,  however,  to 
differ  from  that  of  the  Bantus  proper ;  and  when  we  hear  that  the  late  King  M'Tesa  of 
TJ-Ganda  spoke  Galla  as  his  mother-tongue,  and  was  proud  of  his  Galla  ancestors,  little 
doubt  can  remain  on  this  point.  The  Wa-Huma  are  also  distinguished  by  their  intense 
love  both  of  personal  freedom  and  political  autonomy,  sentiments  which  are  but  feebly 
developed  amongst  the  true  Negro  populations.  Such  is  their  horror  of  captivity  and  a 
foreign  yoke,  that  those  who  have  failed  to  maintain  their  independence  are  no  longer 
regarded  as  true  Wa-Huma.  The  very  women  who  have  the  misfortune  to  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  Arab  slave-dealers  are  looked  upon  as  degraded  for  ever,  and  should 
they  escape  from  bondage,  are  burnt  alive  by  their  own  people.  Traits  of  this  sort 
would  almost  alone  suffice  to  suspect  at  least  a  very  large  infusion  of  non-Negro 
blood  in  the  Wa-Huma  race.  This  element  we  may  now  trace  with  some  confidence  to 
the  Hamites  of  North-East  Africa  as  its  true  source. 


Jttu . 
Cbrayu    . 
Dawari    . 
Wolo 

Worro-Babbo 
Latuka    . 

Meeha 

Raya 

Aiabo 

Lango 

Wa-Huma 

Wa-Tuai. 

Sidama     . 


Itta  Mountains,  41°— 42°  E.,  9°— 10°  N. 

South-east  of  Ankober. 

West  from  Tajuir*  Bay. 

West  of  Lake  Ardibbo. 

Kast  of  Lakes  Ardibbo  and  Haic.         .     ' 

Large  nation  east  side  Upper  Nile,  east  of  the  Bari,  south  of  the  Shuli ;    about 

4°  N.  lat.,  39°  B.  long.    Speech  akin  to  the  Ilm-Orma  (Qalla)  dialect. 
South  of  Gk)jam. 

I  West  of  Zobul. 

Somerset  Nile  between  Foweira  and  Magungo. 
I  Intermingled  with  the  Bantu  populations  of  the  eastern  equatorial  regions. 

Kaffaland,  south-west  of  Shoa,  hitherto  wrongly  grouped  with  the  Nubas.t 


•  "  Afllo  wurde  mir  vom  Lega-Konig  als  ein  Negerland  bezeichnot,  welches  von  einer  Oalla-Aiisto- 
kratie  behorrscht  wird  "  (Fetermann's  Mittheilungen,  1883,  v.  p.  194). 

t  And  are  no  doubt  also  known  by  other  names.  Thus  the  Wa-'I'aturu  shepherds  of  U-Kerew6 
Island  in  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza  appear  to  belong  to  the  same  connection.  They  are  described  by 
Stanley  as  " light-coloured,  straight,  thin-nosed,  and  thin-lipped,"  in  contrast  to  their , Wa-Kerew6 
neighbours,  "a  mixture  of  the  Ethiopic  and  Negro  type."  ( "Through  the  Dark  Continent,"  vol.  i. 
p.  2dl.) 

%  The  natives  of  Eaffa,  whose  affinity  to  the  Gallas  has  now  been  determined  by  Leo  Reinisch.  are 
collectively  called  Sidama  by  O.  Chiarini  in  "  Memorie  della  Societi  Oeografica  Italiana,"  i.  Part  2,  1878. 


1  fwtiimsifrr 


ia[4iiM^ .  I  «:•  < '  ■rii".n-i«it'i-tijiii-ri  t  rvrdtiwiirir  it  ■■mim'mi*hmi 


<M^ 


APPENDIX  II. 


471 


yet  been  seriously 
ibably  affording  a 
the  Bantu  races  in 
the  Bantu  nations 
evidently  of  (ialla 

it  has  been  ascer- 
t  the  mixed  Bantu 
informed  that  the 
itocracy.* 

in  point  of  fact  the 
cted  by  Wa-Huma 
ttame  of  Wa-Tusi.f 
jrvers  unanimously 
luth,  and  generally 
here  cropping  out 
n  half  of  the  con- 
irred  to  these  Wa- 
rs from  the  north- 
known,  however,  to 
ate  King  M'Tesa  of 
alia  ancestors,  little 
led  by  their  intense 
rhich  are  but  feebly 
>r  of  captivity  and  a 
dence  are  no  longer 
sfortune  to  fall  into 
for  ever,  and  should 

Traits  of  this  sort 
ision  of  non-Negro 
li  some  conMence  to 


th  of  the   Shuli ;   about 
a  (Galla)  dialect. 


[[uatorial  regions, 
with  the  Nubas.J 

98  von  einer  Galla-Aiisto- 

shepherds  of  U-Kerew6 

They  are  described  by 

ast  to  their, Wa-Kerew6 

Dark  Continent,"  vol.  i. 

ined  by  Leo  Eeinisch.  are 
Italiana,"  i.  Part  2,  1878. 


Iia  . 

Isa-hhaai-  Modoba 

Oudabirai 

Habr-Awal 

Habr-Oerhqjit . 

Gadohursi 

Dalbakantu 

Wartingali 

Miijertkain 


Ltbnet 

Atoba 

Assa-Iinara 
Sidi-Habura 
Oaleita  . 
Khatnir  . 
Agau 

Agaumeder 
Khanumt . 
FaUuha    . 


Somali. 
Between  Zoilah,  Harrar,  and  Berbera. 
Uplands  Boath  of  Berbera. 
.  East  of  Berbera  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Ckntmai,  Ethiopian  Bbanch. 
Afab  (Aoal  ok  Danakil). 

Coaatlands  between  Abyssinia  and  the  Red  Sea,  from  Zula  Bay  to  Strait  of  Bab- 
el-Mandeb.* 


Abyssinia. 


Lasta  district 
Quara  district     | 

I  Ch>ndar  district  j 

Collective  name  of  numerous  communities  scattered  over  Abyss'nia ;  claim  Jewish 
descent,  and  are  often  called  the  "  Jews  of  Abyssinia,"  but  are  probably  of 
Agau  stock.  The  Eura,  Kudra,  or  Huaraza,  as  their  language  is  diversely 
called,  also  resembles  the  Agau.  The  term  Falasha,  which  in  South  Abyssinia 
takes  the  form  of  Fetya,  is  explained  to  mean  "  Exiles,"  and  lends  a  colouring 
to  the  national  tradition  that  they  descended  &om  a  certain  Menelek,  son  of 
Solomon  and  the  Queen  of  Sheba. 
8aho,  or  Shoho .        .     North-east  fronUer,  Abyssinia.  ,::..-,;■     .    j 

•fj 
NoBTHEHN  Ethiopian  Branch  (Beia  Division). 

Of  the  northern  group  of  Ethiopian  Hamites  by  far  the  most  important  are  the 
Beja,  or  Bishari,  who  have  all  the  greater  claim  to  the  consideration  of  the  ethnologist, 
that  their  ethnical  status  has  hitherto  been  persistently  ignored  alike  by  British 
Cabinet  Ministers,  officials,  and  newspaper  correspondents.  They  are  the  unfortunate 
people,  many  of  whose  tribes  have  recently  come  into  collision  with  the  British  forces 
in  the  SuaWn  district,  but  who  continue  to  be  spoken  of  as  "  Arabs"  by  those  states- 
men who  are  unable  to  recognise  more  than  two  races  in  Egyptian  Sud&n,  that  is,  the 
Negro  and  Arab.  Thus,  on  February  27th  of  the  year  1884,  the  Marqixis  of 
Hartington  telegraphs  to  General  Graham  :  "TeU  them  we  are  not  at  war  virith  the 
Arabs,  but  must  disperse  force  threatening  Suakin."  And  General  Graham  himself  sends 
a  letter  "  written  in  Arabic  "  to  the  chiefs  of  the  tribes  about  Trinkitat  find  Tokar,  in 
which  they  are  again  assumed  to.  be  "  Arabs."  We  all  remember  the  ignominious  fate 
of  that  now  historical  document,  which  was  set  up  as  a  target  and  riddled  by  bullets,  as 
some  dangerous  fetish,  by  those  Hamitic  followers  of  Muhammad  Osman  Dakanah, 
whose  own  language,  the  To-Bedawieh,  differs  almost  as  much  from  Arabic  as  does  that 
of  the  British  troops  itself.  All  this  immediately  preceded  the  sanguinary  engagement 
of  El  Teb,  and  it  may  be  asserted  with  Sir  Stafford  Northcote,  though  for  reasons 
different  from  those  implied  by  him,  that  "  if  the  position  of  England  had  been  such  as 
it  ought  to  have  been,  we  should  have  had  none  of  the  slaughter  which  then  took  place." 
In  fact,  had  a  moderate  amount  of  attention  been  paid  by  our  Foreign  Office  to  the  true 
ethnical  conditions  in  Egyptian  Sudfin,  most  of  the  oompiications  might  probably  have 
been  avoided  that  have  since  arisen  in  that  distracted  region.  But  the  necessity  for  a 
systematic  study  of  ethnology  has  not  yet  made  itself  apparent  to  the  rulers  of  the 

•  Afar  appears  to  be  the  most  general  national  name,  Adal  that  of  the  dominant  tribe ;  Danakil 
(plural  Dankali  and  Danakil)  is  the  name  by  which  they  are  known  to  their  Arab  and  Hamite  neigh- 
bours. Chiarini  {loe.  cit.)  recognises  the  close  relation^p  of  Somali  and  Qslla,  but  asserts  that  the  Afar 
lang;uage  "  ha  ben  poco  6i  commune  coUa  gaUa." 


feS»SSiaffl'!S&fciW!iteT.m& 


472 


APPENDIX  II. 


« 


most  multifarious  complexity  of  tribes  and  peoples  ever  ontrudted  to  the  charge  of  a 
single  Administration. 

The  Bejas  are  the  true  autochthonous  element  in  East  Nubia,  where  they  occupy  the 
whole  of  the  arid  stoppe-lands  stretching  from  the  Nile  to  the  Rod  Sea,  and  from  the 
Abyssinian  frontier  northwards  as  far  as  the  parallel  of  Keneh  and  Kosseir  in  Upper 
Egypt.*  Their  main  divisions  are  the  Ababdeh,  to  be  identitiod  with  Pliny's  Qabadei, 
about  the  Egyptian  frontier,  the  Hadendoah,  Hassanab,  and  Demilab,  along  the  coast- 
lands,  and  as  far  inland  as  the  El-Matre  wells  on  the  Suakin-Berber  route ;  the  Bishari 
proper,  thence  westwards  to  the  Nile  ;  the  Amarar  and  Ashraf  north  from  the  Suakin- 
Berber  route,  and  here  and  there  overlapping  the  Bishari ;  the  Kamlab,  Ualenga,  and 
Beni-Amer  along  the  Abyssinian  frontier  from  the  Nile  to  the  Bed  Sea  in  the  order 
here  given. 

By  Linant  Bey  (Linant  de  Bellefonds),  one  of  the  most  intelligent  observers  of  these 
peoples,  they  are  described  as  of  European  (Caucasic)  type,  often  very  handsome,  of  a 
bronze,  swarthy,  or  light  chocolate  complexion,  with  long,  crisp,  but  not  woolly  hair, 
generally  falling  in  ringlets  over  the  shoulders-f  So  also  the  Maorobes,  of  the  same 
region,  were  long  ago  described  by  Herodotus  (Book  III.)  as  •'  the  tallest  and  finest  of 
men,"  to  whom  Cambyses  sent  envoys  from  their  kindred  of  Elephantine  Island,  but 
failed  to  reduce.  Nevertheless,  through  long  contact  with  the  surrounding  African 
populations  the  present  Bejas  show  here  and  there  evident  traces  of  Negro  blood, 
conspicuous  especially  in  the  thick  lips  and  broad  nose  of  some  of  their  tribes.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  northern  or  Ababdeh  branch  have  been  largely  assimilated  even  in 
speech  to  their  Arab  neighbours  and  hereditary  foes,  the  Atilni  (Ma'azeh)  of  Upper 
Egypt.J  All  are  now  more  or  less  zealous  Mohammedans,  occupied  chiefly  with  camel- 
breeding  and  as  caravan  leaders,  governed  by  hereditary  sheikhs,  and  like  their 
Hamitic  kindred  elsewhere,  distinguished  by  their  personal  bravery  and  love  of  freedom. 

Bya,  the  most  collective  national  name,  may  be  traced  through  the  harder  Arabic 
form  Bega%  of  the  tenth  century  to  the  Biiffa  (/Sovyaeirai)  of  the  Greek  and  Axumite 
(Geez)  inscriptions,  and  thence  perhaps  to  the  Buka  of  the  hieroglyphic  records.  These 
^ovyatnai  appear  to  be  identical  with  the  ^kiftiivK  (Kopt.  Balnemmoui)  who  are  already 
mentioned  by  Strabo,  ||  and  who,  from  the  third  to  the  sixth  century  of  the  new  era, 
infested  the  southern  frontiers  of  Egypt.  Often  defeated  by  Aurelian  and  Probus,  they 
nevertheless  so  continued  to  harass  these  outlying  provinces  of  the  empire,  that 
Diocletian  was  at  last  induced  to  withdraw  the  Boman  gn'siions  from  the  regions  of  the 
Cataracts,  replacing  them  by  the  warlike  Nobatse  tribes  from  the  great  oasis  of  Kargey 
in  Upper  Egypt. 

Hadendoa         .        •  1  -n  j  a     i  • 

Biihari  .  f  *'*'^^®''  ouakin  and  the  Nile,  thenco  southwards  to  the  Ahysainian  irontier. 


•  ThHt  this  region  was  occupied  hy  the  Beja  from  remote  times  appears  evident  from  Macrizi,  whose 
account  of  this  people  in  his  "  History  of  Egypt "  (end  of  fourteenth  century)  is  drawn  from  the  Isthakhri 
(tenth  century)  and  other  older  records.  "Le  pays  qa'habite  ce  peuple  commence  au  hourg  nomm6 
Kharbah,  pr^s  duquel  est  la  mine  d'6meraude.  Le  pays  des  Bedjas  se  termine  aux  premieres  frontiires 
de  r AbysMinie.  Ce  people  habito  I'int^rieur  de  la  preaqu'ile  d'E(?ypte  ju^qu'aux  bordi  de  la  mer,  du  c6t6 
qui  regarde  les  lies  de  Souaken,  de  Baza  (Mass&wah),  et  de  Dehlak."  (Quatremfere's  translation,  in 
"  Memoires  sur  I'Egypte,"  1811,  ii.  p.  136.) 

t  "  r/Etbaye,  pays  habit6  par  les  Bichatieh"  (Paris,  1868). 

X  'Iheso  Ababdeh  are  very  widespread,  stretching  from  Keneh  southwards  to  the  Second  Cataract 
at  Wady- Haifa,  where  they  meet  the  Konsi  Nubians  on  the  west,  and  the  Bishari  on  the  east.  Their 
chief  tribes,  some  of  which  also  appear  to  speak  Nubian,  are  the  Nemriib,  Gawalich,  Shaw&hir  (Kha- 
w&hi),  Abudein,  Meleikab,  Tok&ra,and  Oshabab.  Russeger  ("  Reise,"  ii.  Part  3,  p.  193)  estimates  their 
number  at  about  40,000,  nearly  equally  distributed  between  Egypt  and  Nubia. 

\  The  Arabic  9^,  now  generally  pronounced  j,  whs  originally  hard,  like  the  Hebrew  ^,  as  we  see 

in  the  geographical  term  Nejd,  by  the  local  tribes  still  pronounced  Negd.    Hence  Bega  =»  Beja. 

II  AoiTrd  ik  rd  irpo;  voTov,  TpoyXoivrat,  ^Xcjv^vtv,  icai  NovjSai  cai  Mcya/Sapot  ot  iiirif)  Zvqvqc 
AiOioirii.     (Book  17,  §  63.) 


mut 


figpWIP?!! 


iTWii*  I  k'wtiM^i0mimi<immm 


«li<fi 


APPENDIX  II. 


m 


a  the  charge  of  a 

ere  they  occupy  the 
Sea,  and  from  the 
Kosseir  in  Upper 
th  Pliny's  Gabadoi, 
lb,  along  the  coast - 
route ;  the  Bishari 
h  from  the  Suakin- 
nlab,  Halenga,  and 
id  Sea  in  the  order 

t  observers  of  these 
ory  handsome,  of  a 
but  not  woolly  hair, 
:robes,  of  the  same 
tallest  and  finest  of 
nantine  Island,  but 
urrounding  African 
jes  of  Negro  blood, 
heir  tribes.     On  the 
assimilated  even  in 
^Ma'azeh)  of  Upper 
I  chiefly  with  camel- 
khs,   and  like  their 
and  love  of  freedom. 
I  the  harder  Arabic 
Glreek  and  Axumite 
phic  records.   These 
oui)  who  are  already 
ry  of  the  new  era, 
an  and  Probus,  they 
>f  the   empire,  that 
m  the  regions  of  the 
reat  oasis  of  Kargey 

^b3rB8inian  frontier. 

dent  from  Macrizi,  whose 
Irawn  from  the  Isthakhrl 
imence  au  bour|p  nomn)6 
aux  premiferoB  frontWres 
s  borda  de  la  mer,  du  c6t6 
itreiU^re's  translation,  in 


to  the  Second  Cataract 
ihari  on  the  east.  Their 
awalich,  Shaw&hir  (Kha- 
3,  p.  193]  estimates  their 

the  Hebrew  3,  as  we  see 

B  Bega  =  By'a. 

yafiapot  oi  vir ifi  £uqvi)i; 


B*m-Am«r 

"  Halenga  . 
Amarar  . 
AbtMik  . 


Copts 


FelUtMn 


'  '.■  *^  ;~. 


Siwah* 


Barea 
Bate  or    . 
Kutidma  . 
Birkit 
Matalit    . 
Abu-Sarib 
litla 
Bakka 
Aisiri 

TegtU  . 
TekeU  . 
Qndeyat  . 
Mnaabat  . 
Miuerbat  . 


\  Along  north  frontier,  Abytsinia  ;    both  largely  aiF()<-ted  by  Remitiu  elements,  and 
I         often  wrongly  classed  with  the  AbysHiniun  Himyaritos.* 
Along  the  coast  from  Suukin  northwurdM  to  litis- Beiiaits,  and  thoncn  inland. 
Upper  Egypt  and  Arabian  Desert,  from  Kosiur  southwards  to  the  neighbourhood 
of  Wady-Ualfa  ;    partly  assimilated  to   the  Arab   tribes  tm  thuir  nortliem 
frontier. 

EoYPTiAM  Branch. 

The  national  name  of  the  old  Egyptians  of  Hamitio  stock,  and  probably  remotely 
allied  to  the  Semites ;  now  represunted  by  the  Copts  and  fellahin. 

Centred  chiefly  in  the  Asstut  district,  Upper  Egypt,  where  some  villages  are 
entirely  occupied  by  them;  elsewhere  thinly  scattered  over  the  country. 
Total  population  about  410,000.  All  are  Chrintians  of  the  Monophysito  sect, 
but  have  universally  adopted  the  Arabi\3  lan^uaKe.  Coptic,  representing  the 
Old  Egyptian  of  the  hieroglyphics,  has  long  been  extinct,  and  is  now  used 
only  as  the  sacred  or  liturgical  language  of  the  Coptic  communities.  It  wafl 
still  current  throughout  Egypt  in  the  tenth  century  ;  but  since  the  seventeenth 
Arabic  has  been  the  exclusive  language  in  the  country. 

Tho  agricultural  element  in  Egypt ;  are  the  direct  descendants  of  the  ancient  Retu 
or  Egyptian  slock,  but  have  been  largely  modified  by  crossings,  especially 
with  the  Arab  and  Syrian  Semites,  who  arrived  in  large  numbers  over  4,000 
years  ago,  during  the  Hykaos  dynasty,  and  who  ag^in  overran  and  reduced 
the  whole  country  under  the  first  Caliphs.  In  some  rural  districts  the  fellahin 
still  take  the  name  of  Aulad-Masr,  or  "  Children  of  Egypt."  All  are  now 
Mohammedans  and  speak  Arabic  exclusively  ;  population  about  6,000,000. 

Thn  inhabitants  of  the  Siwah  Oasis  ;  akin  to  the  Borbera  of  the  Sahara ;  still  speak 
a  Berber  dialect ;  all  now  Mohanunedana. 


VI.  UNCLASSIFIED  GROUPS. 

About  middle  course  Mareb  and  headwaters  of  the  barka,  north  frontier 
Abyssinia ;  closely  related  in  habits,  type,  &c.,  but  of  different  speec  h  (Nere- 
bena  and  Bazena-aura) ;  apparently  the  true  aborigines  of  Abyssinia,  f 


>Dar-Fur,  chiefly  towards  Wadai  frontier;  of  doubtful  affinities  (Barth,  iii.,p.  d39). 


The  aborigines  of  Eordofan,  apparently  extinct  or  absorbed  in  the  Tegel6  and 
Nubas. 

I  Large  nation  sout  i  Kordofan,  nsually  classed  as  Nubiis,  but  quite  distinct.^ 

In  thirty  villag.     v  uih  and  east  of  Mount  Eordofan  ;  said  to  be  of  Funj  origin. 
»  Obeid  district,  KOr"  fan  ;  claim  descent  from  the  Kunjara  of  Dar-Pur,  where  some 
I    '     are  still  found  ;  ail  now  speak  Arabic  exclusively. 


•  The  Halenga  of  the  Mareb  river  are,  however,  said  to  be  of  undoubted  Amharic  descent. 

t  "  Sie  sind  wohl  der  Ueberrest  des  alten  Abyssinischen  Reiches  vor  der  Einwanderung  der  Semi- 
ten  "  (Munziger,  op.  eit.  p.  76).  The  type  of  the  Bas6  (whose  true  name  is  Kun&ma),  as  described  and 
figured  by  F.  L.  James  ("  Wild  Tribes  of  the  Sud&n,"  London,  1883),  seems  distinctly  Negroid.  In  the 
Preface,  p.  1,  of  that  work,  they  are  stated  to  be  "of  a  totally  different  type,  much  blacker  and  more 
closely  allied  to  the  poor  Negro  than  any  of  their  neighbours."  Yet  Munziger  asserts  that  the  ■'  sogea- 
nanto  Negertypus  fehlt"  (p.  467).  The  point  must  be  finally  decided  by  a  study  of  their  language,  of 
which  nothing  appears  to  be  known.  Of  the  Barea  there  are  two  divisions,  those  of  tho  Hagr  district 
who  call  themselves  Nere,  and  those  of  Mogareb.  There  is  no  general  national  name ;  Barea,  meaning 
"  slave,"  being  simply  an  abusive  term  applied  to  them  by  the  Abyssinians. 

X  "  Die  Sprache  von  Tegele  hat  mit  dem  Nuba  nichts  gemein  ;  ■  ein  genaueres  Studium  der  erstem 
hat  mich  Bussegnr's  Classification  entgegen,  davon  iiberzeug^ "  (Munziger,  "  Ostafrikonische  Studien," 
p.  561).  The  same  writer,  a  personal  observer,  assures  us  (p.  557)  that  there  is  absolutely  nothing  of  the 
conventional  Negro  type  about  them ;  and  as  their  language  is  neither  Arabic,  Hamitic,  nor  Nuba,  their 
true  position  remains  still  to  be  determined. 


?«'9*i«SSBSSSS'-'~ 


pHUiUfiUBP- 1   iiipiinnii.ii  w.iii;-lMi.Bi 


1 1  iJim  il,|iM|iMipt 


■iwnmg..Wi 


^•     .   . 


i. 


'';:;■  I 


APPENDIX   III. 


!»' 


•    -'J?- 


J'S- 


'        'V  ;  ;  I. — ^The  Egyptian  Dynasties. 

The  subjoined  table  gives  the  date  of  the  beginning  of  eacu  of  the  old  Egyptian 
dynasties  as  preserved  in  Manetho's  Chronology,  according  to  the  interpretations  of 
M.  Mariette,  Professor  Lepsius,  and  Sir  Gardner  "Wilkinson. 


;«      i    '^■' 

Mariette. 

Ijepdas. 

WilUuoii. 

Dyna»tie».          .        >            :    : 

B.C. 

B.C. 

B.C. 

!.    . 

I.     .     !  :t     .■•'  .     . 

6004 

3892 

2700 

"  ■'> 

II.    .     .  "  . 

4761 

3639 

— 

III.  .     

4449 

3338 

— 

IV 

4236 

3124 

2460 

V 

3961 

2840 

— 

■''•«•>■ 

VI 

3703 

2740 

2240 

3600 

2692 

— 

3400 

2622 

— 

feai    ••- 

:.■>.;'      '>;■'.  vr,;',': 

3368 

2674 

— 

3249 

2666 

— 

^"'v.  • 

XI.  .      .      .      . 

XII.  .        .        .        .        . 

3064 

(2423 
12380 

2080 

■  '■  '■■';■■ 

2861 

2136 

.  — 

''-li>«, 

2398 

2167 

— 

■,_;■ 

XV 

1       2214 

2101 

— 

XVI.  . 

1842 

— 

XVII. 

1684 

— ' 

XVIII. 

1703 

1691 

1620 

XIX.. 

1462 

1443 

1340 

XX.    . 

1288 

1269 

1200 

XXI. 

1110 

1091 

1086 

XXII. 

980 

961 

990 

XXIII. 

810 

787 

818 

XXIV. 

721 

729 

— 

XXV. 

716 

716 

714 

XXVI. 

•       V     • 

666 

686 

664 

XXVII. 

627 

626 

— 

XXVIII. 

• 

406 

426 

— 

XXIX. 

*     . 

399 

399 

399 

XXX. 

378 

378 

378 

Second  Per 

aiau  Conqi 

ie»t    . 

340 

340 

340 

i(4i«wMkMMwyiWi 


■-|  ■-•-tl' ^--^f^-'^.: 


AITENUIX  111. 


iff 


II   SuMMAHY  OK  Ancient  Eoyitian  FIisTonv  with  1)atks  Aax)Ri)iNo  to  thb 
*  Calculations  ok  M.  Marikitk  and  Dk.  Uruohch. 


ANCIENT  EMriBE. 


•      .♦  ' 


•h 


of  the  old  Egyptian 
;he  interpretations  of 


Wilkinioii. 
B.O. 
3700 


^i 


IW.. 


I.  Dynasty  :  TntNlTE,  bo  called  irom  its  capital,  This,  or  TiiiMls. 

M*  5004,  D.t  4400  B.C.      ,  ■ 

Meneb  (Mena),  founder  of  the  city  of  Memphis  and  of  tho  Egyptian  monarchy.  His 
name  is  mentioned  hy  all  tlio  anciont  writers  wlio  liavo  doalt  witli  the 
subject  of  Egyptian  chronology,  and  their  testimony  is  confirmed  by  the 
native  documents,  in  which  Menes  is  always  referred  to  as  the  founder  of 
the  empire.  But  no  monument  has  been  discovered  which  can  be  traced 
back  to  his  reign. 

ToTA  (Athothis),  of  whom  there  are  no  records. 

Uenefhes  I.,  to  whom  is  attributed  the  step-pyramid  of  Saqqarah.  ^  » 

II.  Dynasty :  Memphttb,  bo  called  from  its  capital  Memphis. 
M.  4761,  B.  4133. 

Kakau  (Kaieohos),   during  whose  reign  the  worship  of    Apis  was  established  at 
Memphis,  and  that  of  Mnevis  at  On  (Heliopolis ).     B.  4100. 


3460 


3340 


3080 


1620 
1340 
1200 
1085 
990 
818 

714 
664 


399 
378 
340 


m.  Dynasty :  Memphttb. 

M.  4449,  B.  3966. 

Snefru  (Sbnefbu),  the  first  king  whose  name  appears  inscribed  on  contemporaneous 
monuments,  amongst  which  are  the  Pyramid  of  Meidum  and  a  bas-relief 
of  Senefru  discovered  in  the  Wady  Magharah,  Sinai  Peninsula.  These 
monuments  already  reveal  a  state  of  civilisation  as  completely  developed 
as  at  the  time  of  the  Persian  conquest,  with  thoroughly  original  features 
and  all  the  marks  of  a  long  previous  existence.  The  ox,  dog,  and  other 
useful  animals  had  already  been  domesticated,  and  the  Egyptian  language 
was  completely  formed  and  differentiated  from  the  allied  Hamitio  and 
more  remotely  connected  Semitic  tongues.    B.  3766. 


IV.  Dynasty :  Memphite. 

M.  4235,  B.  3733. 

SHtrrtJ  (Khttpu),  that  is  Suphis,  or  Cheops,  builder  of  the  great  pyramid  of  Gizeh. 
M.  4235, B.  3733. 

» 

Khafra  (Ehephben),  builder  of  the  second  pyramid  of  Gizeh.   B.  3666. 
•  M.,  Mariette.  f  B.,  Brugseh. 


MBnam 


470 


APPENDIX    HI. 


MKtrKAiTBA  (MTorRtwtTn),  bulldor  of  tho  thinl  iiyruiuid  of  Oizeh.    M.  .'Jfi33. 

I  >uriiiK  tliiM  iij<t«  hiHtory  ]u>gu\n  to  iwBumoiihapo.  ThothniojfroatpyromicU 
iini  coinplotcU  uiul  iium«roui»  othor  moiiuinoiit^  nrtH!tH(l.  (  heoim  wuh  u  wiir- 
liko  prill'  o,  whoso  triumphB  ovor  tho  Anib  Hixlouiim of  Hiaui  bfo  rooonlod on 
tho  huH-roliofn  of  tho  VViuly  MuKhiimh.  Thin  ora  luiirkH  tho  culminating 
point  of  primitivo  Kjfyptiin  oiilturo.  Tho  (country  aiipoarn  to  havo  nmtlo 
jifToat  advaniioH  in  inatorial  proKnmH,  and  tho  limitH  of  liio  monarohy  wore 
extondtwl  HouthwardH  to  tho  (  iitairactH.  But  tlio  caj)ital  was  still  at 
Momphis,  in  tho  noighbourhoud  of  which  wbb  centred  all  the  life  and 
activity  of  the  nation. 


'   '-r, 


V.  Dynaity :   Elkpii.\ntini. 
M.  3961,  H.  3566. 


h.  V 


Raenuber  (Ratiiubeb),  the  first  king  whoso  name  was  inscribed  with  a  double  cartouche. 

13.  3433. 
Tatkara  (Tankheueh),  or  Abba,  to  whose  reign  is  referred  the  tomb  of  Tih  at  Saqqarah. 

B.  3366.         '       •  I.  ;  »/v^^   ■'^■ 
Unas  (Obnob),  builder  of  the  so-colled  Maatabat-el-Faraun,  or  groat  truncated  pyramid 

of  Saqqarah.     B.  3333. 


.'■■'S^: 


i» 


VI.    Dyruuty :  Mempiiitk. 
M.  3703,  B.  3300. 


Mebika  Tepi  (Apapptjb),  whose  name  occurs  on  nmny  monumentfl  throughout  the  whole 
of  Egypt  from  Sun  to  Assuan,  as  well  as  in  the  Sinai  Peninsula.  He  appears 
•     '      to  have  ruled  over  all  tho  Lower  Nile  valley  as  far  as  Nubia,  and  is 
"     traditionally  said  to  have  reigned  for  a  hundred  years.     B.  3233. 


Vn.  Dymtty :  Seat  of  empire  uncertain. 

;-.-;>> ^     .  ■  M.  3500,  B.  3100. 

No  known  records.  w 


No  known  records. 


VIII.  Dymtty:  Dates  uncertain. 

IX.  Dynasty:    Hbrakleopolitb. 
M.  3358. 


No  known  records. 


X.  Dynasty :   Hebakleofoutb. 
M.  3249. 


No  known  records. 


APPENDIX  III. 


m 


le  thn»o  groat  pyraraid« 
1.  Chooim  wttH  u  wiir- 
f  Hinui  Hro  rttuordiid  on 
nurkH  tliH  culiniiiutinff 
apiiuarH  to  hiivd  mutlo 
jf  tho  monarohy  woro 
ca}iital  wan  ntilt  at 
itrei  all  thu  life  and 


I. 


itb  a  double  cartouche. 


lb  of  Tih  at  Saqqarah. 
■oat  truncated  pyramid 


s  throughout  the  whole 
Peninsula.  He  appears 
I  far  as  Nubia,  and  ia 
B.  3238. 


ars 


Th»>  NoniDuhiit  li'goudury  tiiiooii  NitiKirin  in  HupiHmed  to  have  flouriHhvd 
in  thiM  obHinirtt  pt)rt(Kl,  ut  whifh  no  iiioiuimontnr.rn  knowu  tottxint,  and  with 
wh'wU  the  Aniiknt  Kmi'ihk  ir.  l)>-on^lit  to  ii  domi,  Tho  firnt  civil  troubloa 
Imgin  during  tho  hixtii  dynaHty,  when  tlm  UHurpor  AklithocH  rainoH  tho 
fttaiidanl  of  revolt  at  Ilorakli^oiMilJN  in  tlio  Dulta,  ani'.  fornitt  a  Hopuratu  Htiito 
by  (lotaching  mivoral  provincoH  from  tho  tmipiro.  Cluuon  NitooriH,  whoHu 
b<>auty  and  windoin  aro  pruiHtnl  by  Manotho  and  ilt'rodotUH,  onduavourH  in 
vain  to  ntem  tho  torront  of  ruvolt  which  now  HpruiulH  to  the  capital  itHttlt. 
Hho  periMhes  in  the  attempt,  and  after  her  diath  Kgypt  rnmainH  for 
upwardH  of  throo  centuriuH  divided  into  two  kingdoms,  onu  conii)riHing  the 
whole  of  tho  Delta,  the  other  the  Nile  Valley  thence  to  Kthio[)ia.  Accord- 
ing to  some  authorities  the  ninth  and  tenth  dynaHties  ruled  in  the  north, 
tho  eighth  HinuiltaneouHly  in  the  nouth.  The  usurpation  of  Akhthoes  was 
attended  by  a  sudden  and  hitherto  unexplained  eclipse  in  Kgyi)tiau  culture, 
and  for  three  centuries  there  is  a  (iomplete  blank  in  the  native  records  and 
monumenta.  Egypt  hoiself  seems  to  have  disappeared  as  an  independent 
monarchy,  and  when  she  awakens  again  from  this  long  sleep  (uvilisatioa 
appears  to  resume  its  course  almost  without  any  traditions  of  tlie  past. 


^».  • 


,.  'f 

', 

'M    »  , 

MIDDLE  EMPIRE. 

i                     ' 

XI.  Dynatty :  Tueban. 

M.  a()64. 

''  '    1 

Enentef,  MENTcnoTEP,  names  apparently  borne  by  several  kings  of  this  dynasty  alter- 
nately. During  their  rule  the  seat  of  empire  was  removed  from  Lower  to 
Upper  Egypt,  where  was  now  founded  the  great  city  of  Thebes,  capital  of 
BO  many  subsequent  dynasties. 

Bankuaba,  the  first  king  who  sent  an  expedition  to  the  land  of  Ophir  and  Punt  (either 
Somaliland  or  South  Arabia),  as  recorded  on  an  inscription  in  tho  "Wady 
Ilammamat,  on  the  route  between  Ooptos  and  the  Red  Sea  coast.  B.  2400. 
The  six  kings  of  this  dynasty,  all  of  whom  reig-ned  at  Thebes,  had  to 
struggle  against  the  usurpers  in  the  Delta,  and  apparently  against  foreign 
conquerors.  They  seem  1  .•  have  succeeded  in  reducing  the  whole  country ; 
but  for  a  long  time  thei^:  authority  was  restricted  to  the  t'hebais.  They 
broke  completely  with  the  traditions  of  the  past,  and  began  again  to  build 
up  the  fabric  of  Egyptian  culture  almost  from  its  very  foundations. 
Hence  their  monuments  are  rude,  primitive,  sometimes  even  coarse.  The 
effect  they  produce  on  the  observer  is  that  of  a  country  reverting  to  the 
low  state  of  rude  civilisation  from  which  it  had  already  emerged  under  the 
first  three  dynasties. 


XII.  Dynasty :  Thebak. 

M.  3064,  B.  2466. 

Amenemhat  I.,  under  whose  rule  Egypt  again  rose  to  a  high  degree  of  prosperity. 
M.  3064,  B.  2466. 


OsoBTAssir  I.,  by  whom  was  erected  the  obelisk  titill  standing  at  HeUopolis.    B.  2433. 


■  iW,,.|t,i.;l»y0l||i|ljilltl.|)|||([||ll|)|i|l|)l||IIM 


478 


APPENDIX  III. 


Amenemhat  II.,  080BTA8BN  TI.,  whose  exploits  are  recorded  in  inscriptions  in  the  tombs 
of  Ameni  and  Ejiumhotep,  at  Beni-Hassan. 

OsouTASEN  in.,  who  invaded  Kush  or  the  land  of  Ethiopia  stretching  south  from  Egypt. 
Monuments  recording  his  victories  are  found  at  Semneh,  beyond  the 
second  cataract  of  Wady  Halfah.    B.  2333. 

Amenemhat  III.,  who  constructed  extensive  canals,  dykes,  and  reservoirs,  by  which  the 
inundations  of  the  Nile  were  regulated.  Amongst  these  vast  works  was 
the  famous  Lake  Moeris  in  the  Fayum  depression,  where  this  king  also 
laid  out  the  no  less  famous  labyrinth.  Eecords  of  the  periodical  risings  of 
the  Nile  during  his  reign  occur  at  Semneh,  where  he  established  a 
.■  Nilometer,  by  means  of  which   regidar  observations  were  taken  and 

,,.,  published  throughout  Egypt.     B.  2300. 

All  the  kings  of  this  dynasty  bore  the  name  either  of  Osortasen  or 
i  .      i         Amenemhat  (Amenemheh).    They  reigned  altogether  213  years,  and  their 
/  ij. -J .; ;,  epoch  was  one  of  great  prosperity,  internal  peace,  and  foreign  conquest. 

i  ..  They  recovered  Arabia  Petrsea,  which  had  been  lost  during  the  civil  wars, 

and  permanently  reduced  the  whole  of  Nubia  as  well  as  a  part  of  Ethiopia. 
,  Their  glory  was  perpetuated  by  monuments  as  prodigious  and  in  some 
respects  far  more  useful  than  those  of  the  fourth  dynasty.      Such  espe- 
;   fj  cially  was  the  vast  Lake  Moeris,  constructed  by  Amenemhat  III.  for  the 
1  '    purpose  of  regulating  the  periodical  inundations  of  the  Nile.     When  the 
rise  was  insufficient  the  waters  stored  in  this  enormous  reservoir  served 
to  irrigate  the  whole  country  along  the  left  bank  of  the  river  as  far  as  the 
,  -V  eea.    When  the  rise  was  excessive,  the  overflow  from  the  lake  was  dis- 
■  charged  through  a  system  of  sluices  into  the  Birket-Karun. 

-        '  From  the  tombs  of  Beni-Hassan,  dating  from  this  epoch,  a  long  inscrip- 

tion h^  been  recovered  relating  the  career  and  beneficent  deeds  of  Ameni, 
'  .     a  high  official,  who  resumes  his  administration  of  the  land  in  these  words: 

"  All  the  provinces  were  cultivated  and  sown  from  the  north  to  the  south. 
,  Nothing  was  pilfered  from  my  workshops.    No  little  child  was  ever  hurt, 

no  widow  oppressed  by  me.  I  gave  to  widow  and  wedded  wife  alike,  and 
in  all  the  judgments  pronounced  by  me  no  preference  was  shown  to  the 
great  over  the  humblest  subject  of  the  king." 


XIII.  Dynasty:  Thebak. 


M.  2851, B.  2233. 


Sebekhotep  (Sbvekhotep),  Neferhotep. 
kings  of  this  dynasty. 


Names  borne  by  nearly  all  the  sixty  Theban 


f 


The  rise  of  the  Nile  in  the  third  year  of  Sebekhotep  III.  is  inscribed  on  the 
rocks  at  Semneh.  Monuments  of  this  epoch  occur  at  San,  Abydos,  Siut, 
Thebes,  the  first  cataract,  Semneh,  the  island  of  Argo  near  Dongola,  and 
elsewhere  throughout  Egypt  and  Nubia.. 

The  empire  thus  appears  to  have  been  still  held  together.  Nevertheless, 
almost  immediately  after  the  close  of  the  twelfth  dynasty  the  land  was  again 
di8tra(!ted  by  internal  dissensions. 


icriptions  in  the  tom'bB 


ing  south  from  Egypt. 
Semneh,  beyond  the 


servoirs,  by  which  the 
;  these  vast  works  was 
,  where  this  king  also 
le  periodical  risings  of 
lere  he  established  a 
ions  were  taken  and 

lither  of  Osortasen  or 
er  213  years,  and  their 
and  foreign  conquest. 
;  during  the  civil  wars, 
11  as  a  part  of  Ethiopia, 
rodigious  and  iii  some 
dynasty.  Such  espe- 
tnenemhat  III.  for  the 
:  the  Nile.  When  the 
rmous  reservoir  served 
f  the  river  as  far  as  the 
rom  the  lake  was  dis- 
;-Karun. 

B  epoch,  a  long  inscrip- 
eficent  deeds  of  Ameni, 
he  land  in  these  words: 
the  north  to  the  south, 
tie  child  was  ever  hurt, 
wedded  wife  alike,  and 
rence  was  shown  to  the 


•m 


rly  all  the  sixty  Theban 


p  III.  is  inscribed  on  the 
ir  at  San,  Abydos,  Siut, 
Lrgo  near  Dongola,  and 

ogether.  Nevertheless, 
nasty  the  land  was  again 


■>"•■ 


APPENDIX  in. 


479 


r  ■'  XrV.  Dynasty:  Xoite. 

(So  named  from  Xois  in  Lower  Egypt,  the  native  place  of  the  reigning 
family.) 

:  M.  2398.  ■ 

No  known  records. 

The  rule  of  these  northern  usurpers  was  followed  by  the  most  tremen- 
"  ^  ^  ■  dous  catastrophe  recorded  in  the  Egyptian  annals,  a  catastrophe  which  for 

i  a  second  time  arrested  the  natural  development  of  civilisation  in  the  Nile 
Valley. 

Taking  advantage  of  the  rivalry  between  the  royal  house  of  Thebes  and 
the  Xoite  rulers  in  the  Delta,  the  nomad  tribes  of  Arabia,  Syria,  and 
Mesopotamia  overran  the  whole  country,  and  for  a  time  reduced  it  under 
their  power.  This  was  the  so-called  invasion  of  the  Hyksos,  or  "  Shep- 
herds," who  overthrew  the  Middle  Empire  and  set  up  the  three  following 
dynasties.  Their  capital  was  fixed  at  Tanis,  near  the  north-east  frontier, 
•  where  they  have  left  monuments  more  beautiful  and  in  better  taste  than 
those  of  the  contemporaneous  dynasties  in  Thebais. 


No  known  records. 


XV.  Dynasty :  Hyksos,  or  the  Shepherds. 
M.  2214. 

t 

XVI.  Dynasty :  Hyksos,  or  the  Shepherds  ? 

XVII.  Dynasty :  Hyksos,  or  the  Shepherds. 
B.  1750. 

Nub,  or  Ntjbti,  during  whose  reign  Joseph,  son  of  Jacob,  is  said  to  have  arrived  in 
Egypt,  where  he  rose  to  a  high  position.  The  seat  of  empire  of  these 
foreign  Shepherd  Kings  was  at  S^n,  in  the  extreme  north-east.  But 
contemporaneously  with  their  rule  in  Lower  Egypt  and  the  Sinai 
Peninsula  the  native  Theban  kings  appear  t)  have  continued  to  govern 
in  Upper  Egypt  as  tributaries  or  vassals  of  the  Hyksos.  In  the  Sallier 
papyrus,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  occurs  the  name  of  Rajsekenen,  a 
governor  of  "  the  southern  town  "  (probably  Thebes).  An  inscription  in 
a  tomb  at  El  Kab  also  records  the  capture  of  Avaris,  a  chief  stronghold  of 
the  Hyksos,  by  Ahmes  (Amosis),  successor  of  Basekenen,  and  first  king  of 
the  next  dynasty. 

NEW  EMPIRE. 

XVm.  Dynasty :  Thebak. 
M.  1703,  B.  1700. 

Ahmes  (Amosts),  who  overthrew  the  foreign  Hyksos  invaders,  and  again  raised  Egypt 
to  great  power  under  a  native  dynasty.    M.  1703,  B.  1700. 

AicEinaoTZP  ob  Amunofh  I.  (Amenophis),  who  continued  the  victorious  career  of  his 
predecessor,  and  extended  the  limits  of  the  empire  beyond  the  frontiers  of 
Egypt  proper.    B.  1666. 

Thothmes  I.  (Thothmosis),  a  famous  conqueror,  who  overran  Syria,  and  who  appears  to 
have  first  introduced  the  horse  into  Egypt,  At  least  no  representations  of 
this  animal  occur  on  any  monuments  before  his  reign.   B.  1633. 


■..■  •\«i«&1*jv-v:;*j  si^ 


j^lHjU'.'..  "!W!4|WWg^gni'f|iyyW 


^  APPENDIX  m. 

Thothmes  n.,  reigned  a  short  time  jointly  with  his  sister,  Queen  Hatasu.    B.  1600. 

Hatasu  (Hastop,  Makara,  Amennuhet),  continued  to  reign  alone  after  the  death  of  her 
brother,  Thothmes  II.     She  sent  a  famous  expedition  to  the  land  of  Punt, 
^'    as  commemorated  in  the  sculptures  on  the  walls  of  Dair-el-Bahrl,  at 
Thebes. 

Thotmes  III.,  another  brother  of  Hatasu,  who  reigned  some  time  jointly  with  her,  and 
for  many  years  alone  after  her  death.  He  was  one  of  the  most  renowned 
of  the  Egyptian  monarchs,  who  extended  his  conquests  far  into  Western 
Asia,  and  founded  the  stupendous  temple  of  Kamak  at  Thebes,  covering 
its  walls  with  inscriptions  commemorating  his  mighty  deeds,  and  giving 
long  lists  of  the  lands  and  peoples  overcome  by  him.  No  other  name 
occurs  so  frequently  on  monuments  and  remains  of  every  kind  throughout 
>   ,  Egypt.   B.  1600. 

Ahenhotef  n.    B.  1566.  i 

Thothmes  IV.    B.  1633. 

Amenhotep  m.     Another  great  conqueror,  who  appears  to  have  advanced  the  frontiers 

'  of  the   empire  far  into  Ethiopia  towards  the  equatorial  regions.     His 

glory  is   perpetuated  by  many  monuments  of  a  sumptuous  character, 

conspicuous  amongst  which  are  those  of  Luxor  and  Eamak,  besides  the 

famous  colossi  of  Memnon,  which  bear  his  name.    B.  1500. 

Amenhotex  TV.  (or  Khuenaten?)  who  under  the  influence  of  his  mother,  a  foreigner 
of  Semitic  race,  attempted  to  efPect  a  religious  revolution,  substituting  the 
Semitic  divinity  Aten  (Hormakhu,  or  the  Sun's  Orb)  for  the  Theban  god 
Amen.  He  also  removed  the  seat  of  government  from  Thebes  to  the  city 
of  Khuaten,  founded  by  him,  and  now  known  by  the  name  of  Tell-el- 
Amama.  His  religious  system  was  continued  by  a  few  of  his  successors, 
but  finally  abolished  by 

HoHEMHEB  (HoRUs),  who  restored  the  old  national  worship,  and  brought  back  the  seat 
of  government  to  Thebes,  effacing  as  far  as  possible  all  tractii  of  his 
innovating  predecessors. 

The  question  has  been  asked  whether  the  Hebrews,  whose  numbers 
had  enormously  increased  during  the  nine  or  ten  generations  since  their 
first  arrival  in  Egypt,  played  any  part  in  these  religipus  troubles,  and 
especially  in  the  attempt  made  by  Amenhotep  IV.  to  introduce  a  mono- 
theistic system.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  beginning  of  the  persecution 
of  the  Israelites,  as  related  in  the'book  of  Exodus,  coincides  almost  exactly 
with  the  restoration  of  the  royal  authority  and  the  overthrow  of  the 
usurpers.  Several  incidental  circumstances  make  it  highly  probable  that 
the  Pharaoh  "  who  knew  not  Joseph  "  was  the  undermentioned  Sethi  I. 
of  the  nineteenth  dynasty.  The  cities  of  Pithom  and  Eamses,  mentioned 
in  the  Bible  as  having  been  constructed  by  the  children  of  Israel  con- 
demned to  forced  labour,  are  also  frequently  alluded  to  in  the  Egyptian 
recorda,  and  by  them  referred  to  the  time  of  Bamses  II.,  successor  of 
Sethi  I.  According  to  this  view  the  persecution  of  the  Hebrews  is  easily 
explained  as  the  natural  reaction  of  the  native  priesthood  when  restored 
to  power  against  the  foreign  innovators.  As  might  be  expected,  the  theo- 
logical dissensions  ended  in  the  Exodus,  that  is,  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
weaker  faction  from  the  land  of  Egypt. 


n  Hatasu.    B.  1600. 

LO  after  the  death  of  her 
ion  to  the  land  of  Punt, 
la  of   Dair-el-Bahr),  at 


ne  jointly  with  her,  and 
e  of  the  most  renowned 
quests  far  into  Western 
nak  at  Thebes,  covering 
ighty  deeds,  and  giving 
'  him.  No  other  name 
I  every  kind  throughout 


e  advanced  the  frontiers 
quatorial  regions.  His 
a  sumptuous  character, 
ind  Eamak,  besides  the 
B.  1500. 

his  mother,  a  foreigner 
'olution,  substituting  the 
)rb)  for  the  Theban  god 

from  Thebes  to  the  city 
by  the  name  of  Tell-el- 
r  a  few  of  his  successors, 


id  brought  back  the  seat 
ossible  all  tracts  of  his 

ebrews,  whose  numbers 
1  generations  since  their 
)  religipuB  troubles,  and 
V.  to  introduce  a  mono- 
Luing  of  the  persecution 
,  coincides  almost  exactly 
i  the  overthrow  of  the 
)  it  highly  probable  that 
undermentioned  Sethi  I. 
L  and  Bamses,  mentioned 
I  children  of  Israel  con- 
ided  to  in  the  Egyptian 
Ramses  II.,  successor  of 
of  the  Hebrews  is  easily 
priesthood  when  restored 
ht  be  expected,  the  theo- 
in  the  expulsion  of  the 


APPENDIX  m.  481 

XIX.  Dynaaty :  Theban. 
M.  1462.  B.  1400. 
Bahbes  I.  (Baheses).    M.  1462,  B.  1400. 

Sethi  or  Meeptah  I.  (Sethos),  a  warlike  prince  who  overran  a  large  part  of  Western 
Asia,  and  constructed  the  first  canal  between  the  Bed  Sea  and  the  Biver 
Nile.  Numerous  monuments  dating  from  his  reign  still  exist  at  Kamak, 
Kumeh,  Abydos,  and  other  places,  while  of  all  the  royal  tombs  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  river  at  Thebes  that  of  Sethi  is  in  every  respect  the  most 
remarkable.     B.  1366. 

Bamses  II.,  sumamed  the  Great,  the  Sesostris  of  whom  so  many  fabulous  events  are 
related  by  the  Greek  historians.  His  triumphs  are  recorded  not  only  on 
innumerable  monuments  in  Bgypt  itself,  but  also  on  others  raised  by  him 
in  the  countries  which  he  overran.  Such  is  the  rock  tablet  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Nahr-el-Kelb,  near  Beyrut,  in  Syria.  During  his  reign  of  sixty- 
seven  years  he  erected  many  famous  buildings  in  J^Jgypt,  besides  appro- 
priating some  of  those  built  by  his  predecessors,  which  now  bear  his 
cartouche.     B.  1333. 

The  true  character  of  Bamses  It.  is  revealed  in  the  ntmierous  native 
documents  of  all  kinds  which  survive  from  this  period.  Instead  of 
extending  the  limits  of  the  empire  consolidated  by  Thothmes  III.,  he 
scarcely  succeeded  in  keeping  it  together.  During  his  reign  the  colossal 
power  built  up  by  the  sovereigns  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty  everywhere 
shows  symptoms  of  approaching  decay.  South,  north,  and  west  all  the 
nations  reduced  by  the  Thothmes  and  Amenhotops  break  out  in  open  revolt 
against  their  Egyptian  masters.  Nubia  is  agitated,  and  the  walls  of  the 
temples  are  covered  with  representations  of  the  many  victories  gained  by 
the  viceroys  of  Ethiopia  over  the  rebels  in  this  region.  At  the  same  time 
the  northern  provinces  are  threatened  and  sometimea  hard  pressed  by  the 
nomad  Libyans  from  the  west,  and  by  other  strangers  with  "  blue  eyes 
and  light  hair  "  descending  on  the  African  continent  from  the  islands  of 
the  Mediterranean.  The  reaction  against  Egyptian  supremacy  also 
spreads  to  Asia,  where  the  warlike  Hittites,  who  fight  with  chariots,  form 
with  many  other  nations  a  formidable  alliance  against  Bamses.  After 
eighteen  years  of  incessant  warfare  Bamses  is  compelled  to  moke  a  treaty 
with  the  allies,  leaving  them  in  possession  of  all  their  territories.  The 
terms  of  the  treaty,  which  is  still  extant,  appear  to  be  much  more 
favourable  to  the  Hittites  than  to  the  Egjrptian  monarch. 

The  more  his  history  becomes  unravelled  the  less  the  king  shows  him- 
self worthy  of  the  surname  of  "Great"  given  to  him  by  tha  early 
interpreters  of  the  Egyptian  records.  Enough  is  already  known  of  his 
career  to  justify  the  conclusion  of  Lenormant  that  he  was  a  commonplace 
individuality,  an  tmbridled  despot  devoured  by  an  overvaulting  ambition, 
and  carrying  his  vanity  so  far  as,  wherever  possible,  to  efface  from  the 
monuments  the  names  of  their  builders  and  substitute  his  own. 

During  his  whole  reign  he  lived  on  the  reputation  gained  by  an  exploit 
performed  when  about  twenty  years  old.  Towards  the  close  of  the  Hittite 
wars,  having  fallen  into  an  ambush,  he  succeeded  in  rescuing  himself  and 
his  escort  by  cutting  his  way  through  the  ranks  of  the  enemy.  This 
skirmish  reappears  continually  in  all  the  large  battle-pieces  sculptured  oij 
the  buildings  erected  by  him.  It  also  forms  the  subject  of  a  poem, 
which  is  the  only  specimen  of  Egyptian  epic  poetry  that  has  survived  to 
our  times. 

81 — AF. 


482 


APPENDIX  III. 


The  Book  of  Exodus  stigmatiHeH  Ramses  as  a  tyrant  in  oonsequi"  "e  of 
the  ptirsecutions  which  he  inflicted  on  the  Hebrews.  But  the  &ame 
judgment  will  be  confirmed  by  history  as  soon  as  all  the  documents  have 
been  interpreted  which  throw  light  upon  his  reign.  The  Egyptians 
themselves  were  heavily  oppressed  by  him,  and  some  contemporary 
records  depict  the  sufferings,  especially  of  the  rural  populations,  in 
vivid  colours. 

Sethi  (Mebemfhtah,  or  Mensftah)  II.,  son  and  successor  of  Bamses  II.,  and 
identified  by  most  Egyptologists  with  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Bible,  in  whose 
time  the  Israelites  were  led  out  of  Egypt  by  Moses.  His  reig^  began 
with  a  formidable  invasion  of  Libyans  and  their  allies,  the  Achseans 
Tyrrhenians  (Etruscans),  Laconians,  Sards,  and  other  Mediterranean 
populations,  who  entered  Egyjpt  from  the  north-west,  wasted  a  large 
portion  of  the  Delta,  and  attempted  to  establish  an  independent  state  in 
that  region.  But  they  were  completely  defeated  near  Prosopis,  and 
thenceforth  Merenphtah  reigned  in  peace.  But  after  his  death  fresh 
complications  arose,  and  were  continued  during  the  reigns  of  all  his  suc- 
cessors till  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty.  The  so-called  Harris 
Papyrus,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  gives  iiumerous  details  regarding 
these  intestine  and  foreigu  troubles,  which  were  not  concluded  till  the 
accession  of  Bamses  III. 


XX.  Dyntuty :  Thkbah. 

M.  1288.  B.  1200. 

Bamsss  m.  (the  Bhampsinitus  of  Herodotus),  last  of  the  great  E^gyptian  warrior  kings, 
whose  famous  deeds  are  commemorated  on  the  walls  of  the  sumptuous 
edifice  erected  by  him  at  Medinet-Abu,  Thebes.  But  his  own  wars  were 
mainly  defensive,  his  efforts  being  directed  against  the  flood  of  barbaric 
invasion  dashing  with  ever-increasing  fury  against  all  the  frontiers  of 
the  empire,  and  hastening  its  approaching  ruin.  The  Hittites  again 
succeed  in  forming  a  fresh  confederation,  including  even  the  Teucrians  of 
Troy,  besides  the  Pelasgians  of  the  islands,  the  Philistines  of  Cyprus,  and 
the  Western  I4byans.  The  empire  is  now  attacked  simultaneously  from 
the  north,  west,  and  east,  the  Libyans  falling  upon  the  Delta,  the  Hittites 
overrunning  Syria,  while  the  fleets  of  the  Pelasgians  and  Teucrians  ratage 
the  coast  of  Palestine.  Bamses  triumphed  by  land  and  sea ;  nevertheless 
niunerous  Libyan  tribes  secure  a  permanent  footing  in  the  Delta,  while 
the  Philistines  settle  in  the  districts  of  Gaza  and  Ascalon,  where  a  hundred 
years  later  the  Book  of  Judges  ,desnribed.  them  as  powerful  enough  to 
resist  the  Hebrews  advancing  from  the  Jordan. 

From  the  time  of  Bamses  III.  Egyptian  chronology  acquires  a  sort  of 
mathematical  certainty.  An  astronomical  date  recorded  on  a  calendar 
engraved  on  tiie  walls  of  Medinet-Abu,  and  calculated  by  Biot,  fixe^  the 
c^cession  of  tius  king  in  the  year  1212  b.o.  For  the  subsequent  reigns 
the  inscriptions  discovered  by  Mariette  in  the  tomb  of  the  sacred  bulls  at 
Apis  determine  the  number  of  years,  months,  and  days  during  which 
each  sovereign  occupied  the  throne. 

All  the  remaining  kings  of  this  djrnasty  appear  to  have  borne  the  name 
of  Bamses.    But  with  the  exception  of  Bamses  YI.  and  Bamses  IX..  none 


I 


APPENDIX  m. 


488 


at  in  consequc  f^e  of 
ifB.  But  the  bume 
the  documents  have 
gn.  The  Egyptians 
some  contemporary 
iral    populations,   in 

f  Ramses  II.,  and 
the  Bible,  in  whose 
s.  His  reign  began 
allies,  the  Acheeans 
(ther  Mediterranean 
est,  wasted  a  large 
independent  state  in 
near  Prosopis,  and 
iter  his  death  fresh 
reigns  of  all  his  suo- 
rhe  so-called  Harris 
>us  details  regarding 
lot  concluded  till  the 


^yptian  warrior  kings, 
ills  of  the  sumptuous 
it  his  own  wars  were 
the  flood  of  barbaric 
t  all  the  frontiers  of 
The  Hittites  again 
even  the  Teucrians  of 
iatines  of  Cyprus,  and 
i  simultaneously  from 
the  Delta,  the  Hittites 
I  and  Teucrians  ratage 
and  sea ;  nevertheless 
ing  in  the  Delta,  while 
calon,  where  a  himdred 
IS  powerful  enough  to 

)logy  acquires  a  sort  of 
ecorded  on  a  calendar 
ated  by  Biot,  tixep  the 
the  subsequent  reigns 
b  of  the  sacred  bulls  at 
id  days  during   which 

»  have  borne  the  name 
and  Bamses  IX..  none 


of  them  were  distinguished  in  the  arts  of  peace  or  war,  and  during  their 
rule  Egypt  continued  steadily  to  decline  in  power  and  influence.  Within 
a  period  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  all  the  Asiatic  provinces  of 
the  empire  fell  off  one  by  one,  and  were  never  afterwards  recovered.  At 
this  time  also  the  high  priests  of  Ammon  at  Thebes  gradually  usurped  the 
snpreme  authority,  and  ultimately  seized  the  crown  itself,  although  their 
usurpation  was  not  acknowledged  throughout  the  whole  of  Egypt. 


XXI.  Dynastif :  Tanith. 

M.  1110,  B.  1100. 

HiR0\,  a  high  priest  of  Ammon,  was  the  reputed  founder  of  this  dynasty,  under  which 
the  capital  was  again  shifted  northwards  to  San.  During  this  period  the 
country  was  for  the  first  time  invaded  by  the  Assyrians  under  their 
king,  Naromath  (Nimrod).    B.  1100. 


XXII.  Dytuuty:  Bubastitb. 

M.  980,  B.  96h. 

SnESHONK  or  SnASRAinc  (Sesonchis)  I.  This  is  the  6hishak  of  the  Bible,  son  of 
Nimrod,  who  overthrew  Boboam,  king  of  Judah,  captured  and  plundered 
Jerusalem,  and  ruled  Egypt,  removing  the  centre  of  authority  to  Bubastis 
in  the  Delta.  His  wars  against  the  Jews  are  commemorated  in  an  inscrip- 
tion on  the  walls  of  the  great  hall  at  Kamak,  where  a  list  is  given  of  the 
towns  and  districts  conquered  or  ravaged  by  him.     B.  966. 

Most  of  the  princes  of  this  dynasty  bear  Assyrian  names,  such  as 
Nimrod,  Osorkon  (Sargon),  and  Takeloth  (Tiglath).  They  do  not  a[)pear 
to  have  been  independent  sovereigns,  but  rather  governors  or  satraps, 
appointed  by  the  Assyrian  monaxohs,  or  possibly  adventurers  from  the 
East.  It  is  expressly  stated  that  the  father  of  the  first  Sheshonk  was  a 
captain  of  armed  bands,  who  came  from  Syria  to  seek  his  fortune  in  Egypt. 

After  the  overthrow  of  the  priest  kings,  the  preponderance  of  Thebes 
ceased  for  ever.  Henceforth  all  the  djmasties  belong  to  Lower  Egypt, 
where  they  fix  their  reudence.  They  do  not,  however,  form  true 
dynasties  of  native  princes,  but  rather  a  government  of  Mameluks,  like 
those  who  afterwards  ruled  Egypt  during  mediaeval  and  later  times. 

The  Bubastite  dynasty  rapidly  lost  all  authority,  and  after  it  had  ceased 
to  reign,  Egypt  was  for  a  time  divided  amongst  a  number  of  petty  military 
princes  practically  independent  of  the  'M.ei  monarch. 

During  this  period  the  descendants  oi  the  Theban  high  priests  withdrew 
t(»  Ethiopia,  where  they  established  a  powerful  state  and  laid  claim  to  the 
sovereignty  of  all  I^ypt. 

PiAKKHi,  one  <A  these  princes,  even  overran  the  oountiy,  and  reduced  it  for  a  short  time 
as  far  as  the  Mediterranean. 


XXm.  Dffnatiy:  Tanite. 
M.  810,  B.  766. 


.iiicjii.iOii-  wgtf^ii»ft^w*WT'K»" 


**Sr^ 


J 


484 


APPENDIX  in. 


XXIV.  Lynoity:  Saitb. 

\  M.  721,  B.  733. 

These  two  dynasties  were  formed  by  five  kings  reigning  first  at  Tanis 
(San),  and  afterwards  at  Sa  (SaKs).  But  they  enjoyed  little  more  than  a 
nominal  authority  in  the  midst  of  a  land  torn  by  internal  dissensions  and 
the  rivalries  of  obscure  claimants  to  the  sovereign  power.  The  last  of  them 
was 

BoKEURANEF  (BoocHORis),  the  legislator  who,  according  to  Manetho,  reigned  six  years 
and  had  his  residence  at  Sa.  It  was  probably  during  his  reign  that 
Piankhi  overran  the  country,  as  recorded  on  a  monument  discovered  ^t 
Jebel-Barkal,  near  Meroe,  in  Upper  Nubia. 

Bokeuranef  was  finally  overthrown  and  put  to  death  in  the  year  725  B.C., 
during  another  Ethiopian  invasion  under  Shabak,  of  the  following,  or 


XXV.  Dynasty:  Ethiofian. 
M.  716,  B.  700. 
Shabak  (Sabaco),  who  rules  over  the  whole  of  Ethiopia  and  Egypt.    B.  700. 
Shabatak,  supposed  to  be  the  So  mentioned  in  2  Kings  xvii.  4. 

Takabaka,  or  Tibhakah,  also  mentioned  in  2  Kings  xix.  9,  as  "  King  of  Ethiopia." 
He  was,  expelled  from  Lower  Egypt  by  the  Assyrians  under  Esarhaddon. 
grandson  of  Sennacherib,  as  appears  from  some  Cuneiform  writings  dis- 
covered at  Nineveh.  After  Esarhaddon's  death  the  kings  set  up  by  him 
in  the  north  revolted  and  made  common  cause  with  Tirhakah  against  the 
Assyrians.  This  brought  on  a  second  invasion  under  Esarhaddon's  son, 
Assurbanipal,  by  whom  both  Tirhakah  and  his  successor 

Ubdamanef  were  conquered  and  Thebes  captured  and  half  ruined. 

During  these  disastrous  wars  Egypt  is  wasted  by  invading  hosts  from 
east  and  south,  and  after  the  overthrow  of  Urdamaneh  the  northern 
provinces  remain  subject  to  Assyrian  rule,  the  southern  to  the  Ethiojpians. 
The  Aj88>Tian  monarch,  however,  did  not  govern  the  country  directly 
through  provincial  satraps,  but  divided  the  whole  of  Lower  Egypt  amongst 
twelve  native  princes,  his  vassals,  who  paid  him  tribute  aod  wore  over- 
awed by  Assyrian  garrisons  maintained  in  the  chief  strongholds.  It  i» 
this  period  of  government  by  twelve  tributary  kinglets  to  which  the  Greek 
historians  apply  the  term  Dodeearehy. 

An  oracle  had  foretold  that  the  whole  of  Egypt  would  ultimately  fall  to 
the  lot  of  whatever  prince  should  offer  libations  to  the  god  Phtah,  tutelar 
deity  of  Memphis,  in  a  brazen  vessel.  One  day  while  the  twelve  vassals 
were  sacrificing  in  the  temple  the  high  priest  presented  to  them  the  golden 
vases  which  they  were  accustomed  to  employ  on  these  occasions.  But  by 
an  oversight  he  Utought  eleven  only  for  the  twelve  princes.  Thereupon 
Psammeticus,  Prince  of  Sais,  who  had  probably  arranged  the  matter 
beforehand,  took  his  brazen  helmet  and  used  it  to  pour  out  his  libations. 
But  for  a  time  the  jealousy  of  his  rivals  compelled  him  to  withdraw  to  the 
swamps  of  the  Delta.    Then  courting  the  assistance  of  Greek  and  Cariau 


1 


APPENDIX  III. 


48S 


igning  first  at  Tanis 
)d  little  more  than  a 
rnal  dissensions  and 
}r.    The  last  of  them 

10,  reigned  six  years 
ring  his  reign  that 
iment  discovered  ^t 

I  in  the  year  726  B.C., 
the  following,  or 


B.  700. 


'  King  of  Ethiopia." 
8  under  Esarhaddon, 
neiform  writings  dis- 
kings  set  up  by  him 
L^irhakah  against  the 
it  Esarhaddon's  son, 
ssor 


invading  hosts  from 
maneh  the  northern 
tm  to  the  Ethiopians, 
the  country  directly 
[jower  Egypt  amongst 
ibute  and  wore  ovev- 
)f  strongholds.  It  is 
its  to  which  the  Qreek 

)uld  ultimately  fall  to 
iie  god  Fhtah,  tutelar 
ile  the  twelve  vcwsals 
i»d  to  them  the  golden 
Be  occasions.  But  by 
princes.  Thereupon 
arranged  the  matter 
>our  out  his  libations, 
im  to  withdraw  to  the 
9  of  Oreek  and  Cariau 


adventurers,  by  their  means  he  reduced  all  the  other  kings  of  Lower  Egypt, 
vanquishing  them  at  the  decisive  battle  of  Momemphis.  He  followed  up 
this  success  by  throwing  off  the  yoke  of  the  Assyrian  monarchs,  and  after 
expelling  the  Ethiopians  from  the  Thebais,  once  more  established  a  united 
Egypt  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Nubian  frontier.  Thus  was  founded 
the 


XXVI.  Dytuuty :  Saite 

M.  665,  B.  666. 

PsAMMETiCHUS  (Psametik)  I.,  under  whom  the  Greeks  for  the  first  time  obtained  a 
permanent  footing  in  Lower  Egypt,  chiefly  as  mercenaries  and  traders  in 
the  Mediterranean  seaports.  B.  666.  He  encouraged  foreign  trade, 
established  continuous  relations  with  Greece  and  Phoenicia,  and  thus 
broke  away  from  the  old  traditions  of  isolation  and  seclusion  which  had 
formed  the  guiding  principle  in  the  policy  of  the  native  sovereigns  for 
many  generations. 

Necho  (Neco),  son  of  Psametik  I.,  who  equipped  a  fleet  to  circumnavigate  Africa,  and 
attempted  to  reopen  Sethi's  canal  between  the  Nile  and  the  Eed  Sea.  He 
wan-ed  at  first  successfully  against  the  Assyrians,  overthrowing  their  ally 
.Tosiah,  King  of  Judah,  at  the  battle  of  Megiddo ;  but  was  himself 
ultimately  defeated  by  Nebuchadnezzar  at  Kar-Khemish,  in  the  Euphrates 
Valley.  B.  612.  But  this  check  was  compensated  by  a  great  increase  of 
internal  prosperity  and  the  development  of  commercial  relations  with  the 
surrounding  nations.  In  his  time  the  native  arts  and  industries  again 
experienced  a  short  and  last  revival  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 

«»    PSAUMETIOHUS  II.    B.  596. 

HoPHRA  (Uahbba),  or  Apbies,  son  of  Psammetichus  11.,  during  whose  reign  many  Jews 
settled  in  Egypt.  He  went  to  the  aid  of  Zedekiah,  who  was  besieged  by 
Nebuchadnezzar ;  but  afterwards  withdrew,  allowing  the  Babylonians  to 
capture  the  city  and  destroy  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  His  fleets  gained 
some  considerable  triumphs  in  the  Syrian  waters ;  but  he  was  afterwards 
completely  defeated  in  a  war  against  the  Greeks  of  Gyrene,  who  had 
already  acquired  great  political  power.  Thereupon  his  army  revolted, 
and  proclaimed  king  his  general  Ahmes.  Hophra  was  dethroned  and  put 
to  death  by  the  rebels  in  571  b.o. 

Ahhes  (Amasis),  under  whose  long  and  flourishing  reign  Egypt  recovered  much  of  her 
former  greatness.  Amasis  was  a  fortunate  and  able  ruler,  who  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  arts  of  war  and  peace.  He  even  extended  the 
limits  of  the  monarchy  by  the  acquisition  of  the  island  of  Cyprus,  which 
had  been  successively  subject  to  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  empires. 
Of  all  the  kings  of  this  dynasty  Ahmes  most  favoured  the  Greeks,  and 
during  his  reign  they  were  encouraged  by  many  privileges  to  settle  in  the 
country.  In  the  Delta,  was  now  founded  the  Hellenic  city  of  Naucratis, 
whose  prosperity  already  foreshadowed  that  of  the  neighbouring  Alexan- 
dria. 

Nevertheless  this  momentary  revival  of  the  ancient  glories  of  the  Egyptian 
empirecouldscarcelydisguisetiieinherentweaknessanddecayof  the  national 


486  APPENDIX  IH. 

institutiouB.  Based  exclusively  on  conservative  principles  and  on  the 
'  spirit  of  seclusion,  the  Egyptian  civilisation  could  maintain  it*  ground 
only  by  continuing  changeless.  As  soon  as  it  came  in  direct  contact  with 
the  outer  world,  and  especially  with  the  spirit  of  progress  as  personified 
in  the  Hellenic  race  and  culture,  it  wa«  doomed  to  perish. 

The  military  caste  having  nearly  all  migrated  southwards,  the  nation 
•    remained  disarmed  and  at  the  mercy  of  foreign  conquerors.     Strangers 
detested  by  the  people  had  been  entrusted  with  the  defence  of  the  empire, 
and  public  discontent  gradually  broke  into  open  revolt. 

A  daring  adventurer  had  already  siezed  the  throne,  establishing  the 
twenty-sixth  dynasty,  and  he  had  found  the  country  so  ripe  for  change 
that  he  showed  himself  even  more  favourably  disposed  than  his  predeces- 
sors to  the  foreigners.  For  a  time  this  policy  tended  to  enrich  the  nation, 
by  the  development  of  its  commercial  relations  with  the  neighbouring 
states.  But  it  ended  by  exciting  the  cupidity  of  the  foreign  settlers  and 
mercenaries.  When  these  turned  their  arms  against  their  employers, 
Egypt  had  nothing  to  oppose  to  them  except  an  unarmed  multitude 
unaccustomed  to  military  service.     Hence  soon  after  the  accession  of 

PsAMMBTicHUS  III.,  SOU  of  Ahmes,  a  single  campaign  sufficed  to  extinguish  the 
political  independence  of  Egypt.  This  sovereign  \vaB  overthrown  at 
Pelusium,  on  the  north-east  frontier,  by  Cambyses,  King  of  Persia, 
who  speedily  reduced  the  whole  country  to  the  position  of  a  Persian 
Ratrapy,  528  b.o. 


Cambtseb.     527. 


XXVII.  Dynatty:  Pembian. 
M.  and  B.  527. 

521. 


Darius  Hystaspes. 
Xerxes  I.     486. 
Artaxerxes  Longimanus.     465. 
Darius  NothoB. 


XXVIII.  2)y«a«<y;  Saite. 

M.  and  B.  406. 

AI4YET.EU8,  who  succeeded  in  expelling  the  Persians  and  restoring  the  ancient  Egyptian 
monarchy,  fixing  his  capital  at  Sa.    Eeigned  six  years. 


XXIX.  Lyneuty:  Mendesian. 
M.  and  B.  399. 


Naifattrut  (Nepheeitbs)  I. 
Hakor  (Achoeib). 
Psehaut  (Psammtjthis). 
Naifaueut  II 


This  short  dynasty  (399—378)  maintained  the  national  independence, 
and  ruled  the  whole  country  from  its  capital,  Mendes,  in  Lower  Egypt. 


■■p*yw.wwwj'*-tfwwywwtt^ 


■yiwyw^i'  i*gA«»-*¥ra 


^-'.^L^Aai^'^-'-" 


^■•iM^iiisiaHnai- 


APPENDIX  III. 


487 


siples  and  on  the 
lintain  it*  ground 
direct  contact  with 
resB  as  personified 
b. 

iwards,  the  nation 
uerors.  Strangers 
moe  of  the  empire, 

3,  establishing  the 
K>  ripe  for  change 

than  his  predeces- 
)  enrich  the  nation 

the  neighbouring 
oreign  settlers  and 
it  their  employers, 
Luarmed  multitude 
e  accession  of 

to   exting^h  the 

:aB  overthrown  at 

King  of  Persia, 

ition  of  a  Persian 


XXX.  Dynaiiy :  Sedbenyte. 

M.  and  B.  378. 

Neotanebo  I.     Defeated  the  Persians  and  ruled  for  eighteen  years  in  peace. 
Taohos,  who,  aided  by  the  Spartans  under  Agesilaus,  repelled  the  Persian  invasion 
conducted  by  Artaxerxes  Mnemon. 

Neotanebo  II.,  last  native  king  of  Egypt,  overthrown  by  Artaxerxes  Ochus,  who 
restored  the  Persian  rule,  reducing  the  country  to  a  Persian  satrapy. 
Since  then  Egypt  never  recovered  her  political  independence,  and  has 
been  governed  by  foreigners  or  foreign  dynasties. 


XXXI.  Dynatty:  Persian. 

M.  and  B.  340. 

Artaxerxes  Ochus. 

Darius  III.  (Codomanus),  overthrown  by  Alexander  the  Ctreat. 

XXXII.  Dynasty :  Maoedonian. 
382. 
ALSXAimxB,  founded  Alexandria. 


he  ancient  Egyptian 


tional  independence, 
in  Lower  Egypt. 


XXXIII.  Dynatty:  Gbeek  or  Ptolemaio. 

305. 

Ftolxmt  Laous  or  Soter,  natural  son  of  Philip  of  Maoedon,  and  oiie  of  the  beat 
generals  of  Alexander,  soon  after  whose  death  he  founded  the  Lagide  or 
Greek  dynasty,  which  comprised  the  whole  of  Egypt,  Libya,  and  part  of 
Arabia.  To  these  possessions  after  the  death  of  Perdiccas  were  added 
Coele-Syria,  Phoenicia,  Judeea,  and  the  island  of  Cypnis.  He  made 
Alexandria  the  capital  of  his  empire,  and  here  he  built  the  famous  Pharos 
or  lighthouse,  one  of  the  "  seven  wonders  "  of  the  ancient  world.  He  was 
a  great  patron  of  letters  and  founder  of  the  academy  and  museum  of 
Alexandria. 

Froimnr  Philadblfhus,  286,  son  and  successor  of  Ptolemy  Soter,  sumamed  Philadd- 
phus,  or  "  brother-loving,"  in  irony  from  the  circumstance  that  he  put  to 
death  two  of  his  brothers;  developed  commercial  enterprise,  encouraged 
literature,  and  caused  the  Hebrew  Bible  to  be  translated  into  Cbreek  in 
the  still  extant  version  known  as  the  Septuag^nt. 

Plotbmy  Euebqetes  I.,  247,  son  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  who  in  a  war  declared 
against  Seleuous  Callinicus,  overran  Syria  and  Cilicia.  But  his  victorious 
career  was  arrested  by  a  revolt  of  his  Egyptian  subjects,  which,  however, 
was  soon  suppressed.  The  title  of  Euergetes,  or  "  Benefactor,"  was  earned 
by  his  prudent  and  beneficent  administration.  , ) 

FroLBHY  Philopaiwb,  222,  ironically  named  the  "father-loving,"  for  his  cruelty  in 
putting  to  death  his  father,  as  well  as  his  mother,  brother,  sister,  and 
uncle.  He  also  at  first  persecuted  the  Jews,  exposing  them,  as  is  said, 
to  the  fury  of  his  (elephants.     But  when  these  animals  instead  of  de- 


!ABtJBa'i»-i" 


yi*  .' "tt^tuni 


mi^Kmmmlt^mmm'i'mmm 


488  Al'l'ENDIX  III. 

Htroyiug  his  intunded  victims  turimd  upon  hJH  own  subjects,  he  conceived 
a  great  respect  for  the  Jewish  people,  loading  them  witli  many  favours. 

Ptolemy  EriPiiANEs,  205,  or  the  "  Illustrious,"  succeeded  his  father,  Philopator,  at  the 
age  of  fourteen,  and  during  his  minority  was  compelled  to  cede  many  of 
his  poBsessioiia  to  the  victorious  Antiochus  the  Great,  ICing  of  Syria. 
These,  however,  were  afterwards  restored  us  a  dowry  when  Autiouhu* 
gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Ptolemy. 

Ptolemy  Piiilometor,  182,  son  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  who  in  a  war  with  Antiochus 
Ei)iphunes  was  taken  prisoner  and  held  captive  in  Syria.  Thereupon  the 
£gyi>tians  raised  his  brother  Physcon  to  the  throne ;  but  ho  was  deposed 
and  Philometor  restored  by  Antiochus. 

Ptolemy  Phyboon,  146,  brother  of  Philometor,  after  whose  death  he  again  ascended 
the  throne.  He  was  a  detestable  tyrant,  who  on  two  occasions  ordered 
a  general  massacre  of  the  citizens  of  Alexandria,  and  put  his  own  son 
Memphitis  to  death. 

Ptolemy  Lathyrus,  117,  so  called  from  an  excrescence  on  his  nose  resembling  a  pea, 
son  of  Ptolemy  Physcon,  who  soon  after  his  accession  was  banished  to 
Cyprus  by  his  mother  Cleopatra.  The  crown  was  then  bestowed  on  his 
brother  Ptolemy  Alexander,  after  whose  death  Lathyrus  resumed  the 
sceptre.     He  invaded  Judeea,  and  wasted  the  country  with  fire  and  sword. 

Ptolemy  Auletes,  81,  that  is,  the  "flute-player,"  illegitimate  son  of  Lathyrus, 
surrendered  Cyprus  to  the  Bomans,  also  agi'eeing  to  pay  them  a  large 
tribute.  This  caused  a  revolt  amongst  his  subjects,  by  whom  his  daughter 
Berenice  was  placed  on  the  throne.  But  by  the  assistance  of  his  allies 
Auletes  recovered  possession  of  his  estates,  and  put  Berenice  to  death. 

Ptolemy  Baoohus,  or  Dionysitts,  51,  son  of  Auletes,  reigned  jointly  with  his  sister 
Cleopatra,  whom  he  married  in  accordance  with  the  will  of  his  father.  In 
his  time  Pompey,  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  fled  to  Egypt,  and  was 
murdered  on  landing  at  Alexandria.  In  the  war  that  ensued  with  the 
Bomans  he  was  defeated  and  drowned  in  the  Nile.  Cleopatra  was  then 
reseated  on  the  throne  by  Ctesar,  and  reigned  jointly  with  a  younger 
brother,  Ptolemy,  whom,  however,  she  afterwards  poisoned.  After  the 
battle  of  Aotium  she  avoided  falling  into  the  hands  of  Ootavius  by  com- 
mitting suicide,  With  her  the  dynasty  of  the  Ptolemies  ended,  and 
Egypt  became  a  Boman  province  under  the  Emperor  Augustus.  Since 
then  the  country  has  continued  to  be  ruled  by  foreigners  or  by  foreign 
dynasties. 


)ct«,  ho  conceived 
many  favours. 

Philopator,  at  tho 

I  to  cede  many  of 

,  ICing  of  Syria. 

when  Autiuuhuit 


r  with  Antioohus 

Thereupon  tho 

t  he  was  deposed 

3  again  ascended 
occasions  ordered 
put  his  own  son 

esembling  a  pea, 
was  banished  to 
bestowed  on  his 
rus  resumed  the 
h  fire  and  sword. 


)n  of  LathyruR, 
pay  them  a  large 
lom  his  daughter 
ince  of  his  allies 
lice  to  death. 

f  with  his  sister 
of  his  father.  In 
>  Egypt,  and  was 
ensued  with  the 
eopatra  was  then 
with  a  younger 
oned.  After  the 
3ctaviu8  by  com- 
oies  ended,  and 
Lugustus.  Since 
8  or  by  foreign 


Ababdeh  AmbH,  206,  347,  349 

Abadinh,  373 

Abai  (Bahr-el-Azmq,  or  Blue  Mile), 

47,  48.  131,  136 
Abba  Isle,  262 
Abba  Yarcd,  136 
Abbi-Addi,  171 
AbdtiroBul,  202,  212 
Abhelbod,  Boda  (lake),  188 
Abshafer,  167 
Abu  (City  of  the  Elephant),  376 

Ahnus,  40,  242 

Danab,  218 

Dibab,  canal  of,  427 

D&m  (Abdatn),  200 

airg,  306 

(ioMi,  200 

Hableh  (Khor),  258 

Hamed,  207 

Haraz,  260 

Jerid,  233 

Odfa,  221 

Ramleh,  210 

Kof,  or  Rufab,  121,  210 

Simbel,  304 

Sin  (GedarSf),  240 

Sir,  55 

Somer,  Bay  of,  435,  387 

Zaid,  241 
Abukaya,  108 
Abukir,  Lake  of,  427 

town  of,  427 
Abula,  186 
AbuHH-Yoaef,  136  ' 
Abutig,  390 
Abydo«.  388 
Abysrinia,  22, 128,  128 
Abyninians,  126,  137.  162 
Ada,  202 
Ad-Ali,  206 

AddigTHt,  Add'  I^rat,  176 
Adel,  or  AdaTl,  101 
Aden,  Gulf  cf,  351 
Adoihan,  or  Adoimara,  101 
Adua,  134,  171 
Adulis,  Bay  of,  126,  181 

town,  181 
Af-Abad,  or  Tha-Mariam,  252 
Afar,  Country  of  the,  186 

or  Afer,  101 
Afoj,  106 
Africa,  1—80 
Agau,  146, 194 


INDEX. 


Agaum'oder,  143 
AgHr,  1U8 
Agalini,  234 
Agermi,  304 
Ageriit,  416 
Agriculture  of  Africa,  22 

Abyuiuiu,  156 

Egypt,  357 

Nubia,  20a 

UgHnda,  86 
Ahaggar,  Mount.  6,  17 
Ahl-el-Wabar,  346 
Abnaii-el-Medineh,  307 
Ailet,  178 

Akanayaru  (Alexandra)  Lake,  33 
Akhinin  (Sheinno),  300 
Akiq.  233,  266 
Ak  to  Gold  Mines,  283 
Akka,  or  Tikki-Tikki,  10,  82,  216 
Akkara,  103 
Ak«um  (Akeaem6),  172 
Alabaiiron,  318 
Alalbed,  Alelbed,  or  Allolebod,  Lake, 

138,  183,  187 
Alata  Fall,  40 
Alatus,  212 
Albauiaus,  360 
Albert-Nyansa,  or  M' wfitan-N'z'g<), 

30 
Alelbed,  we  Alalbed 
Alegwa,  134 
Alexaiidria,  22,  428 
Algaden,  or  Algeden,  261 
Algeria,  20 
AIiu-Ambii,  202 
Almeh,  351 
Aloa.  228,  244 
Al-Ordu,  290 
A-madi  (Madi),  108 
Amam,  110 
Amarah,  302 
Ambabo,  206 
AmbH-MHriam,  163 

Shakka,  184 
Ambukol,  200 
Amhara,  142,  152 
Amharinians,  100 
Amideb,  252 
Anaui,  26, 116 
Angolola,  2U0 
Angot,  184 
Ankober,  201 
Ankori,  or  Nkol6,  82 


Aniiesley,  or  Adulis,  Bay,  181 
Ansiili  Bhv,  137 
AnHetiii  Uiver,  132 
AiiUlo,  130,  174 
Antinoe,  306 
Antiphyllus,  183 
Apabu  River,  45 

Arabs,  17,  260,  264,  277,  297,  346 
Arabian  Desert,  312,  334 
Mountains,  282,  314 
Araj,  £1,  323 
Aradom,  174 
Arambtt,  201 
Arhnji,  242 
Arboreh,  103 
Ardibbo,  136 
Arengo,  164 
Argo  Island,  301 
Argobba,  135,  185 
Ar-Hibbeh,  140 
Arkiko,  178 
AruBsi,  200 
Arsiuoe,  364,  307,  415 
Artali,   or  Ortoal^,    volcano,    137, 

186 
Asiihian,  or  Asu'imara,  191 
Ashangt,  Lake,  1.'15 
Asheten,  Mount,  170 
Ashfa,  168 
Ashmunein,  306 
Asmara,  177 

Asua,  or  Asha,  River,  41,  06 
Assab,  208 
Assaiisif,  383 
Asaaka  Rapid,  38 
Assal,  Lake,  187 
Akssam,  River,  171 
Assebo,  200 
Assiut,  or  Sittt,  300 
AsBuan,  56,  374 
Astapus,  217 
Astaboras,  60,  217 
Atbara,  or  Bahr-el-Aswad,  40,  60 
Atfleh,  334 
Athribis,  423 
Atlas,  Mount,  2,  5,  16 
Atsa^,  177 

Atsbi,  or  Atsebidera,  171 
Attogra,  176 
Aubakil  Bay.  138 
Aulad-Aii,  350 
Aussa,  206 
Lake,  188 


1 


490 


INDEX. 


Avkrit  (Ha-Wnr),  421 

Awiuh,  or  AwMi,  Rivnr,  131,  187 

Aw»ii,  l.'W 

Axuin,  M*  Akium 

Ayak,  or  DufHlla,  100 

Ayi,  4ft 

A-Zand4,or  Niam-Niam,  Tribe,  107 

Bab  «l-('nilliau(l,  323 
ol-liiiiniind,  323 
ol-Mandnb,  207,  331 
BadH,  or  Aiikta,  liftke,  188 
B.uliir,  266 
liiidnMhiiin,  400 

KiiKKitrA  (UAK'<ra),  119,  260,  264 
BuK)iirmi,  113 
Bahr  B«14-M4.  (K-mrpt),  62 
(Nublii),  323 
Bahrdar,  107 
Bahr  ul-Abiud,  or  White  Nile.  40, 

40 
Bahr  ol- Arab,  271,374 

el-Azraq,  or  Blue  Nile,  47 
Pl-Fcrtit,  274 

el-Ghaiai,  Rivet,  16,  S4,  267 
elJntml   40 
el-Zoraf,  41 
Jebel,  4& 
Laii,  46 
el<-Mogat6.  4A 
Wau,  46 

YOMf,  60,  880,  876 
Bahrein,  180 
BuJbul,  210 

Bakharieh  Quia,  838,  893 
Bakindo,  78 
Bako,  117 
fialagaa,  134 
Ballah,  419 
Balbeis,  416 
Balok,  119 
Banda,  88 
Bantu,  19,  76 
Bar,  or  Behr,  102 
Bara,  2U0 

Bariibra,  18,  19,  277,  292 
Baramus,  327 
Barbarins,  292,  293 
Bari,  18,  101 
Barka,  or  Baraka,  River,  60,  131, 

132,  216 
Barkal,  Mount,  66,  298 
Bnru,  River,  4H,  116 
Barrage  of  the  Nile,  418 
Baaso,  168,  213 
Batn  el-Bagara,  6A 

el- 11  agar,  66 
Bayuda  Steppe,  286,  287 
Baien,  or  Baso,  229 
Bazeh,  119 
Bedden,  41,  102 
Beduins,  236 
Beghemudtir,  136 
Behair,  Lake,  40 
Beharah  Canal,  414 
Behboit-el-Uagar,  423 
Bebneeeh,  306 
Bchr,  or  Bar,  102 
Beit  el-Walli,  306,  296 
Fieja,  Bisharin,  18,  234 
Beiawi,  236 

Hekenna,  or  Berkona,  136 
Belau,  178 
Belbella,  186 

Beled  ea-Sudciii,  or  Nigritia,  16, 216 
Belinda,  HI 
belleaaa,  136 


Ilolli.  lOH 
Hnnha-rA>Mil,  422 
Heni-Aiiinr  t'oiiiitrv,  Mi 

Amen,  119,  1&2,  236 

Ilauan,  896 

llamran,  277 

Shoiigiil,  241 

Hiwf,  ;»«6 
Knnin,  (tuK,  12 
Itoraberata,  292 
Berber,  230,  2A2 
Herbxm.  1,  16,  17 
Borlierina,  or  Bitrbarina,  2M 
Borouico,  2H2 
Borii,  322 

(Jaiii,  320 
Ikirri,  102 
Ikirta,  212,  224 

Mountains,  218,  219 
Benliilo.  Heahlo,  131,  18ft 
But-Mali6,  149 
niala  Mountains,  130 
Hiban  el-Moluk,  383 
Bideyat,  277 
Biiil,  46 
Biggeh,  374 
Bijun,  01  Binn,  178 
Billigong,  or  BeleniAn,  102 
Bimbaihi,  or  Fadusi,  241 
Birket  el-Ohasal,  (No,  Nu),  42 

el-Keiiin,  61,  398 
Biaharn,  167 
Biaharin,  234,  296 
biaaagOR,  U 
Biti.tr  l«kea,  369 
Bizan,  178 

Bl<«inmyei  (Bxja),  233,  234,  292 
Blue  Nile,  m«  Bahr  el-Asraq 
Bogoa,  country,  141 

or  Bilen.  147 
Boi\iak,  119 
Ronga,  216 
Bongo  River,  109 

(D0rorDeran)23,  109 
Bonia,  209 
Bor,  106 

fort,  106 
Bordein,  410 
Bomu,  24 
Borena,  200 
Bosniaki,  297 
Boajeaman,  19 
Bostan,  303 
Botn  el-Hagar,  802 
Bridge  Island,  86 
Buahit.  136 
Hubashis,  417 
Bubastes,  803 

Bukereb4  (Alice  Island),  86 
Bulaq.  406,  412 

Museum,  400,  412 
Buri,  town,  168,  244 

Mountain,  or  Uurtow  Peak, 

137 
peninsula,  137 
Burloe.  Lake,  67,  424 
Barun,  227 
Burtshalta,  186 
Bushmen,  19 

Cafirs,  M«  Kafirs 
Cairo,  76,  406 
Canary  Isles,  9,  388 
Canopis,  427 
Oape  Bon,  3 

the,  12,  29 

Coast,  26 


Cape  Vnrde,  0 
Cartliuge,  122 
Cataruol  Mimnttiins,  284 
Challkut,  174 
l^hanKar,  103 
Chelga,  103 
Chillimo,  186 
Chora,  212 
('ircaiisinn*,  360 
Claiidian.  Moimt,  366 
ClimatH  of  Africa,  9 

Abyssiiiiaii,  139 

Dar-FAr,  274 

Egypt,  331 

KaruKw6,  HI 

KordofAu,  269 

Nubix  I'rupur,  280 

Bhoa,  188 

thM  l<k|uutorial  Rngion,  76 

the  Bohat  Haain,  116 

Uganda,  H2 

U-Nyoro,  91 

Upper  Nile  Regions,  96 

Upper  Nubitt,  220 
Clysnm,  416 
Coast  lUnge,  314 
Colue  Palua,  47 
Comoro,  91 

Islands,  9,  19 
Congo  River,  6,  6,  8,  82 
CopU,  341 
Copies,  «<>«  Ouft 
Crystal  Mountains,  20 
Cyreuaioa,  12,  323 

Dahaina,  248 
Dahbeh,  286,  299 
Duhomey,  20 
Dairah,  368 
Diihlak,  139,  180 
Dakhril,  or  Dakleb,  322 
Daki^eh,  306 
Dali  (DAr),  279 
Uambadsha,  168 
Danianshur,  427 
Dambal,  188 
Dambulan,  148 
Damietta  River,  66,  860 

or  Dum&t,  423 
Damot,  200 

Danageleh,  or  Danagla,  246,  294 
Danakil,  191 
Uara,  280 
Dar  FOr  (Darlur),  271 

Fen  it,  112 

Nuba.  268 
Darita,  163 
Darmi,  i  4 
DHuri,  200 
Davezut,  129 
Daweh,  201 
Debitroa,  176 
Debra-Abi,  Mount  (Tombed^),  132 

Berham,  200 

Damo,  176  , 

BibonoB,  210 

Mariam  (Tan),  167 

(Haik),  170 

Sina,  132 

Tabor,  136,  163 

Werk,  167 
Defafanir,  219 
Dega,  167 
Deir  el-Bah&ri,  384 

el-Bakara,  396 

el-Medineh,  388 
Dek,167 


INDEX. 


erde,  9 

3l  Mimntuina,  284 
at,  174 

a,  103 

,  loa 

U),  186 

212  " 

inm,  SAO 

m.  Moimt,  306 

II  of  AfricH,  9 

>yMmmii,  130 

ir-FAr,  274 

rypt.  331 

kriit<w6,  HI 

<rdi>tmi,  2AU 

ibiii  I'ropor,  289 

(M,  188 

X  l<k|uatorial  R(i|fion,  76 

u  Sohnt  Haain,  116 

<anda,  H2 

■  Nyoro,  91 

p|M)r  Nile  Regions,  06 

[)p«>r  Nubitt,  220 

>,  416 

[Uiige,  314 

Palui,  47 

i>,  91 

iNuda,  9,  19 

River,  6,  0,  8,  82 

341 

,  «M  Ouft 

1  Mountain*,  20 
lioa,  12,  323 

m,  248 

b,  286,  290 
ley,  20 

I,  368 

c,  139,  180 

!,  or  Dakleh,  322 

h,  306 

)ar),  270 

uiHha,  168 

lahur,  427 

tl,  188 

i1a«,  148 

tta  River,  66,  860 

Dum&t,  423 
;,  200 

:eleb,  or  Danagla,  246,  294 
:il,  191 
280 

Or  (Darlur),  271 
en  it,  112 
uba.  268 
I,  163 
i,  i  '-i 
,  200 
ut,  129 
1,  201 
oa,  176 

-Abi,  Mnnnt  (ToDibed^),  132 
erham,  200 

'amo,  176  , 

ibonoq,  210 
[ariam  (Tan),  167 
laik),  170 
ina,  132 
abor,  136,  168 
V^erk,  167 
tn«,  219 

167 

lUBahari,  884 
l-Bakara,  396 
i-Medineh,  388 
167 


Drlol,  or  DhIIoI,  137 
|)i>m,  iir  Duem,  Hi 
Dcmbim,  162 
I>«mbi,  18A 
Hem  Idrii,  113 

Hiiloinian,  lis 

'li\wr   lis 
Dmiab,  1^^ 

Iti'tidfil'  feiver,  i9,  233 
I).n(ier«h,  ;i87 

I)(MikH.  Of  tHnka,  IS,  1(JS,  I ' «,  220 
n^rr.  303 
h     im,  334 
Di'Kuuk    428 
Dident,      J 
Diiria,  or  Digmn,  17& 
Dildilla,  211 
Dima,  167 

(dir),  270 
Dinka,  Ht  Dwika 
Dionyniais  398 
Oiur,  111,  121 

River,  12,  46 

Ohattai,  112 
Diriko,  186 
Dineb,  181 
Dmhi,  46 
Dubiirik,  169 

Dolaiieh  Vobano,  186,  188 
Ooggoru,  46 
D'ighurKuru,  46 
DoKoleh,  268 
Doka.  249 
Doko,  19,  216 
Dolka,  262 
Dom-HiilMman,  280 
Dttmlilii,  180 

Dongola  el-AJniM,  or  Old  Dongola, 
299 

el-Jedid6,  or    New  Dongola, 
64,290 
Dongnr,  248 
Dor,  or  Di^rAn,  109 
Draa,  Wudy,  8 
l)ufll6,  99,  100 
Dumiat,  423 
Diilga,  64 
DmiT4  M'bnm,  88 

Ngal,  or  Mount  Oeleate,  33 

Edd,  137.  183,  101 

iM-Damer,  262 

Edfu,  Teb,  ApollinHris  magna,  377 

Edk«,  Luke,  427 

£aka  or  EdkO,  427 

Efat,  202 

Egan,  Mount,  186 

Egypt,  67,  307 

Egyptian!,  341 

Eilethia,  879 

Eju,  200 

El-Abbaaaieh,  413 

El-Aruj  Oaiiis,  328 

El-Ariah,  421 

El-At8ban  (Khdr),  242 

Elba,  Mount,  283 

El-Bok  Mountains,  820 

El-Birket,  269 

Elephantine,  66,  376 

El-Fasher,  272,  279 

El-Fostat,  406 

El-Ohard  (dftr),  270 

El-Uisr,  369 

El-HaUah,  276 

Eliab,  106 

Elit,  361 

El-Jebe).  ;14 


KIKitb.  379 

HI.Knhirah  (Cairo),  405 

K,l-KHii(arn,  364,  419 

Kl-Knur,  :1U2 

KI-Ki-f,  2A4 

Kl-Khargf)h.  388 

Kl-I^.hun.  IllMhon,  397 

K|.Mnkh«ir,  262 

KImiim.  20 

El  N'atriin  VMllny,  326 

Kl-Olieid,  Liibnil,  206 

Kl-R<thnd,  M9 

El-Teb,  256 

El-Waulu,  307 

Kmaiibnit,  or  Ernt-mret,  190,  201 

Enibabeh,  413 

EflifntK.  163 

FmkH,  tO^ 

Knarea,  200 

Kiitotto,  186 

Frment,  379 

Ergiigu,  91 

Kiinoh.  I^topnliN,  370 

Ki'Safl,  Lake,  270 

En-Hur,  247 

Ktbai  Mnuntnini,  282,  314 

Ethio|>ia,  123,  124 

KthioiiiiiM,  236 

Kalieb,  373 

Fadaai,  240,  241 
Fa<Ub»k,  99 
Fajello.  or  F&jiili,  99 
Fniellu,  107 
Faki  Endoa,  250 
Faloro,  100 

Fulaaha,  or  Fenja.  190 
Fami  ka  (Fazogl),  280 
Famikum  River,  46 
Fan,  22 
Farajok.  99 
Farafreb,  323,  308 
Farama,  366 
FMraa-Sabei',  169 
FarMgba  Oaait,  326 
Faireh,  or  FMrri,  202 
Fiwho'ia,  122 
Faslier,  279 
Fntigar,  186 
Fatiko,  99 
Fauna  of  Africa,  12 

Abyaainia,  144 

Par-Fdr,  276 

Egypt,  338 

Kangw<,  81 

Kordofan,  260 

Nubia  Proper,  291 

8hoH,  189 

the  Equatorial  Region,  76 

the  Sobat  Barin,  11.^ 

Uganda,  83 

U-Nyoro,  91 

Upper  Niln  Regions,  96 

Upper  Nubia,  221 
Fautoudam,  or  Panom,  106 
Fawera,  Fuuvera,  or  Foveira,  94, 

99 
Fayum  (Aioinoitides),  60,  62,  398 
Fazogl  Province,  239 

Town,  239 

Mount,  239 
Fekereli-Gemb,  201 
Felasha,  146 
Fellahtn,  344 
Fellata,  262 
Ferial,  46 
Fenja,  146,  162,  100 


Ferka-Dnr.  168 
Firnatido-I'o,  0 
FxrtitdMr,  114 
F*-»hn,  ;IU() 
Filik,  251 
FinHnin,  IHfl,  JOO 
f'iiiHni,  I'Uin  of,  180 
Fmho,  174 
Fixinn,  3:10 
Flora  of  Africa,  14 

AbyMiaia,  142 

Dar-Frtr,  276 

Fgypt,  ;i;)fl 

KKyplittii  OaiiM,  887 

Kumgw^,  Ht 

KordofAii,  200 

Nubia  Proper,  290 

Hhoa,  180 

tht)  F(|uatoTtal  Rogion,  7R 

the  Mohiit  UiiHin,  116 

Uganda,  83 

U-Nyoro,  01 

Upper  Nile  R«giona,  90 

Upper  Nubia,  221 
Fogara,  103 
Foieh,  or  Foja,  280 
Fola,  41.  100 
Follu,  214 
FAr  (Uar-FOr),  271 
FOriani,  277 
Fostat,  412 
Foweira,  Fawera,  Pauvera,  Fore'lrm, 

94,  09 
FremonH,  172 
Friga,  1 
Fuah,  426 
Fula,  269 
Funj  or  Fugu,  18,  227 

Oaba-Shamb^,  96 
Gudani,  or  Gedem,  187 
Qadibuni,  or  Qudubirai,  204 
Oafat,  164 
Ualabat,  141,  220 
Oaldt^Bou,  204 
Oalla,  116,  161,  194 

IlixhlandH,  186 
Qamburagara,  Mouut,  3,  74 
Oambia  River,  8 
Oambil,  117 
Oambe,  or  Yamlio,  117 
Gana,  or  Jebel-Arang,  136 
Gara  Oasis,  326 

Town,  396 
Oara'a  Lake,  61 
Oarf-Howain,  306 
Garreh,  116 
Oarri,  63 
QaBh>da,  60 
Oash  Province,  249 

<  r  Mareb,  60,  260 
Oavdgivla,  136 
Gaza,  2 

Oedaref,  141,  219,  241,  240 
Gema,  264 
Oera,  213 

Gerasheb,  64  , 

Gtermama,  or  Kaiani,  188 
Oeorgiuna,  360 
Ghawiiri,  36: 
Ghagars,  361 
Ghebiaso,  212 
Ohesha  Mountains,  40 
GhesHii,  241 
Ghilieh  River,  212 
Ohibhas,  119  , 

Obiman,  213 


492 


INDEX. 


Ohobiat,    Qilledat,    or    Gowameh, 

261 
Gibraltar,  2 
Ginjar,  227 
Girgeh,  or  Gergu,  3i8 
Gish  Abai,  48 
Gisi,  234 

Gita-N'zig6,  Lake   37 
Gizeh,  Pyramids,  401 

Town,  401,  413 
Gnuma,  263 
Goang  River,  60,  163 
Gobo.  224 
Godo  Fuliisai,  176 
Gojam,  142 

MoiintainB,  128,  186 
Gojeb,  191 
GbJima,  Biver,  136 
Golo,  112 
Gomashii,  240 

Gondar  (Guendar),  147,  161 
Gondokoro,  41,  101 
Gondu,  113 
Gonga,  200 
Gorgora,  16? 
Gorgur,  248 
Gorieno,  212 
Goro-Chen,  186 
Gos-Kejeb,  249 
Government  of  AbyBsinia,  169 

Egypt,  441 

Eafikland,  216 

Kordofan,  257 

Shoa,  196 

Uganda,  87 
Gowameh,  261 
Great  Oasis,  322,  391 
Gnbat,  246  v 

GuarJdiui,  Cape,  9,  172 
Gudara,  168 
Guilda-Guddi,  176 
Gudru,  196,  200,  212 
Guft,  341,  386 
Gugsa  River,  186,  212 
Gulf  of  Aden,  331 

of  Guinea,  3 
Guma,  212 
Guniara,  163,  164 
Gumbali,  224 
Gumus,  226 

Mountains,  218 
Guna,  Mount,  130  • « 

Gundet,  176 
Gnra,  170 

Gurageh  oountr}',  186 
Gurageh,  186,212 
Gurger,  Mount,  273 
GuB,  385 

Gwalima,  or  Golima,  IS6 
Gypsies  of  Egypt,  361 

Babab,  149 
Habad,  252 
Habesh.  123 
Hadas,  200 
Hadendoa,  150,  236 
Uagiir,  or  Hugar  Ale!i  Nejrsn,  132 
-  B&ik,  Lake,  135,  170 
Hakim,  Mount,  20f> 
Halai,  176 
Httlfaya,  244 
Hallenga,  235 
Ham,  171 
Uamamat,  316 
Uamasen  Plateau,  188,  177 
Humdo,  186 
Haiuer,  178 


Hamme,,  227 

Hamr,  '.a 7 

Humra'i,  390 

Himraa,  236 

Hamtfnga,  171 

Hand' lb,  262 

Hanflla,  or  Himlale  Bay,  137 

7;own,  183 
Hiiniiok,  Cataract,  65,  291 
Uanibat  el-Madfuneh,  388 
Hatamaya  Luke,  202 
Ha)  rar,  or  Herrer,  193,  202 
Harrari,  204 
Hrshin,  266 
Hitssanieh,  236,  266 
Haussec,  174 
Eawakil,  142,  182 
Ilawin,  297 
JIawar,  421 
Hawarah,  860 
Hei6,  46 
H«ro,  418 
Heliopolis,  418 
Helwan,  413    • 

Heradeopolis  (Beni-Suef),  307 
Horrer,  202 
Hiffi,  113 
liittites,  382 
Hofrah,  274 
Holy  Cross,  106 
Homr.Hamr,  or  Beai-Hamraii,2i6, 

277 
Horros,  200 
Hotem,  233 
Hotumlu,  178 
Hotta,  Mount,  186 
Hottentots,  17,  19 
Huma,  Wa-Huma,  79 
HurtowPoak,  Buri.or  Mount  Awen, 

137 
Himyarites,  178 

Ibrahimieh  Canal,  896 
Ibsambul,  303 
Iddio,  or  Makruka,  107 
Ifag,  or  Tilag,  163 
Ifat,  190 

Igharghar  Biver,  6,  8 
Illahun,  397 
llak.  373 

Ilm-Orma,  190,  194 
Imaraha,  136 
Imazigben,  17 

or  Kabyls,  17 
Imohagh,  17 

or  Tuareg,  17 
Inarya,  186 
Industries  of  Africa,  22 

Abyssinia,  166 

Dar-F6r,  278 

Egypt,  355 

Nubia.  294 

Uganda,  86 
Ingassana,  227 
Iimabitants  of  Afrioa,  16 

Abyssinia,  146 

Dar-Fflr,  276 

Egypt,  341 

Innarya,  213 

Kaffaland,  214 

Kuragw6,  81 

Kordoffin,  261 

Nubia  proper,  292 

Shoa,  190 

the  Equatorial  Begpion,  76 

the  Sobat  Basin,  1 16 

Uganda,  83 


U-Nyoro.  92 

Upper  Nile  Begions,  97 

Upper  Nubia,  222 
Inderi,  113 

Innarya,  Ennarea,  212,  213 
lushatkab,  169 
Irba,  or  Soturba  Mount,  282 
Irenga,  103 
Isanga  Biver,  79 
Ishing,  117 
Ismailia,  101,  419 
Ismailieb  Canul,  406 
Ismailiya,  or  Gondokoro,  41 
Ismala,  167 
Issa,  193 

Country,  193 
Isthmus  of  Sues,  886 
Ittu,  200 

Jabarta,  190 
Jabus  Biver,  212 
Jaggada,  199 
Jalin,  234 
Jalo,  328 
Jumna,  200 
Jangheh,  tee  Denka 
Jaiijero,  214 
Juiahub,  363,  396 
Jail,  River,  109 
.Tebala'in,  224 
.febel  Abu-Ahraz,  274 

Abash,  219 

Ain,  274 

Anka,  274 

Arang,  136,  219 

Ardan,  246 

AtUka,  316,  416 

Barkal,  see  Barkal 

Dango,  274 

Peyer,  258 

Dokhan.  316 

Dor,  274 

Dal,  240 

el-Ahmar,  322 

el  Ain,  268,274 

el-Hillet,  274 

Farageh,  282 

Fatireh,  316 

Gekdul,  287 

Gbarib,  316 

Gilif,  287 

Guleh,  219,  227 

Hadid,  274 

Haraza,  268,  270 

Kabret,  188 

Kaja,  268 

Katberin,  316 

Eordo^u,  268 

Magaga,  287 

Medob,  274 

Melekhat,  60 

Mokattam,  41 1 

Nuba,  or  Dar-Nnba,  268 

Olba,  282 

Shellala,  316 

Shikr,  284 

8i,  273 

Silsiloh,  318 

Simrieh,  288 

Tabi,  219 

Urakam,  318 

Zabarah  (Smoragdu),  316 
Jemid,  45 
.Temma,  131 
Jenda,  162 
Jeng,  see  Denka 
Jenkoli-Gardo,  41 


l^iUL')^'lly»lJB!sl■J,J^.l»M^!*<»■'^!'■«'^^''^^»»'V'l";%^^^ 


INDEX. 


408 


-Nyoro.  92 

pper  Nile  Regfions,  97 

pper  Nubia,  222 

,  113 

fo,  Ennarea,  212,  213 

ikab,  169 

)r  Soturba  Mount,  282 

I,  103 

I  River,  79 

t,  117 

lia,  101,  419 

iieh  Canul,  406 

liya,  or  €k>ii(Jokoro,  41 

I,  167 

93 

lountry,  193 

uB  of  Sues,  886 

200 

ta,  190  ' 

Kiver,  212 
da,  199 
234 
328 
1,200 

leh,  see  Denka 
•0,  214 
ub,  353,  396 
iiver,  109 
im,  224 

Abii-Ahraz,  274 
ibasb,  219 
lin,  274 
inka,  274 
irang,  136,  219 
irdan,  246 
Llttika,  316,  416 
larkal,  s«e  Barkal 
)aiigo,  274 
>eyer,  258 
)okhan.  316 
)or,  274 
)ul,  240 
l-Ahmar,  322 
1  Aid,  268,274 
1-Hillet,  274 
I'arageh,  282 
i'atireh,  316 
}ekdu1,  287 
}barib,  316 
}ilif,  287 
Juleh,  219,  227 
isdid,  274 
laraza,  268,  270 
Cabret,  188 
Caja,  268 
Jlatberin,  316 
Lordofan,  268 
klagaga,  287 
iledob,  274 
Helekhat,  60 
kfokattam,  411 
'f  uba,  or  Dar-Nnba,  268 
)lba,  282 
ibellala,  316 
Sbikr,  284 
Ji,  273 
iilsiloh,  318 
fimrieh,  288 
I'abi,  2J9 
Jrakam,  318 
Sabarah  (Smaragdu),  316 
1,45 
m,  131 
1,  162 
,  tte  Denka 
oli-Oardo,  41 


Joikbdb,  396 

Je:-aiad,  297 

Jorbu  late,  9 

Jezireh,  413 

Jezirut  eUJeziret,  242 

Jeziret  el-Randab,  Isle,  412 

Jews,  360 

Ji,4d 

Ji,  or  Pango,  112 

Jilli,  300 

Jilalu,  Lake,  188 

Jimma-kaka,  213 

Lammara,  212 
Jinja,  37 
Jin,  108 
Joliba  River,  16 
Juba,  River,  37,  190 
Juda,  Mount,  187 
Jiimmas,  200 
Jur,  109 

Eababish,  260,  264 
Kabena,  212 
Kabondo,  90 
Kabyles,  292 
Kadalo,  225 
Kadia  Rapid,  88 
KaSk,  124,  186,  213 
Kaffaland,  214 
Kafu,  38 
Kafirs,  19 
Kafr,  373 

duar,  427 

el-Zaiat,  426 
K'igera  River,  33 
Kagheyi,  Kage'i,  78 
Ka'ibar,  or  Kajbar,  56 
Kajimar,  or  Kajmar,  270 
Kainopolie,  386 
Kaka,  122 
Kakuak,  107 
Kalabshah,  306 
Kalai,  297 
Kalahari.  10,  13 
Kalaka  (Kobesh),  280 
Kaliha.  100 
Kalo,  186 

Kam,  or  Ham,  171 
Kamant,  147 
Kamlin,  or  Kamnin,  248 
Kanara,  248 
Kara^^w^,  76,  80 
Karaun,  417 
Karaneo,  167 
Karkoj.  241 
Kaniak,  69,  380 
Karre,  45 
Karunm,  38 
Kasam,  188 
Kasen,  177 
Kashg^,  269,  270 
Kasr-Dongola,  299 

Kerun,  398 
Kaasala-el-Luz,  249 
Katawana-LuHJerri,  83 
Katonga  River,  34 
Katabathmoa,  436 
Kavirondo,  88 
Koderii,  107 
Keilak  River,  267 
Kolb,  241 
Keneh,  68,  -386 
Kenia,  Mount,  3 
Kens,  296 
Kenisseh,  244 
Kenuzi,  296 
Kepial,  m 


Eerakeri,  273 
Keren,  132,  177 
Ketiitu,  Rapid,  38 
KhaUg  Canal,  406 
Kham,  314 
Khargeh  Oaiiis,  322 

Town,  392 
Khartum,  Town,  244 

Province.  239 
Khmunu,  396 
Kidi,  46 
Kieti,  46 
Kilero.  94 

Kibrealeh  Mountaini,  187 
Kii,  or  Kitsh,  105,  106 
Kilima-N'jaro,  Mount,  8,  16,  33 
Kioja,  or  Kapeki,  38 
Kir,  46 

River,  40 
Kiradid,  46 
Kirin,  226 
Kirim,  117 
Kirota,  94 
Kirri,  102 

Kishar  (Yavash),  116 
Kitwara.  91 
Kivira,  River,  37 
Kobbo,  170 
Koanza,  7 
Koarata,  163,  166 
Koboh,  274,  280 
Kobesh  (Kalaka),  280 
Kodo  Ftilassi,  176 
Koho  (Khor),  104 
Koft,  386 
Koikoin,  19 
Kokfara,  201 
Koki,  82 
Kolzim,  416 
Koma,  117 
Konianji.  117 
Komanjok,  117 
K6ii..Ombo,  376 
Kdm-es-Sultaii,  389 
Komkom,  45 

Kordofftn,  or  Eordofal,  267 
Korosko,  297,  303 

Desert,  286,  28C 
Korti,  209 
Koskoam.  166 
Koseir,  59,  386 
Koyeh,  303 
Kosseir,  Old,  387 
Kuan,  46 

Kuba,  or  Monkins,  222 
Kuban,  283 
Kiibti,  225,  386 
Kughuk-Ali,  112 
KuHt,  262 
Kufra,  330 
Kufro  (Kaftiro),  81 
Kugu  Peak,  106 
KuUu,  213 
Kumaili,  129,  174 
Kiinama,  229 
Kunjara,  261,  276 
Kunene,  River,  7 
Kurkur,  322 
Kumah,  383 
Kus,  386 
Kutubbeb,  428 
Kredi  or  Krej,  112 
Kwalla  AVageru,  136 

Lahore,  100 

Lado,  or  Lardo,  41,  102 

Laki,  or  Dsmbal,  188 


LaUbala,  170 

Lango,  or  Longo,  03,  08 

Lustu,  124,  128,  136 

Latopolis,  379 

Lalukn,  102,  222 

Leado,  Lake,  188 

Lega,  117.  222 

Lemuria,  13 

Lesi,  108 

Lessi,  46 

Let-Marefla,  201 

Levantines,  360 

Lialui,  46 

Liben,  212 

Libya,  123 

Libyan  Monntaira,  316 

Desert,  58,  329 

Plateau,  319 
lieheh,  200,  210 
Limmu,  196,  212 
'  Little  Oasis,  391 
Limpopo  River,  3? 
Little  Dieppe,  28 
Liwumba,  32 
Loheit,  206 

Lofit,  or  LalSt  Mountains,  104 
Logone,  HI 
Ifiliugati,  80 
Lokoya  Mountains,  102 
Lol,  46 
LoUo,  46 
Loma,  Mount,  8 
Lori,  108 
Lorouio,  104 
Luajerri  River,  87 
Luflji,  Wady,  7 
Lnoh,  or  Luo  (Duir),  111,  121 
Luqsor,  380 
Lur  Country,  94 
Lur,  or  Luri,  98 
Luwamb6,  32 
Luxor,  380 
Lycopolis,  390 

Maazeh  Tiibe,  347 
Madagascar,  9,  13,  15 
Madeira,  9 
Madi,  Bahr-el-Jebel,  98,  09 

Yei  Basin,  107 

a-Madi,  108 
Mafla.  9 
Magaga,  288 
Magdnla,  126,  136,  168 
Mug^ch  River,  162 
Maghaga,  396 
Maghreb,  1 
Magungo,  94 
Mahughi,  or  Mahahi,  94 
Mahallet-el-Kebir,  426 
Mahara  (Khor),  242 
Maharrakah,  306 
Muhendi.  306 
Mahatti,  iT^ 
Mahdera-Mariam,  164 
Mahmudieh  Canal,  860 
Majettieh,  201 
Makaleh,  174 
Makraka,  or  Iddio,  107 
Makarakara,  Lake,  8 
Makedo,  41 

Mallaweh-e  -Arish,  396 
Mala,  117 
Maldines,  22 
Mameluks,  412 
Mandara  or  Mandala,  1 13,  427 
Manfalul,  396 
Manhusa,  168 


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494 

ManBunh,  423 

Maraka,  293 

Marawi,  298 

Maaarah,  318 

Marea,  US 

Mareb  {River),  80,  131,  216 

Mareotio,  Mariut,   Lake,   68,  862, 

430 
Margablnh.  208 
Mariut,  Lake.  427 

Canal,  427 
Marrah  Mountains,  271,  273 
Murtola-Mariam,  167 
Mustti,  77,  87 
Mosoarenaa,  15 
Maicarenhas  IiletB,  16,  16 
Masr,  406 
Maaindi,  94 
Maasabat  Nomads,  276 
Maaaalit,  27? 
Massawah.  Medaawa,  or  Maaaaftlia, 

139,  178 
Mastaba-el-Fatftiin,  399 
Matanieb,  398 
MatHrieh,  413,  428 
Matniha,  107 
Maize  Malea,  117 
Maufjrabina,  268 
Mauritania,  1,  17,  28 
Mayraidut,  114 
Mnzin,  347 
M'bakoira,  94 
Mbaringo  or  Baringo  (Bahr  Ingo) 

Lake,  41 
Mecha,  161,  199 
Hedinet-Abu,  382 

el-Fayum,  898 
Mediterranean,  2,  8 
Meidum,  398 
M'jerda,  Kiver,  8 
Mekheir,  MukheTref,  or  El-Mexhe- 

rif.  Me  Berber 
Meks,  434 
Melbe'ia,  269 
Memphis,  400 
Muttas,  200 
Menahat,  373 
Menuf,  424 

Mennfieh  Canal,  66,  414 
Menorachi,  280 
Mensa,  147-8 
Mensaleh,  Lake,  67,  389 

Town,  428 
Meri,  46 

River,  40 
Meriddi,  46 
Meroe,  247 
Mtru,  248 
Meaaurat,  246 
Meshareh,  248 
Meshra-er-Rek,  46,  112 
Messalamieh,  243 
Metammeh,  246 

(GaUbat),  248, 
Metal  iteh.  Mount,  184 
Mevaru-Lnuerri,  Gulf,  H8 
M'fnmbiro,  Mount,  3,  74,  81 
Mintshar,  186 
Mimeh,  396 
Miar,  307 
Miktinab,  ^61 
Mit-Obamr,  428 
Mivaks,  119 
Mit>RHhine1i,  400 
M'koli,  Mt  Unkori 
M'kulu,  178 
ModHlLlo,  192 


INDEX. 


Mceria,  63,  397 
Mogar,  212 
Mogoreb,  231 
Mograt,  Rapid,  64 

laland,  297 
Moluya,  River,  8 
Monbuttn,  18 
Monkorer,  168 
Monkina,  226 
Mori,  89 
Moru,  tee  Mnra 
Mota,  167 

Mountains  of  the  Moon,  3 
Moaambiqiitt,  18 
M'poro,  82 
M'ruli,  88,  94 
M'Ubbi,  88 
M'tagatH,  81 
Mudar,  436 
Mugi,100 
Mnllu,  202 

Muiiftt  Khnfii,  «m  Minih 
Murohifwn  Falls,  88 

Bay,  88 
Mum,  107 
Muaabat,  261 
Mussali,  Mount,  187 
Mutogna,  180 
Mwam,  32 

M'wntou,  N'aige,  mo  Albert  Nyanni 
Mwam  (Liwumba,  Liivanibe),  32 
M'werango,  River.  88 
Myoa  Hormoe,  387 

Nabnlagala  (Ullagalla),  88 

Nauorans,  486 

Nafka,  149 

Nag,  373 

Naga,  246 

Nahieh,  373 

Nakfa  Plateau,  132 

Mountains,  220 
Nakoni,  38 

Necropolis  of  Thebes,  382 
Nam-Gel,  46 
Nam-Pol,  46 
Nunda,  88 
Napata,  298 
Nasser,  119 

Natron  Lakes,  188,  326 
Nasleh.  373 
Ndiekens.  119 
Nebtab,  149 
Neflsh.  419 
Nokhub,  879 
KM,  281 
Nerebena,  230 
New  Sobat,  244 
N^Ami,  8 

Niambara,  or  Niambari,  104 
Niam-Niam.  or  A'gaitde.  18, 96, 107 
Nicropolis,  434 
Niger,  River,  6,  6,  8,  22 
Nigrilia,  2, 14,  16 
Nigritiitns,  292 
Nile,  6,  6,  9,  29,  31.  38,  62,  76,  96, 

lie 
Nile,  barrage  of  the,  418 

at  Damietta,  66 

,at  RosettM,  66 

White,  M»  Balu>el-Abiad 

Blue  (Abaii,  or  Bahr-el-Aaraq), 
tee  Abai 
Nile  at  Alexandria  (Tasgur4,  Ka- 
geia),  83.  81 

of  ihb  Blacks,  7 
No,  Lake,  47 


>i 


No,  Nu,  or  Birket-el-Qhacal,  Luke, 

42 
Nomios,  200 
Nora,  180 
Nubas,  263 
Nubia,  22,  76,  281 

Upper,  216 

Desert  of,  286,  286 

Mountains  of,  282 

Gold  Mines  of,  283 
Nubians,  292 
Nuer,  42,  114,  116 
Nuri,  298 

NyHmesi  (U'N/amesi),  74,  77 
NyHmoga,'94 
N  yanza,  or  1J'-Kerew4,  Lake,  6, 

7,  34,  74 
Nyenam,  46 
N^awa,  90  i 

Obbo,  99 

OSok,  207 

Obongo.  19,  82  1 

Ogow4,  River,  7,  19,  22 

Old  Cairo,  411,  412 

Sobat,  244 

Kosseir,  387 
Om-Bedr,  277.  280 
Ombos,  71,  376 
Omdurmaii,  244 
Cmshanga,  280 
Orange,  7 
Orange  River,  18 
Orghesa,  or  Dideaa,  213 
OrSmo,  194 
<»rtoale,  137,  186 

Pa-Amen,  tee  Thebet 

Pabast,  417 

Pamsjat,  396 

Pango  River,  46 

Panom,  or  Fautentom,  105 

Paayatoli,  94 

Fa-»el)ak,  or  Arainoij,  897 

Pelusium.  364,  421 

Bay.  331 
P6-Ra,  418 
Pomba,  9 

People  of  Farftn,  tee  Copts 
Pentodactyla  (Jebel-Faiageli),  282 
Petrifled  forests,  821 
PbaroK,  428 
PhilOB,  378 
Philas,  66 
Phoenicians,  17 
Pinyin,  46 
Pithom,  418 
Port  Said,  419 
Porto  Santo  Ides,  0 
Prince  Island,  9 
Pyramids  of  Qiarji,  401 

Badesieh,  288 
Bagad,  138 
Ragat,  or  Betaf;  41 
Ragwdli,  or  Bagoleh,  187 
Rahad,  or  Abu  Ahraa,  49,  186,  137 
Raheita,  191,  210 
RHmleh,  434 
RAsBenas,  282,  816 

oI-Bir,  207 

Dajan,  136 

«1-Fil,  136.  248 
RAa-«il-nimBah,  387 

»1-Kbartuin,  244 

Mohammed,  387 
Rm  vera,  81 


iJM 


i|HHlliriir' 


INDEX. 


4D5 


0.  Nu,  or  Birket-el-Qhiisal,  Lukt-, 

omioa,  200 
oru,  180 
abas,  263 
iibis,  2-2,  75,  281 

Upper,  216 

DeMrt  of,  286,  986 

Mountain«  of,  282 

Qold  Mines  of,  283 
ubiaiiR,  292 
uor,  42,  114,  116 
uri,  298 

yHmesi  (U'Nvanieii),  74,  77 
VHmoga,  '94 

yansa,  or  U'-Kerew^  Lake,  6, 
7,  34,  74 
yeiiiim,  46 
yawa,  00  j 

bbo,  90 

Sole,  207 

bongo.  10,  82  ! 

gow4.  River,  7,  19,  22 

Id  Cairo,  411,  412 

8obat.  244 

Koaseir,  387 
m-Bedr,  277.  280 
mbofl,  71,  376 
mdurmaii,  244 
msbanga,  280 
range,  7 
range  Biver,  18 
rgheaa,  or  Dideaa,  212 
rSmo,  104 
rtoale,  137,  186 

a-Amen,  sm  TheboB 

abast,  417 

amsjat,  306 

ango  River,  46 

anom,  or  Fautentam,  105 

anyatoU,  04 

a-Seltak,  or  Arsinoij,  897 

eluaium,  364,  421 

Bay.  331 
^Ra,  413 
omba,  9 

eople  of  Farftn,  «»#  Copts 
entodactyle  (Jebel-Fangeli),  282 
etrifled  forests,  821 
barox,  428 
hiloe,  378 
hilsB,  66 
hoBnieiana,  17 
inyin,  46 
ithom,  418 
ort  Said,  419 
ort-j  Santo  Ides,  ft 
rince  Island,  9 
yraintds  of  Qimh,  401 

adesieh,  28S 

Agad,  138 

agat,  or  Betaf;  41 

agwili,  or  Saguleh,  187 

Ahad,  or  Abu  Ahn>,  49,  186,  137 

aheita,  101,  210 

;Ninleli,  434 

is-Benas,  282,  816 

uI-Bir,  207 

Dajan,  136 

«1-Fil,  136.  248 
JUMil-nimsah,  387 

»1-Kbartuin,  244 

Mohammed,  387 
a  vera,  81 


Raya,  200 

Reb  River,  163 

Red  Sea,  28,  126,  138,  142 

Kekhmara,  384 

Rek,  106 

Uelaba,  46 

Ruligions  of  Africa,  28 

AbyssiDiii,  166 

Egypt,  353 

Nubia,  293 

Uganda,  86 

U-Nyoro,  93 
Reshid,  or  Rosetta,  420 
Reta  18,  21,  341 
Rio  Grande,  8 
Ripon  Falls.  37 
Rivani  of  Africa,  fi 
Bo8.  River,  46 
liobabat,  297 
Roda,  396 
Bodi,  46 
Koggeh,  186 

or  Roghieh,  211 
Rokelle,  Mount,  8 
Bol,  River,  45,  108 

Town.  100 
Rom,  148 
Kora  Azgedeh,  131 

Tsallim,  132 
Ro8@r6s  or  Rosaires,  241 
Roselta,  426 
Rosetia  River,  860 
Rotu  (Reta).  18 
Roviima,  Wady,  7 
Ruanda,  82 
Rubaga.  76,  88 
Rug^shi,  34 
Kumbek,  109 

Sa,  425 

SHadieh.  414 

Saati,  178 

Sabderat,  260 

SabuB,  306 

8a-el-Hagar,  426 

Bagaln,  206 

Suharah,  5,  12,  16 

Sahn,  or  Shoho,  liSO 

Sahel,  131,  142.  147 

Said.  313 

8ais,  425 

Saka.  212,  218 

Sulkieh,  346 

Samra,  174 

Samreh,  174 

St.  Macarius.  827 

St.  Croix  (Santa  Croce,  Heiligen- 

Kreuts),  106 
St.  Thomas,  0 
Samalmon,  186 
Samanhud,  428 
Shu,  421 
Saiideg^,  90 
Saoi-ta,  102 

Sau-Tome,  «m  St.  Thomas 
Suqqarah,  899 
Saut.  or  Aasiut,  890 
Sitwahili,  215 
Sawrat.  297 
'  Sawakin,  263 
Sobeiinvtos,  423 
f^eket,  174 
Sclimoh,  301 
Semayata  (Adua),  134,  171 

(Talba  Waha),  136 
Semneb,  320 
Kenafeh,  176 


Sendr,  Province,  16,  20,  22,  141 

Town,  241 
Sen&ri,  228 
Senegal,  River,  8 
Seneganibia,  30 
Senhit  (Smnahei't),  147 

Town,  177 
Senliuroa,  398 
SenAsiya,  363,  364 
Keraweh,  176 
8ereh,112 

Serhdd  or  Jarabiib,  353 
Seas£,  36.  82 
Setti-Daniiana,  424 
Setit  River,  60 
Shuikieh,  150,  207 
Shakka,  280 

Shnkka,  or  Amba-Shakka,  184 
Shangalla,  or  Shaiikalla,  119.  160, 

222 
Sharkieh  Canal,  414 
Shnfalu,  94,  121 
Sheikh  Abadeh,  806 

Abdullah.  263 

Abd-el-Kumah,  384 
Shoka,  or  Sieka,  216 
Shekka,  or  Shakka,  276,  280 
Shellali,  374 
Shelif  River,  8 
Shelota,  Mount,  171 
Shendi,  246 
Shiluk,  16   18,  no 
Shimfah  Biver,  242 
Shibin-el-Kaiiater,  416 

el.K6m,  424 
Shir  (banks  of  the  Nile),  102 

(Zeriba  region).  113 
Shoa,  or  Shawa.  124,  162,  184 
Shoho.  160,  164 

Coimtry,  160 
Shol  da.  Mount,  171 
Shubrah,  413 

Sbuknrieh,  oi'  Shukrieh.  236 
Shumalieh^  148 
Shuli,  84.  08 
Sidama.  200,  213 
Sienulio,  226 
Silsildh.  68,  376 
Sinkat,  266,  266 
Simen  (Samen,  Somen,  Semien,  or 

Semiene),  128,  134,  136 
Simeyu,  77 
Si^jeh,  241 
Sinai.  316 
Siut  391) 
Siwali  Oasi*.  323,  324 

Town,  394 
Sittra,  Lake,  323 
Slave  Coast,  26 
Sobat  River.  46,  1 16 

Town.  122,  244 
Socntra,  9 
Soddo,  200 
Sohag.  390 
Sokota,  170 
Soleb,  302 
Somal,  23 
Somali,  193 
Somerset  Nile,  37 
Sona  River,  60 
Sotorba  Mountains,  'J82 
Speke  Gulf,  77 
Spina  Mundi,  131 
Snakin,  nr  Sawakin,  253 
Soan,  376 
Su(«oth.  418 
Sudan,  12,  2i 


Sudanese,  20 
SufE  Canal,  363 

Oulf  of,  317 

Isthmus  of,  2,  336 

Town  of,  416 
Suk  Abu-Siu,  249 
Sukunut,  77 
Suro,  119 
Syone,  tee  AssOan 
Syrtes  (Great),  9 

(Minor),  8 

Tabi,  Monnt,  227 
Tubiban,  190 
Tacosha,  206 
'I'ada  Rapid,  38 
Tajurah,  236 
Tagxla,  263 

Mountains,  268 
Tab,  46 
Tahtali,  300 
Talmo,  Lake,  276 
Taka,  249 

Takkas^  River,  49,  131 
TakrOr.  or  Takarir,  24,  229 
Takufikiyah,  122 
Takueh,  148 
Talanta  Pl«tea>i,  128 
Tulba  Waha  Mounlains.  136,  167 
Tkltal,  138,  174,  192 
Tauiaiiiat,  63  , 

Tamanieh,  266 
Tamiathis,  423 
Tana,  Wady,  7 

Tana,  or  Tsaiia,  Lake,  47,  48,  136 
'I'linganyka,  Lake,  6.  39 
Tangurl  River,  33,  37,  74,  80 
Taiita,  or  Tt-nta,  169 
Tantah,  426 
Taiiis,  421 
TaofH,  1£2 
Taposiris,  436 
Tarrangoleh.  104 
Tawlud,  IfcO 

Tegeleh,  or  Dogoteh,  263 
Tegnlet.  200 

Wat,  186 
Tab,  377 
Teirieh,  426 
Telfia,  46 
TelUMonf,  400 

el-Amama,  396 

el-Kebir,  406,  417 

Eolzum,  416 

el-Maskhata  (Pithom),  418 

el-Bastah,  417 

el-Odameb,  426 

el-Y«hud,  416 
Tembien,  171 
Tenareb,  Mount,  316 
Tenta,  169 

Tentyris,  u»  Dendenth 
Teremo-Ghtrbo,  41 
Teremithis.  426 
Terrau«h,  327,  426 
Towflk,  Port,  416 
'J  ha-Mariam,  252 
Tliebes,  379 
This  (Thinis),  388 
Theku,  418 
Thunder  Island,  170 
Tibesti,  6 
Tigt«.  124,  184 

tribe,  149,  162 
TigriuiiB,  163 
Tilfi,  46 
Timbuoiu,  28 


pup 


luiriM^nw  tm 


496 

Timsah,  Lake,  2.  364,  369 

Tig-Esat  KiiU,  49 

Tobbu,  277 

Togoi,  US 

Tokai,  131,  266,  io6 

Tomat,  249 

Toiidv,  45 

Tonj  River.  46,  109 

Tor,  316 

Tora,  Torra,  or  Torati,  280 

Toria  (dftr),  279 

Trajan's  Canal.  366 

TrinkaUi,  265 

THid  Amba,  133 

TsanH, «««  Tana 

T«ellan,  147 

TuaregB,  292 

Tub».u,  277 

Tiiesha,  280 

Tuiih.  106 

Tulu-Amara,  I'JO  1 1 

Soghida^  218 

Wallol,  222 
TnmHtRivHi-,  49,  160,  JIG,  230 
Tunis,  29,  76 
Tunisia,  2 

Tunjur,  or  Tunzer,  277 
Turah,  Mount,  318 
Tnrks,  349 
Tuta,  $ee  Wa-Tuta 
Tzade,  or  Tsad,  Uke,  6,  8. 10.  271 
Tzellari  River,  136 

UauA,  146,  292 

U-Du  (Uddu),  82 

U-OHna,  89 

U-Ganda,  36.  76,  76,  82,  86 

Ugukanr,  45 

UkiiI,  46 

U-Kava,  89 

U-Kerewe,  tee  Wymm 

Island,  78.  89 
Uled-Abbao,  236 
miagalla  (Mabulagala),  88 
Uma  (d6r)  279 

River,  18r. 
TJm-el-Ket'  f  (Bereniob),  316 
U-Nyamezi,  74,  77 
r-Nyoro,  87.  91 
TJrigi,  81 

U-Rima,  78  .    ^ 

U-Sagara,  82 
U-Savara.  88 
U-Si>ga,  82,  87 
U-Sui,  76 


INDEX. 

Ussub-Ummadeh,  288 
U-Vunia,  57 
U-Zinza,  79  « 

Victoria,  or  Victoria  Nyania,-  Lake, 
8,  7,  34,  74 

Wabi  River,  208 
Wadai,  268 
Wfldeh  Rapid,  38 
Wiidolii!,  99 
Wudv-Aba-D(iin,  298 

Allaki,  283,  286 

Amur,  280 

Azum,  274 

Bareh,  277 

Dum,  298 

El- r  h.  316 

Hiilfa,  65,  288,  SOS 

.lehenna.  288 

Kab,  301 

Magsvkl,  271 

Melek,  267,  271,  283 

Mokattain,  288 

Natran,  426 

Nuba,  281 

Reyan,  61,  398 

Sarras,  303 

TAinil&t,  406  416 
Wa-Ganda,  83 
Wagara,  186 
Wab,  46 

Wab-el-Gharbieb.  322 
Wa-Huma,  79,  83,  222 
Waik.  46 

Wa-Chopi,  or  She&blu,  94 
WakkalH,  or  Okkela,  104 
tTaj.  106 

Wa-Kavirondo,  89 
Wiikorajs,  16 
Wa-Kuri,  89 
Wa-Kwafl,  77, 147 
Waldebba,  Pronnce,  170 

HnnntaiiiH,  186 
Wali-dabba,  1  1 
Waldia,  170 
WaUega,  117 
Wama,  77 
'Wa-Nanda,  80 
Wa.Nyatnbo,  81.  88 
Wa.NyoK>.  84.  92      . 
Wanz^het,  164 
Warabang6,  81 
Waratta,  186 
Wariro.  186 


THE  IBND. 


Woeas.  212 

'Waahitis.  212 

Wa-Sui,  79 

W«-Soga.  83 

Wa-Suthuma,  77 

Wa-Tusi.  79 

Wa-Tuta,  79 

\Vi,t,  200 

Wau.  112 

Wa-Zinztt,  77 

Webi,  WeUe,  River,  82 

WeUi,  45 

White  Nile,  ue  Bnbr-eUAbiad 

Windermere,  81 

Winsegur,  186 

Wohni,  163 

Wosho,  Mount,  186 

Woito,  147  ) 

Wobo,  212 

Wold-Medineh,  242 

el-Arab,  233 
WoHo,  136,  199 
Woreaia,  211 

Yabo,  46 

Yabus  River,  49 

Yal  River,  116,  226 

Yambo,  or  Ghimbo  117 

Yangaro,  Janjero,  or  Zi^jero,  213, 

214 
Yavash,  or  Kisbar  River,  116,  226 
Yejibbeli,  168 
Yei  River,  46.  104,  107 
Yer,  46 
Yerboia,  41 

Zbbalat,  28S 
Zagasig,  417 
Zambeai  River,  37 
Zamdber,  9.  74 
Zaw'iet-el-Deir,  390 
Zebul,  136, 143 
Zephyrion,  427 
Zeribn  Region,  112 
Zeila.  204 
Zemerjit,  283 
Zena-Markos,  210 
Zittab,  423 
Zingero,  214 
Ziga-Wodiam,  210 
Zigheb,  166 
Zikuala,  186 
Zogbawa,  261.  277 
Zufla,  174,  181 
Zn-ai,  Lake,  188 


^i- 


■  'irii'  ■■    ■       .■Litijiit>Hif'»»ie«*iiinH!M>M»*nn  -^ 


as.  212 
bitia,  212 
Sui,  79 
Soga,  88 
Suthiima,  77 
Tusi,  79 
■Tata,  79 
t,  200 
1.  112 
•Zinztt,  77 

l)i,  Welle,  River,  82 
Hi,  45 

ite  Nile,  Met  Bnlir-eUAbiad 
idermere,  81 
taegur,  186 
hni,  163 
sho,  Mount,  186 
ito,  147  ( 

bo,  212 

Id-Medineb,  242 
el-Arab,  233 
no,  136. 199 
reaia,  211 


to,  45 

IU8  River,  49 

River,  116,  226 
nbo,  or  Ghimbo  117 
tgaro,  Janjero,  or  Zi^jero,  213, 
14 

raah,  or  Kiahar  River,  116,  226 
tbbeh,  168 

Rivw,  46.  104, 107 

,46 

i)oia,  41 

lalat,  283 
;a«ig,  417 
(ibeai  Uiver,  37 
isiber,  9,  74 
r'iet-el-Deir,  390 
ul,  136,  143 
ihyrion,  427 
ibn  Region,  112 
la.  204 
nerjit,  283 
iK-Marko8,'210 
tab,  423 
gem,  214 
a-Wodiam,  310 
;beb,  166 
uala,  186 
thaw$^,  261.  277 
Ha,  174,  181 
at.  Lake,  188 


.S*.. 


iiiMiii  i,ip  III  iiiinnf.iw'ii"f".i 


1 


twi  i«  I  III  iniiiiatMw 


■■■M^ 


